How they are located in relation to each other, how they exchange views - they play a decisive role in oral communication. In the center of the monograph is a person and the features of his non-verbal behavior in the act of communication. The author analyzes various non-verbal and verbal units, describes the Russian gestural system and kinetic behavior, looks for new approaches to this hitherto little-studied topic, drawing on data from various special sciences that are part of non-verbal semiotics.
BBC 88.53
UDC 159.9
No. VK 5-86793-194-3
© G.E. Creidlin, 2002
© Artwork New Literary Review, 2002

In memory of my father
Kreidlin Efim Grigorievich
INTRODUCTION
book subject
More than thirty years ago, I came across an article by the outstanding Russian linguist A. A. Reformatsky Opera Coding and Transformation of Communication Systems (Reformatsky 1963). This remarkable work dealt with the nature and ways of coexistence of the water communicative act of several sign systems and touched upon various problems related to the peculiarities of the functioning of signs of different nature in speech and to the analysis of their behavior in interactive communication.
A. A. Reformatsky believed that without solving the questions of how a person’s non-verbal communicative activity occurs and what is its relationship with verbal activity, it is unthinkable to model communication systems and the thought process itself. Based on the studies of the child psychologist, physiologist and teacher Y.A. human activity. According to A. A. Reformatsky, in the act of oral communication, a simple coding of meaning or recoding of information is never carried out. Different systems of sign information processing coexist in it in parallel, and - let me quote the scientist again - although they somehow compete in principle, they do not overlap each other, but represent a more complex ratio.
In this monograph, we will discuss various aspects of this relationship. In the center of her shimdos is the person I wo features of non-verbal behavior in the act of communication.
Very little is known about the communicative behavior of people and the ways of their verbal communication. Our ideas about the motives, goals and nature of even our own actions, thoughts, words of feelings, not to mention the behavior of a real or imaginary interlocutor, are surprisingly fuzzy, naive and confused to this day, and the amount and depth of our knowledge about speech dialogic behavior does not correspond to today's level of development and possibilities of linguistic science. As for the non-verbal aspects of human behavior in a situation of communicative interaction and the problems of the correlation of non-verbal language codes with natural language, which are the main subject of our study, they are not only not described systematically, but in a whole range of relations they are simply not affected.
The book that the reader holds in his hands aims to fill this gap to a certain extent. It adopted an approach consisting in the parallel analysis of a variety of non-verbal and verbal units. Such an analysis involves studying a rich arsenal of sign tools used in human communication, describing a variety of semantic, pragmatic and syntactic relationships between non-verbal and verbal sign units and identifying the features of their joint functioning in a communicative act, about which A. A.R.E wrote communication is one of the most important areas functioning of signs and sign information and occupies a significant place in the life of a person and society. Emphasizing the importance of non-verbal communication, someone remarked "Words may be what men use when all else fails" - Words may be what people use when all other means of communication have failed (lit.<...>when all else fails. Science, the subject of which is non-verbal communication and, more broadly, non-verbal behavior and interaction of people, I propose to call non-verbal semiotics. Non-verbal semiotics as an integral scientific discipline is still being formed, it is very young. The particular sciences included in non-verbal semiotics, or individual subsystems, have been studied to varying degrees and are often not connected with one another at all. For a number of objective and subjective reasons, which include (a) fragmentation and poorly motivated selectivity of the objects of study (b) an insufficient number of stable and proven in practice theoretical concepts, methods and analysis tools, and hence the predominantly descriptive nature of research in all sections non-verbal semiotics (c) low development and practical incompatibility of languages ​​for describing the subject areas of non-verbal semiotics (d) lack of a reliable methodological and empirical base in terms of semantics, pragmatics and syntactic behavior of non-verbal units e) often guesswork, poorly substantiated and highly problematic nature of individual scientific statements and the results obtained, one has to admit that many tasks and provisions formulated within the framework of non-verbal subsystems require significant adjustment, and in some cases a complete revision.
In such a situation, there is a particularly acute need for a unified semiotic approach to the study of non-verbal and verbal means of human behavior in a communicative act, since only within the framework of such an approach, non-verbal human behavior, and in particular, the Russian non-verbal tradition, can receive the most versatile and adequate explanation. The book offers an integral description of the main subsystems of non-verbal semiotics within the framework of a single scientific ideology and common conceptual and methodological guidelines, in their relationship with each other and with natural language. The composition of these subsystems, the characteristic features of their internal organization and patterns of functioning are determined, a practical study and theoretical understanding of the most important mechanisms of interaction of non-verbal subsystems with each other and with natural language is carried out, non-trivial situations of non-verbal communication of people and related phenomena are described.
It should be noted that due to various, mostly pseudo-scientific, circumstances, the existing literature on non-verbal semiotics almost completely ignores the data of the Russian linguo-semiotic tradition, while its cultural and ethno-linguistic significance hardly needs special justification. Our book for the first time refers to a systematic study of Russian non-verbal material, it contains a detailed analysis of completely new facts for non-verbal semiotics and draws on new information to establish similarities, differences and echoes of Russian and other non-verbal languages. A wide analysis of world and Russian literature, as well as personal scientific contacts with many prominent scientists working in various fields of non-verbal semiotics, give reason to assert that this book is the first systematic scientific presentation of the foundations of non-verbal semiotics in its relationship with linguistics. In it, for the first time in the domestic and, as it seems, in the world linguosemio
The scientific tradition poses and solves a number of important tasks that were put forward within the framework of individual sciences that are part of non-verbal semiotics. I will name only some of the problems discussed in the book) improvement of the conceptual apparatus and metalanguage of non-verbal semiotics, in particular, bringing it into line with the conceptual apparatus and metalanguage of linguistics; substantiation of the theoretical necessity of the introduced new concepts and demonstration of their practical usefulness); the end of the studied units, categories and oppositions of paralinguistics, kinesics, proxemics and some other particular sciences that form the core of non-verbal semiotics establishing analogies and structural similarities between non-verbal and verbal phenomena that are quite distant from each other) delimitation of gestures and physiological movements inventory of the main gesture oppositions and functions of gestures in different body languages ​​and communicative situations) identification of semantic types and construction of a semantic typology of everyday emblematic gestures) linguistic and conceptual analysis of voice and tone - the main tools of linguistic and paralinguistic communication) building the foundations of the theory of lexicography of gestures, developing a general ideology and structure of explanatory dictionaries of gestures, determining the structure of individual zones and the method of presenting the necessary information in them) an integral description of the Russian non-verbal and verbal semiotic systems, and the presentation of a solution to a number of practical lexicographic problems related to this dictionary (determining the number and composition of dictionary zones, revealing the content and structure of each zone, analyzing a number of specific dictionary entries and their fragments), etc.) development of principles and methods of comparative semantic description of gestures and language units - the so-called gesture phraseological units, as well as gestures and their language names.
experimental linguistic (Russian) material

(9) the formulation and solution of some particular problems of intercultural and interlingual correspondence of sign emblematic systems and the translation of one system into another (methods and types of translation, problems of interpretation, neutralization and loss of meaning, typology of communicative failures, etc. 10) construction of an intralinguistic typology of semiotic acts of touch in their 11) description of universal strategies, detection and analysis of patterns, as well as the formulation of specific rules for non-verbal (gestural, visual, tactile and proxemic) behavior related to Russian everyday communication and Russian culture.
In addition to theoretical and practical issues, the book raises and discusses some methodological issues related to the problems of identifying units and categories of non-verbal semiotics and their relationship with the units and categories of linguistics.
Due to the above circumstances, it was impossible to solve most of the tasks we set by analogy with those already solved earlier. Almost each of them required the consideration of new theoretical issues, filling in the existing conceptual and terminological gaps, the use of original research techniques and the analysis of the methodological foundations of the analysis of these by subsequent empirical verification. I will immediately say the formulation and the conclusions and solutions of individual problems presented to the reader's judgment, someone may consider doubtful or insufficiently convincing, however, it seems to me that this is not only the subjective fault of the author of the book (which, however, he does not remove from himself, but and the inevitable objective result of all research in new areas of knowledge, the channel of which has only just begun to be laid.
The history of the creation of the book
A serious research interest in non-verbal semiotics arose quite unexpectedly and many years after I got acquainted with the above-mentioned article by A. A. Reformatsky. At the first summer Linguistic School (July
1992, the city of Dubna, Moscow region, where students were students of a number of Moscow and Dubna schools and students of advanced educational programs. Mainly Russian t bitch f

University for the Humanities (RSUH) and Moscow State University (MGU, and I was one of the teachers, I had the happy idea to organize a seminar for junior, summer, schoolchildren on learning sign language. To my surprise, the proposed topics of classes turned out to be interesting not only after several introductory theoretical lectures I gave, at which the basic units, categories and relations that exist in Russian Sign Language were introduced and described, several seminars were held, and at the very first practical lesson, all its participants were it was proposed to start joint work on compiling an explanatory (explanatory) dictionary of the Russian sign language.At the same time, I tried to outline the approximate appearance of this dictionary, as I then saw it, to outline the general scheme of the dictionary entry, after which we all began to work together on a very specific lexicographic work - to write dictionary stat s for the given dictionary. As a result, a group was formed that continued its work in Moscow at a weekly seminar on non-verbal semiotics, which is held under my leadership at the Institute of Linguistics (formerly the Faculty of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics) of the Russian State University for the Humanities. The team of people working on the dictionary was constantly changing over time, some students and schoolchildren left, others came. This circumstance, of course, greatly complicated and slowed down the work, which by that time had received moral recognition and material support from the Open Society Institute (J. Soros Foundation). Nevertheless, the core of the group, fortunately, remained unchanged, which greatly contributed to the completion of the work.
In the course of individual and joint work on the dictionary of Russian sign language, two important things came to light. Firstly, the proposed lexicographic description can be relatively easily transformed into a guide to the Russian sign language or into an appropriate textbook, which we understand here quite broadly, namely as including not only (a) gestures proper, that is, sign hand movements , head legs, but also (b) facial expressions,
(c) postures and (d) sign gestures (body movements).
linguistic comparative semantic analysis.
As experimental material for a comparative semantic analysis of units of two languages ​​- everyday, everyday Russian language and Russian body language - some Russian gestures and some Russian phraseological turns (gesture phraseological units) were selected. The book contains both a rather large fragment of a lexicographic description of the Russian body language, some, still preliminary, results on a comparative study of Russian gestures and gesture phraseological units.
It should be emphasized that the analytical description of the Russian gestural system and kinetic behavior, as well as the theory and practice of gestural lexicography, is given special attention in this book, which cannot be considered accidental. In oral communication, the role of gestures, facial expressions, postures and body movements cannot be overestimated, and although natural language has unconditional priority here, the kinetic aspects of human behavior, such as gestures and gestures, the way people stand or sit, how they are located in relation to each other, how positions change during the conversation, how they finally look at each other, play a decisive role in communicative interaction. And it must be said that the complexity and variety of sign forms of non-verbal communication fully correspond to the complexity and branching of the particular sciences that make up non-verbal semiotics.
Sources and material
The main source for the presented study was Russian non-verbal (oral) and verbal (oral and written) texts, although an analytical review and discussion of ideas, hypotheses and results put forward and obtained in non-verbal semiotics are also based on data from other languages. In addition, we resort to examples of facts from other languages ​​and cultures for typological comparison of individual phenomena or deciphering some details of the picture of Russian non-verbal behavior.
More specifically, the collected and processed material on which this monograph is based is
(a) visual observations, as well as photographic and video recordings of non-verbal dialogic behavior of people of different nationalities and cultures, made both by me personally and by other researchers, including my young colleagues - graduate students and students. The main body of visual, photo and video material was made up of texts of Russian culture;
(b) Russian oral and written texts of various genres and styles reflecting such behaviour. First of all, these are literary texts (in whole or in fairly representative fragments that belong to Russian artistic prose of the 19th-20th centuries. In addition, illustrative examples were taken from translated literature and journalism. Some of the language examples were taken from various large corpora of sentences collected and processed other people.
(c) vocabulary materials contained in language (interpretative, phraseological, etc.) and sign dictionaries of different languages ​​and cultures. Materials analyzed in other scientific papers, mainly in monographs and articles, were also taken into account;
(d) experimental language examples specially constructed by the author, on which many of the hypotheses and statements formulated in this book were tested.
Methodology and theoretical background of the study
Hugo Schuchardt once noted that the integrity and internal unity of the field of scientific knowledge is achieved not so much by the homogeneity of its content, but by a common methodology and consistency of approaches to the problems being solved. Recognizing the unconditional correctness of a prominent German linguist and philosopher, I believe that a single semantic language for describing (metalinguistic) non-verbal units and

Grigory Kreydlin. non-verbal semiotics. Body language and natural language April 6th, 2013

A very interesting book about the powerful systems of communication that exist beyond our ordinary language and speech. In some cases, by non-verbal means of communication, we communicate more than speech, or significantly change the meaning of the statement. And it's not just facial expressions and body language. Many things can have a communicative value - looks, additional sounds, body position, clothes, cosmetics, perfumes, jewelry or dress code. The transmitted meanings are influenced by many factors, including time, place, surrounding circumstances, and many other things that do not pass by our consciousness or affect us at an unconscious level.

1. Paralinguistics. The science of sound codes of non-verbal communication. Intonation of speech, interjections and extra sounds like mm, uh-huh, um, uh, sighs, whistles, laughter, grunts, hisses and thousands of other sounds, often changing the meaning of words to the opposite. The human ear is capable of distinguishing hundreds of thousands of sounds and shades that do not belong to a language. Obscene language, too, apparently, can be attributed to paralinguistics, since many such words are not described in dictionaries, but are involved in communication. The human voice produces many sounds that are not part of the language system. The way and manner of speaking, the quality of voice and tone, and how something is said and why it is said. In the process of speech, a person can manipulate various objects, change his voice to a rough or nasal one. All this together creates a paralanguage associated with non-verbal codes with language and speech.

2. Kinesics. The science of gestures and gesture movements, of gesture processes and systems of body language and its parts. Movement of hands and fingers, dance, postures, gestures, facial expressions. A huge number of these signs create their own language, which is well understood by representatives of one culture. These signs serve to emotionally reinforce, negate, or illustrate what is being said. Moreover, in different national cultures, the language of kinesics is quite different. There are purely Russian gestures that are incomprehensible to representatives of other cultures: wink, shake your head, wag your finger, shake your head, plug your ears, cover your mouth with your hand, turn away, stare, applaud, purse your lips, show the fig - you can make a huge dictionary of such units that they themselves carry information, but they are also capable of seriously changing oral speech. And many gestures of other peoples do not produce much effect in Russia. For example, the thumb in the West is considered a strong offensive gesture, but in our country it is not perceived so emotionally.

3. Okulesika. The science of the language of the eyes and the visual behavior of people during communication. The eye behavior of people in a communication situation is extremely informative and important. Eyes express a lot of emotions and their shades. Russian squint eyes close to facial expressions and conveys fixation of attention. A wink offers to participate in a joint business. Wide-open eyes, raised eyebrows, closed eyes, a lowered gaze, an understanding gaze, a look over glasses, a direct look into the eyes - all these and many other models of visual behavior carry certain information during communication, which is usually perceived unconsciously. (When playing with my grandson, and he still hardly speaks, I often cover my eyes with my hands, as if hiding my eyes behind my palms, and the grandson immediately perceives this as an important game of hide and seek and reacts cheerfully, looking for my look.)

4. Haptics. The science of the language of touch and tactile communication. Handshakes, hugs, kisses, kissing hands, pats on the shoulder, healing touch, laying on of hands (used by representatives of many cultures, for example, the apostolic touch, transmitted by Catholic popes from St. Peter), waving the hand in farewell is a very complex and rich language with different cultural codes. By the way, in Russian culture, touch is an active intrusion into the personal sphere of another person, so you should always be careful and unobtrusive.

5. Proxemics. The science of the space of communication, its structure and functions. This is the science of how a person thinks of a communicative space, inhabits it and uses it: this means choosing a place and distance, the relative position and orientation of bodies during communication, different types of interaction with different audiences (friends, unfamiliar and unfamiliar people), social, physical and psychological distance, personal distance, intimate distance, bows, kisses, air kisses, group, collective, public space, privacy. There are rules of proxemics that must not be broken so as not to disrupt communication.

The kinetic aspects of people's behavior - their gestures and postures, how people stand or sit, how they are located in relation to each other, how they exchange glances - sometimes play a decisive role in oral communication. And outside of this book there are such interesting sciences that also belong to non-verbal semiotics, such as auscultation, gastika, olfaction, chronemics and systemology. You can find something about them on Wikipedia.

The book is provided with an amazingly detailed and well-designed apparatus, covering about a hundred pages. The apparatus contains lists of used literature and an extensive subject index, divided into terminological and nominal. Such a high culture of book organization in Russia, unfortunately, is not often seen. The book was published by the UFO publishing house, which is run by Irina Prokhorova, the sister of billionaire Mikhail Prokhorov.

Grigory Kreydlin. non-verbal semiotics. Body language and natural language. - M .: New Literary Review, 2004. - 592 p. – Circulation 2000 copies. — (Series: Scientific Library).

G.E. Creidlin

NONVERBAL

SEMIOTICS

Moscow New Literary Review

BBK 88.53 UDC 159.9 K9

NEW LITERARY REVIEW

Scientific application. Issue. XXXIX

Painter

D. Balabukha

KreTsdpoG.E.

To 9 H sm r b w w sa d o tm h: Body language ■ natural! language. -

M.: New Literary Review, 2002. - 592 p.

The kinetic aspects of people's behavior - their gestures and postures, how people stand or sit, how they are located in relation to each other, how they exchange glances - play a decisive role in oral communication. In the center of the monograph is a person and the features of his non-verbal behavior in the act of communication. The author analyzes various non-verbal and verbal units, describes the Russian gestural system and kinetic behavior, looks for new approaches to this still little-studied topic, drawing on data from various special sciences that are part of non-verbal semiotics.

BBK 88.53 UDC 159.9

No. VK5-86793-194-3

© G.E. Creidlin, 2002

© Decoration. "New Literary Review", 2002

In memory of his father, Efim Grigoryevich Kreydlin

INTRODUCTION

book subject

More than thirty years ago, I came across an article by the outstanding Russian linguist A. A. Reformatsky “On the Recoding and Transformation of Communication Systems” (Reformatsky 1963). This remarkable work dealt with the nature and ways of coexistence in one communicative act of several sign systems and touched upon various problems related to the peculiarities of the functioning of signs of different nature in speech and to the analysis of their behavior in interactive communication.

A. A. Reformatsky believed that without solving the questions of how a person’s non-verbal communicative activity occurs and what is its relationship with verbal activity, “modeling of communication systems and the thought process itself is unthinkable.” Based on the studies of the child psychologist, physiologist and teacher Y.A. human speech activity. According to A. A. Reformatsky, in the act of oral communication, a simple coding of meaning or recoding of information is never carried out. Different systems of sign information processing coexist in it in parallel, and - let me quote the scientist again - "although they somehow compete in principle, they do not overlap, but represent a more complex ratio."

In this monograph, we will deal with various aspects of this relationship. At the center of it is shimdos the person I, the features of the wo of nonverbal behavior in the act of communication.

Very little is known about the communicative behavior of people and the ways of their verbal communication. Our representatives

opinions about the motives, goals and nature of even our own actions, thoughts, words and feelings, not to mention the behavior of a real or imaginary interlocutor, to this day are surprisingly not clear, naive and confused, and the amount and depth of our knowledge about speech dialogic behavior is by no means correspond to the current level of development and the possibilities of linguistic science. As for the non-verbal aspects of human behavior in a situation of communicative interaction and the problems of the correlation of non-verbal language codes with natural language, which are the main subject of our study, they are not only not described systematically, but in a whole range of relations they are simply not affected.

The book that the reader holds in his hands aims to fill this gap to a certain extent. It adopted an approach consisting in the parallel analysis of various non-verbal and verbal units. Such an analysis involves the study of a rich arsenal of sign tools used in human communication, a description of a variety of semantic, pragmatic and syntactic relationships between non-verbal and verbal sign units and the identification of features of their joint functioning in a communicative act, which A. A. Reformatsky wrote about .

Non-verbal communication is one of the most important areas of the functioning of signs and sign information and occupies a significant place in the life of a person and society. Emphasizing the importance of non-verbal communication, someone remarked: “Words may be what men use when all else fails” - “Words may be what people use when all other means of communication have failed (lit.<...>when all else fails). The science, the subject of which is non-verbal communication and, more broadly, non-verbal behavior and interaction of people, I propose to call non-verbal semiotics. Non-verbal semiotics as an integral scientific discipline is still being formed, it is very young. The particular sciences included in non-verbal semiotics, or individual subsystems, have been studied to varying degrees and are often not connected with one another at all. For a number of objective and subjective reasons, which include: (a) fragmentation and poorly motivated selectivity of the objects of study; (b) an insufficient number of stable and proven in practice theoretical concepts, methods and tools of analysis, and hence the predominantly descriptive nature of research in all sections is incorrect.

ballroom semiotics; (c) insufficient development and practical incompatibility of languages ​​for describing the subject areas of non-verbal semiotics; (d) lack of a reliable methodological and empirical base in terms of semantics, pragmatics and syntactic behavior of non-verbal units;

(e) the often conjectural, poorly substantiated and highly problematic nature of individual scientific statements and the results obtained - we have to admit that many tasks and provisions formulated within the framework of non-verbal subsystems require significant adjustment,

a in some cases, a complete revision.

AT In such a situation, there is a particularly acute need

in unified semiotic approach to the study of non-verbal

and verbal means of people's behavior in a communicative act, because only within the framework of such an approach can a person's nonverbal behavior and, in particular, the Russian nonverbal tradition, receive the most comprehensive and adequate explanation. The book offers an integral description of the main subsystems of non-verbal semiotics within the framework of a single scientific ideology and common conceptual and methodological guidelines, in their relationship with each other and with natural language. The composition of these subsystems, the characteristic features of their internal organization and patterns of functioning are determined, a practical study and theoretical understanding of the most important mechanisms of interaction of nonverbal subsystems with each other and with natural language are carried out, nontrivial situations of nonverbal communication of people and related phenomena are described.

It should be noted that due to various, mostly pseudo-scientific, circumstances, the existing literature on non-verbal semiotics almost completely ignores the data of the Russian linguo-semiotic tradition, while its cultural and ethno-linguistic significance hardly needs special justification. Our book is for the first time

to systematic study of Russian non-verbal material: it contains a detailed analysis of facts that are completely new for non-verbal semiotics and new information is involved to establish similarities, differences and echoes of Russian and other non-verbal languages. A broad analysis of world and Russian literature, as well as personal scientific contacts with many prominent scientists working in various fields of nonverbal semiotics, give grounds to assert that this book is the first systematic scientific presentation of the foundations of nonverbal

noah semiotics in its relationship with linguistics. For the first time in the domestic and, it seems, in the world linguo-semiotic tradition, a number of important tasks are posed and solved in it, which were put forward within the framework of individual sciences that are part of non-verbal semiotics1. To name just a few of the issues discussed in the book:

(1) improvement of the conceptual apparatus and metalanguage of nonverbal semiotics, in particular, bringing it into line with the conceptual apparatus and metalanguage of linguistics; substantiation of the theoretical necessity of the introduced new concepts and demonstration of their practical usefulness;

(2) identification and description of previously unstudied or not fully studied units, categories and oppositions of paralinguistics, kinesics, proxemics and some other particular sciences that form the core of non-verbal semiotics; establishment of analogies and structural similarities between non-verbal and verbal phenomena that are quite distant from each other;

(3) differentiation of gestures and physiological movements; inventory of the main gestural oppositions and functions of gestures in different body languages ​​and communicative situations;

(4) identification of semantic types and construction of a semantic typology of household emblematic gestures;

(5) linguistic and conceptual analysis of voice and tone- the main tools of linguistic and paralinguistic communication;

(6) construction of the foundations of the theory of lexicography of gestures: development of a general ideology and structure of explanatory dictionaries of gestures, determination of the structure of individual zones and the method of presenting the necessary information in them;

(7) analysis of the most remarkable features of the explanatory dictionary of the Russian sign language created by us (in co-authorship), focused on the integral description of the Russian nonverbal and verbal semiotic systems, and the presentation of the solution of a number of practical lexicographic problems associated with this dictionary (determining the number and composition of the dictionary disclosure of the content and structure of each zone, analysis of a number of specific dictionary entries and their fragments), etc.;

(8) development of principles and methods for a comparative semantic description of gestures and language units - the so-called gesture phraseological units, as well as gestures and their language names; verification of put forward hypotheses and assumptions on

Experimental language (Russian) material:

(9) the formulation and solution of some particular problems of intercultural and interlingual correspondence of sign emblematic systems and the translation of one system into another (methods

and types of translation, problems of interpretation, neutralization and loss of meaning, typology of communicative failures, etc.);

(10) construction of an intralinguistic typology of semiotic acts of touch in their relationship with Russian verbs of touch and the meanings they express;

(11) description of universal strategies, discovery and analysis of regularities, and formulation of specific rules for nonverbal (gestural, visual, tactile, and proxemic) behavior related to Russian everyday communication and Russian culture.

In addition to theoretical and practical issues, the book raises and discusses some methodological issues related to the problems of identifying units and categories of non-verbal semiotics and their relationship with the units and categories of linguistics.

Due to the above circumstances, it was impossible to solve most of the tasks we set by analogy with those already solved earlier. Almost each of them required the consideration of new theoretical issues, filling in existing conceptual and terminological gaps, and the use of original research techniques.

and analysis of the methodological foundations of the analysis with their subsequent empirical verification. I’ll say right away: setting

and conclusions presented for the reader's judgment and solutions to individual problems someone may consider dubious or insufficiently convincing, however, it seems to me that this is not only the subjective fault of the author of the book (which he, however,

With does not remove itself at all), but also the inevitable objective result of all research in new areas of knowledge, the channel of which has just begun to be laid.

The history of the creation of the book

A serious research interest in non-verbal semiotics arose quite unexpectedly and many years after I got acquainted with the above-mentioned article by A. A. Reformatsky. At the first summer Linguistic School (July 1992, the city of Dubna, Moscow region), where students were students from a number of Moscow and Dubna schools and students of advanced educational programs. n the main Russian tsu k f

University for the Humanities (RSUH) and Moscow State University (MSU), and I was one of the teachers, I had the happy idea to organize a seminar for younger, 9-12-year-old schoolchildren, on learning sign language. To my surprise, the proposed topics of the classes turned out to be interesting not only for juniors, but also for older students and even students. After several introductory theoretical lectures I gave, in which the basic units, categories and relationships that exist in the Russian sign language were introduced and described, several seminars were held, and at the very first practical lesson, all its participants were invited to begin joint work on compiling an explanatory (explanatory) dictionary of Russian sign language. At the same time, I tried to outline the approximate appearance of this dictionary, as I saw it then, and to outline the general scheme of the dictionary entry, after which we all began to do very specific lexicographic work together - to write dictionary entries for this dictionary. As a result, a group was formed that continued its work in Moscow at a weekly seminar on non-verbal semiotics, which is still being held under my leadership at the Institute of Linguistics (formerly the Faculty of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics) of the Russian State Humanitarian University. The team of people working on the dictionary was constantly changing over time: some students and schoolchildren left, others came. This circumstance, of course, greatly complicated and slowed down the work, which by that time had received moral recognition and material support from the Open Society Institute (J. Soros Foundation). Nevertheless, the core of the group, fortunately, remained unchanged, which greatly contributed to the completion of the work.

In the course of individual and joint work on the dictionary of Russian sign language, two important things came to light. Firstly, the proposed lexicographic description can be relatively easily transformed into a guide to the Russian sign language or into an appropriate textbook, which we understand here quite broadly, namely as including not only (a) gestures proper, that is, iconic movements of the arms, legs and head, but also (b) facial expressions,

(c) postures and (d) iconic body movements (body movements). Secondly, the presence in our dictionary of zones designed to present in a user-friendly form the features and mechanisms of interaction between non-verbal and verbal

points, makes it a useful tool for intralinguistic comparative semantic analysis.

As an experimental material for a comparative semantic analysis of units of two languages ​​- everyday, everyday Russian language and Russian body language - some Russian gestures and some Russian phraseological turns (gestural phraseological units) were selected. The book contains both a rather large fragment of a lexicographic description of the Russian body language, and some, still preliminary, results on a comparative study of Russian gestures and gesture phraseological units.

It should be emphasized that the analytical description of the Russian gestural system and kinetic behavior, as well as the theory and practice of gestural lexicography, is given special attention in this book, which cannot be considered accidental. In oral communication, the role of gestures, facial expressions, postures and body movements cannot be overestimated, and although natural language has unconditional priority here, the kinetic aspects of people's behavior, such as gestures and gestures, the way people stand or sit, how they are located in relation to each other how they change positions during a conversation, how they finally look at each other, play a decisive role in communicative interaction. And it must be said that the complexity and variety of sign forms of non-verbal communication fully correspond to the complexity and branching of the particular sciences that are part of non-verbal semiotics.

Sources and material

The main source for the presented study was Russian non-verbal (oral) and verbal (oral and written) texts, although the analytical review and discussion of ideas, hypotheses and results put forward and obtained in non-verbal semiotics are also based on data from other languages. In addition, we resort to examples and facts of other languages ​​and cultures for typological comparison of individual phenomena or deciphering some details of the picture of Russian non-verbal behavior.

More specifically, the collected and processed material on which this monograph is based is

(a) visual observations, as well as photographic and video recordings of non-verbal dialogic behavior of people of different nationalities

onalities and cultures, made both by me personally and by other researchers, including my young colleagues - graduate students and students. The main body of visual, photo and video material was made up of texts of Russian culture;

(b) Russian oral and written texts of various genres

and styles that reflect this behavior. First of all, these are literary texts (in whole or in fairly representative fragments) that belong to Russian fiction. XIX-XX centuries. In addition, illustrative examples were taken from translated literature and journalism. Some of the language examples were taken from various large corpora of sentences collected and processed by other people.

(in) vocabulary materials contained in language (interpretative, phraseological, etc.) and sign dictionaries of different languages ​​and cultures. Materials were also taken into account

ly analyzed in other scientific papers, mainly in monographs and articles;

Methodology and theoretical background of the study

Hugo Schuchardt once noted that the integrity and internal unity of a field of scientific knowledge is achieved not so much by the homogeneity of its content, but by a common methodology and consistency of approaches to the problems being solved. Recognizing the unconditional correctness of a major German linguist and philosopher, I believe that the real basis for the unification of various non-linguistic subsystems should be unified semantic

the language of description (metalanguage) of non-verbal units of categories.

This provision, it seems to me, is a natural continuation of the thesis about the need for a single semantic language to describe linguistic facts and phenomena of various types, which was first put forward and substantiated within the framework of the Moscow (I mean, first of all, the work of I. A. Melchuk , A. K. Zholkovsky, Yu. D. Apresyan, E. V. Paducheva and their colleagues and students) and the Polish Semantic School (mainly the studies of A. Boguslavsky and A. Vezhbitskaya). At the same time, it is highly desirable that the semantic language used be the same for verbal

for non-verbal units as well, since I believe that only on a common and solid semantic foundation can one achieve the internal integrity of non-verbal semiotics and the no less desirable integration of non-verbal semiotics and linguistics within the framework of a general theory of communication.

The creation of such a unified metalanguage can be approached in different ways. For example, it must be set from the outside and, as it were, in advance, after which it is necessary every time, in each specific study, to substantiate its theoretical adequacy and prove its practical usefulness. Or one can construct a metalanguage inductively on the basis of careful experimental and field research and subsequent theoretical generalizations. Finally, it is possible to propose different, but relatively simple and practically convenient semantic languages ​​for different areas of nonverbal semiotics with their further combination obligatory (establishing the necessary correspondences, constructing rules for their combination and translation from one metalanguage to another, etc.). This book reflects, albeit to varying degrees, all three possibilities.

The author of this book saw one of his main tasks in offering a language and format of description that would be strict, consistent, simple, understandable and convenient for the reader (I really like the words of Karl Popper addressed to scientists: “If you are not able to express your thoughts simply and clearly, you should not speak, but keep working until you feel that you can do it”) to state the main points that non-verbal semiotics has come to today, and present the resulting it contains the most significant results related to the topic and subject of research.

The task is not as simple as it might seem at first glance. The fact is that nonverbal semiotics is essentially an interdisciplinary science. It arose at the borders of different scientific fields and at the crossroads of different scientific traditions, moreover, as well-established for centuries, having their own objects, theoretical and methodological apparatus, their own languages ​​and research methods, their own interests and internal problems - I mean, in particular, biology, ethology (the science of behavior), linguistics, logic, sociology and psychology - and relatively new ones. Among the latter, one should first of all name general semiotics, the theory of ethnos and ethnic systems, cultural anthropology, cogitology (the science of knowledge and cognition), and the theory of cognitive systems.

It follows from the foregoing that the present study, although it is linguosemiotic, cannot but take into account a whole range of ideas and achievements of the listed disciplines, as well as the peculiarities of those metalanguages ​​in which these ideas and achievements are presented. However, the assignment of any research, located at the junction of several sciences, to one or another branch of knowledge, in my opinion, is mostly a matter of taste - who knows where today the boundaries of one science end and the boundaries of another begin? In any case, I believe that it would be wrong to consider the assignment of the work to one science and not to another as its obvious a priori defect. "

In general, I would like to think that on the eve of the 21st century, when it became obvious that the vast majority of discoveries in the second half of the 20th century were made at the intersection of two or more scientific disciplines, the words “this is not linguistics” ceased to be an accusation against linguists. In this regard, it would be useful to recall that the vast majority of “non-linguistic” works back in the 60s and 70s in our country were declared in advance unworthy of the attention of linguists and were extremely rarely discussed in the linguistic community, despite the fact that some of these works, very many purely "linguistic" facts, phenomena and regularities were well explained or clarified. Such, in the memory of the author of the book, were studies in social psychology and even in psycholinguistics (!), in machine translation, automatic referencing and indexing of texts, logical analysis of language, and dozens of other areas.

Non-verbal semiotics is rooted in several intellectual traditions at once, with biology, psychology, sociology, and linguistics being its most obvious origins. It is precisely the certain range of ideas, assumptions, and concepts put forward in these sciences that has become the methodological basis of the approach developed in the book. As I hope to show, the modern scientific paradigm in the field of non-verbal semiotics is distinguished not by the separation of these directions, but by their convergence, up to true integration. I would even dare to assert that most of the modern fundamental works in this area are "bio-psycho-socio-linguistic".

Unfortunately, the methodological problems of nonverbal semiotics have received very little attention in the literature so far. Meanwhile, the promotion and justification of the program

research, together with the methodologically correct formulation of individual problems, just like the choice of the language of description, is by no means always self-evident. And although methodological defects cannot cancel or discredit the specific results obtained in any one science that is part of non-verbal semiotics, only a methodologically correct unification of individual sciences, carried out on the basis of a single metalanguage, can maintain balance within the emerging and a scientific paradigm that is being fixed right before our eyes and contribute to the penetration into new knowledge that does not fit into the Procrustean bed of one discipline. The whole, as is usually the case, is greater than the sum of its parts.

To the question of the famous American psychologist R. Zayonts, is there anything in common between such outwardly seemingly completely different physiological actions, such as scratching your head, rubbing your hands, biting your nails, turning the pillow over before going to bed so that “it is cool” , and a kiss, you can correctly and meaningfully answer (the answer that all these are actions performed by a person, from a formal point of view, of course, is correct, but meaningless), only if there is a group of clear concepts that form an integral system, and a sufficiently powerful language , covering the entire space of non-verbal semiotics and allowing you to establish invariants in objects and structures, arbitrarily different from the point of view of "common sense". The methodological setting and the general orientation of this book to the comparison of non-verbal units with verbal ones are aimed precisely at such non-trivial identifications and analogies.

Many of the central problems of non-verbal semiotics and linguistics cannot be solved otherwise than within the framework of an integrated scientific approach. Among these problems are (1) the understanding of general programs and modes of human behavior (see, for example, Winkin 1995; Johnson 1987; Kosnier et al. 1982; Kosnier and Brossard 1984; McNeil 1979; Pike 1967; Rosenthal 1979; Segestrale , Molnar 1997; Harper, Wiens, and Matarazzo 1978; Hinde 1974; Scherer and Ekman 1982; Shiminof 1980; Eibl-Eibesfeld 1972); (2) theoretical and practical descriptions of various features of specific behaviors, identifying verbal and non-verbal correlates of meanings conveyed in the process of communication, and establishing rules for the interaction of people in dialogue (Armstrong et al. 1995; Benthal and Polhechemas 1975; -

nushova 1995; Bolinger 1983; Zhinkin 1998; Crystal 1971; Cree became, Quirk 1964; MacNeil 1992; Nikolaeva 1972; Nikolaeva 1973; Pedelty, MacNeil 1986; Poyatos 1993; Rutter 1984; Fonad, 1982; Sharonov 1996; Scherer 1992; Eibl-Eibesfeld 1988);

(3) formal and semantic analysis of non-verbal signs in their comparison with linguistic signs, in particular, the definition of explicit and the discovery of hidden meanings of non-verbal semiotic units of various nature, which replace or accompany natural-linguistic signs in the act of communication (Birkenbeel 1979/1997; Bolinger 1986; Winkler 1981; Goldschmidt 1974; Goldschmidt 1993; Graham and Argyle 1975; Dray and MacNeil 1990; Siegman and Feldstein 1978; Kay 1975; Cresswell 1968; Lamb and Watson 1979; Leroy-Gouran 1964; 9198 1; Mehrabian 1964; Ting-Toomey 1994; Henley 1977; Ekman and Friesen 1972; Ekman and Friesen 1982); (4) proper linguistic, sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic analytical developments aimed at recognizing, by nonverbal and verbal keys, the psychological states and emotions of people, the relationship of a person to other people and to the world around him (among the huge number of publications, see, for example, the works of Vine , Cranach 1975; Vezhbitskaya 1992a; Vezhbitskaya 19926; Vezhbitskaya 19956; Volek 1987; Duncan 1969; Duncan and Fiske 1977; Dittman 1972; Dobrunova 1990; Devitz 1964; Drakman et al. 1982; Izard 1977/198; Latz 1988; McNeil, Levy 1982; Potapova 1990; Potapova 1997; Feldman and Rhyme 1991; also a series of papers by Paul Ekman: Ekman 1972; Ekman 1973; Ekman 1978; Ekman 1982; Ekman 1984; Ekman 1992a, Ekman 19926;) (5 ) analysis of ways to display non-verbal human behavior and elements of non-verbal language in written texts, in particular in fiction (Bevington 1984; Benson 1980; Danov 1980; Eason 1988; Cassell, McNeil 1991; Kasher, Fane 1996; Lathe yner 1995; Levy, MacNeil 1992; Poyatos 1977; Poyatos 1992; Sina 1983; Filippov 1975; Shelgunova 1979).

When writing this book, the author, being a linguist by profession, tried to the best of his ability to comprehend, take into account and use the most important ideas and results that were obtained in a variety of sciences, including those very far from linguistics. At the same time, the main attention was paid to those points that are directly related to natural language and body language, as well as to the problems of coexistence and interaction in the act of communication of non-verbal and verbal sign systems.

The general structure of the book and the distribution of material by chapter

This book, in addition to the Introduction, includes seven chapters and a Conclusion. The content of the book was made up of five basic sciences included in non-verbal semiotics: paralinguistics, kinesics, oculesics, haptics and proxemics. The main emphasis in the presentation of factual material and its theoretical understanding and commentary is on structural and functional elements that play a decisive role in the communicative interaction of non-verbal units with verbal ones.

The distribution of the material in the individual chapters is as follows.

In a very small chapter 1 "Non-verbal semiotics (general characteristics)" a general description of the basic units and categories of subsystems of non-verbal semiotics that remained outside the scope of this work is given, namely, auscultation, gastika, olfaction, chronemics and systemology are outlined.

In chapters 2 and 3, which are called, respectively, "Paralinguistics" and "Kinesics", some concepts and terms of these most important sections of non-verbal semiotics are clarified and a number of essential units, categories, features and oppositions are introduced, on the basis of which new ones are built or corrected. existing classifications of non-verbal units and a new interpretation of certain specific non-verbal facts and phenomena. One of the central tasks in these chapters, I considered the consistent introduction of the Russian reader into the relatively little-known areas of scientific knowledge that are directly related to the problems of non-verbal communication - into their history, ideological basis, problems, conceptual and terminological apparatus. Therefore, some sections of each of the first three chapters are of an overview and analytical nature.

The remaining chapters of the monograph contain original author's studies that are devoted to the main subsystems that make up nonverbal semiotics and the most important aspects of Russian nonverbal communication.

Chapter 4 presents a conceptual, linguistic and semiotic analysis of the two main parameters of language and paralinguistic systems - voice and tone.

The main part of the chapter was made up of ways of linguistic representation of voice and tonal characteristics in Russian scripts.

in the interchangeable texts of G^skpyvpya existing counter-effects

in the systems of voices and tones, the structures of polysemy are revealed and the meanings of the words voice iton, as well as a number of other lexical units of the Russian language, semantically related to them, are given. The functions of voice and tone in certain types of phrases, speech acts and speech activity of a person as a whole are determined. Various strategies, tactics and paraspeech technologies for conducting a dialogue are considered. Particular attention is paid to the emotional and evaluative components in the composition of speech acts of various types and their transmission by voice and tonal paralinguistic means.

Chapter 5, devoted to certain problems of kinesics, contains the foundations of the theory of gestural lexicography and a lexicographic description of a fragment of the Russian gestural system in its relationship with natural language.

The purpose, ideology, structure and content of explanatory sign dictionaries are discussed, the need to include one or another type of information in the sign dictionary is substantiated, and the problem of its distribution by zones within a dictionary entry is considered. Examples of specific dictionary entries of Russian non-verbal units from the experimental dictionary of Russian gestures, facial expressions and postures are given.

AT Chapter 6 poses and solves a number of topical theoretical and practical problems related to oculesics - the science of the language of the eyes and visual communication.

AT This section of the book defines and refines the repertoire, formal structure and meaning of Russian eye movies, examines the role and functions of eye language in human communication, analyzes a number of cultural concepts conveyed by glances, formulates some rules of visual behavior in Russian non-verbal culture and Russian communicative traditions.

The object of consideration in chapter 7 is haptics - science

about language of touch and tactile communication. It deals with the categories, functions and forms of human touch. Introduces

A typology of non-verbal acts of touch and touch is built on the basis of a number of significant differences and oppositions in the system of haptics and on the basis of the introduced differential features. In addition, the main meanings that can be transmitted by various kinds of touches in interactive communication are analyzed, the ways of their nonverbal coding in the Russian body language are indicated. The characteristics of tactile units are given in comparison with Russian verbal lexemes denoting touch and touch. The stereotypes of human tactile behavior are described. Some

competition between sight and touch. A typology of communicative situations is constructed in which tactile signs play a leading role.

The material of Chapter 8 was the units and categories of proxemics - the science of the communicative space and the influence that this space has on the non-verbal and verbal behavior of a person. The main problems that are posed and solved in this section of the book are the clarification of existing and the introduction of new concepts and categories of proxemics, the construction of a typology of spatial parameters that determine the ways of conducting a dialogue, the identification of important features and the formulation of individual rules of proxemous behavior characteristic of Russian and some other cultures.

The Conclusion sums up the overall results of the work done, points out some significant "blank spots" in non-verbal semiotics and possible ways to eliminate them.

The text of this book can be considered both as an integral, complete monograph and as the basis for a number of educational university and school courses, in particular "Non-verbal semiotics" and "Theory and practice of non-verbal communication". The book can also be used as a supplementary reading guide for the most general scientific disciplines, such as Semiotics, Introduction to Linguistics, Cultural Studies, Rhetoric, Anthropology, Sociology, or Psychology". The theoretical material, analyzed examples and conclusions can presumably be taken into account when writing monographs and textbooks on nonverbal semiotics and communication theory, when teaching the Russian language to foreigners and solving other linguodidactic tasks, as well as when creating systems for automatic information processing. The book may also be useful in compiling dictionaries of non-verbal and verbal languages. The conclusions and results related to the nonverbal communicative behavior of people can be used by theater directors and film producers in their work on the stage and screen embodiment of the written texts of plays and screenplays, respectively, and the results of the study related to the lexicography of gestures and to the patterns of nonverbal behavior may be of interest to representatives of other sciences dealing with human problems.

communication, as well as practitioners in the field of management and business, medicine, law, education, etc. Finally, an analysis of Russian non-verbal units and basic communicative strategies, along with a description of the specific features of Russian non-verbal dialogic behavior, can be useful to any person who who uses non-verbal Russian in oral communication and who would like to increase the effectiveness of his communication with other people due to a deeper understanding of this language and an increase in the level of language competence.

Some explanation

1. In most chapters, paragraphs are preceded by a list of keywords and phrases for the convenience of the reader.

2. Bold font is used in the work in three functions: to indicate gestures, to highlight headings and indicate the most important concepts and ideas, and italics are used to highlight language units (terms, examples, etc.).

Thanks

I am deeply grateful to all my colleagues from my native Institute of Linguistics (formerly the Faculty of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics) of the Russian State Humanitarian University, without whose assistance and support this book would hardly have appeared.

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my colleague, teacher and comrade Yu.A. Yu. A. Shikhanovich read, commented and edited most of the chapters of the book, forcing me to overcome my natural laziness and apathy and move forward. In the course of writing this monograph, he significantly helped me to correct formal and substantive absurdities, logical inaccuracies, and compositional inconsistencies.

I would like to express my deep gratitude and love to my young friends and co-authors S. A. Grigorieva and N. V. Grigoriev, with whom I am connected not only by joint work on the Dictionary of Russian Sign Language.

I also say a big thank you to those friends, comrades and colleagues of mine who at various stages of the work, with useful discussions of individual problems, considerations and remarks, especially contributed to its completion - A. N. Barulin, V. A. Belikov,

AND. M. Boguslavsky, O. Yu. Kibrik, A. E. Kibrik, A. D. Koshelev, S. V. Kodzasov, M. A. Krongauz, S. A. Krylov, I. B. Levontina, T. A. Mikhailova, M. Yu. Mikheev , T. M. Nikolaeva, V. I. Podlesskaya, E. V. Rakhilina, R. I. Rozina, V. P. Rudnev, O. N. Seliverstova, E. V. Uryson, I. A. Sharonov,

AND. B. Shatunovsky, A. D. Shmelev, E. Ya. Shmeleva, T. E. Yanko

and a lot of other people too.

I feel great pleasure from the fact that I can thank all, former and current, participants in the seminar on nonverbal semiotics, students of the Russian State Humanitarian University and Moscow State University. Our constant co-creation, friendship and, I hope, mutual love have been going on for 10 years. I am especially grateful to the current graduate students and my former students T. Vereshchagina, M. Daniel, A. Kasyan, A. Kozerenko,

O. Lavut, F. Minlos, E. Model, A. Panina, M. Samokhina,

N. Frid, M. Frid, E. Chuvilina and Yu. Schlesinger, some of whom (A. Kozerenko, M. Samokhin, N. Frid and E. Chuvilina)

Separately, I want to express my sincere love and gratitude to E. V. Paducheva and other employees of the Department of Semiotics of VINITI (now the Department of Semiotic Problems of Informatics), with whom I was fortunate to work for many years and from whom I have always studied linguistics and semiotics, as well as to two remarkable leaders of two remarkable Moscow Scientific Linguistic Seminars - N. D. Arutyunov and Yu. D. Apresyan. At the meetings of these seminars, I have repeatedly been given the happy opportunity to make presentations on various problems of non-verbal semiotics and linguistics and receive a fair share of quite fair remarks, convincing objections, valuable considerations and truly friendly advice.

Finally, I would like to express my infinite gratitude to my family: mother A. G. Kreidlina, wife A. V. Kreidlina and son L. G. Kreidlin, without whom not only the book, but also its author would not exist.

NONVERBAL SEMIOTICS

(general characteristics)

This chapter first enumerates all the major particular sciences that make up non-verbal semiotics, and then gives a very brief description of the five sub-systems of non-verbal semiotics left outside the scope of this work.

1. Paralinguistics (the science of the sound codes of non-verbal communication).

2. Kinesics (the science of gestures and gestural movements, of gestural processes and gestural systems).

3. Okulesika (the science of the language of the eyes and the visual behavior of people during communication).

4. Auscultation (the science of the auditory perception of sounds and the auditory behavior of people in the process of communication).

5. Haptics (the science of the language of touch and tactile communication).

6. Gastika (the science of the symbolic and communicative functions of food and drinks, food intake, the cultural and communicative functions of potions and treats).

7. Olfaction (the science of the language of odors, the meanings conveyed by odors, and the role of odors in communication).

8. Proxemics (the science of the space of communication, its structure and functions).

9. Chronicle (the science of the time of communication, its structural, semiotic and cultural functions).

10. Systemology1 (the science of systems of objects, with which people surround their world, about the functions and meanings that these

objects are expressed in the process of communication).

Modern non-verbal semiotics, as can be seen from this list, consists of separate but closely related disciplines. Different scientists, depending on which area of ​​non-verbal semiotics they are professionally engaged in and in which general philosophical and / or specializations

1 This name is ours, unlike other spiders that make up the wrong

ballroom ssm iotik \. there is nothing at all accepted here.”

titles

They consider themselves to be particular scientific schools, distinguishing first one and then other disciplines and aspects of research as central. One way or another, two sections of non-verbal semiotics are unconditionally recognized by all researchers as the main ones. These are paralinguistics and kinesics.

Of the ten sciences mentioned above, far from all are given equal attention and far from all of them have been studied to an equal degree. The main sections of non-verbal semiotics are more "old"; the conceptual apparatus, theoretical approaches and research methods in such areas as paralinguistics and kinesics are the most developed. The least studied are five sections of non-verbal semiotics: auscultation, gastika, olfaction, chroniclemics and systemology - and this despite the fact that there are many different areas of human activity, to which the corresponding sciences are quite applicable.

It is here that the need for languages ​​for describing the activity itself and presenting the results, for theoretical understanding of what has been done, for new promising ideas and for determining development trends is felt with particular acuteness. These are, for example, musical and singing activity, selection, structuring and semantic filtering of speech in the process of its perception, deaf pedagogy (for auscultation). For gastika - culinary arts, medical activities, the art of receiving guests and seducing people, in particular through the ritual preparation of love powders or drinks (decoction of herbs or, for example, from "Spanish flies", wine, cocktail, etc.) - The ancient Greeks called these drinks Filtra. Olfaction is interested in the chemical and thermal activities of the human body and their influence on the process of communication, the practice of speech communication (smells play a significant role, for example, in the communication of the Arabs, see, in particular, in the work of Vargas 1986, p. 23- 24), medical diagnostics, animal behavior, perfumery, the study of the language of flowers and the art of creating images - imaginology, or image-making. Dialogue in natural language, in particular the rhythmic structure of communication and the semiotics of synchronous and asynchronous speech, synchronization of gesture communication, psychotherapy and theatrical activity are the subject of chronemics. Organization of the spatial environment (“We shape our buildings, thereafter they shape us” - “We create our houses, and then they create us”, as W. Churchill wrote), the impact of ecology, architecture and design and furniture on a person

Proxemics studies speech and communication in general. The language of adornment and the language of clothing are systems of objects that systemology studies.

One can recall, for example, the statement of A.P. Chekhov, who once remarked that “in order to emphasize the poverty of the petitioner, one does not need to spend many words, one does not need to talk about her miserable unfortunate appearance, but one should only say in passing that she was wearing a red talma. And the contemporaries of the great Russian writer, apparently, perfectly understood what was hidden behind the “red talma”, behind the little remarkable, rustic in design and execution, a long women's cape without sleeves. Speaking of the language of clothing, we can also mention the movement of the skirt, specially studied and developed as a dance technique, in gypsy or Spanish dances, such as flamenco, or the symbolic manipulations performed by the Ethiopians with the toga. Let us also recall as an example the symbolism of the combination of the type and color of a costume in Chinese culture, in particular in classical Chinese theatre. For example, age, social status of a person, type of activity or actions performed by a character, his physical or mental state - all these signs were transmitted on stage by a complex combination of the type of costume, cut, color: young heroes wear light, most often white, clothes. du, and the old ones - dark, usually dark brown or black; for the poor, all clothes, including a headdress, must be shabby, covered with patches; the mandarin on stage walked in a long, floor-length top dress, and his shoes had to be exclusively on high wooden soles; by clothes of a special cut one could recognize a person going on a journey, a sick man, a military man, a man who had just risen from bed after sleep; various movements of the sleeve of clothing are signs of attracting attention, expressing the sympathy of one person for another, denoted modesty, embarrassment, etc. (see Sorokin, Markovina 1988, pp. 64-71 for more details). The language of the fan, the iconic functions of various accessories, such as a tie, bow tie, neckerchief and handkerchief, or, for example, beads, which Greek men sometimes put on themselves and which, according to the belief existing in Greek culture, mean “lack of tension”, machersky wig art - all this is also of interest to systemology.

AT I will not touch upon these five very young

and completely undeveloped areas of non-verbal semiotics - primarily because he himself almost did not deal with them (only in

Recently, at our weekly seminar at the Russian State Humanitarian University, within the framework of the topic “Fashion, Language and Gesture”, we began to study the influence of various types of clothing, individual accessories and jewelry on human speech and gesture activity, and one schoolgirl, at that time a student of the 10th grade culturological lyceum No. 1514 N. Oganova, and now a student, wrote a work under my supervision, which is a semiotic commentary on a video film about the art of flamenco dance that she herself shot). Here I will only point out some, in my opinion, interesting and useful publications that are directly related to the problems of these sciences: Dittman, Levelin 1968; Gibbins 1969; Kay 1982; Kelly 1969; Messing 1960 (especially p. 3 - 4, 558 - 560); Mills, Aronson 1965; Mints 1956; Ryan 1966; Sebeok et al. 1964; Segeiprale, Molnar 1997; Hall 1966 (see, for example, the description of the "friendly smell" among the Arabs on pp. 149 - 150); Ellis 1967; Efron 1941/1972.

Thus, the focus of this book is five sciences - five sections of non-verbal semiotics: paralinguistics, kinesics, oculesics, haptics and proxemics.

Glyavz 2 PARALINGUISTICS

§ 1. BASIC UNITS

AND CATEGORIES

Key words: paralinguistics, paralinguistic (paralinguistic), unit, category, system, paralanguage, center of the paralinguistic system, periphery of the paralinguistic system, sound parameters, qualifiers, distinguishers (differentiators), alternants, communication (communication).

Even when people only speak and do not use any other signs, they have at their disposal a much larger number of vocal elements than is actually contained.

in given speech code." To realize their communicative intentions, people often resort to parzhinguistic, or

paralinguistic, units.

When and by whom the term "paralinguistics" was introduced, it is still not known exactly. Some researchers, such as M. Kay (Kay 1975), in this connection give the year 1954 and the surname Weimers. Better known, however, is the point of view of J. Tradeaser (Trayger 1958), according to which the term "paralinguistics" was first introduced into scientific use by A. Will, although the paralinguistic phenomena themselves have long been noted and studied by phonetists. In the introductory paragraphs of his article, J. Trager talks about the relationship between linguistics and paralinguistics (pp. 3-4) and talks in some detail about the discussions and seminars that were held

in United States since 1952 and where listeners have already used the word itself.

AT In the domestic tradition, the concept and term "paralinguistics" received several different interpretations at once, from very narrow to overly broad. As confirmation of what has been said, I will name a book published quite a long time ago. G. V. Kolshansky’s pamphlet (Kolshansky 1974), which is called “Paralinguistics” and where this word means a vast field of knowledge that includes almost everything that today is classified as non-verbal semiotics in

in general. The definition of the term "paralinguistics", as it is given by T. M. Nikolaeva in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary (Nikolaeva 1990), reflects just both extreme possibilities - both narrow and (super) wide understanding.

I will not review here the points of view on paralinguistics known to me and approaches to it, but I will only say that I adhere to the most common and, one might even say, almost generally accepted definition. Namely, paralinguistics is understood as a science that constitutes a separate section of non-verbal semiotics and the subject of study of which is paralanguage - additional to speech sound codes included in the process of speech communication and capable of transmitting semantic information in this process2.

In this chapter, I would like to describe the main classes of units and categories of paralinguistics - mainly with the aim of clarifying the concepts and terms that will be needed in the future.

The basic units of paralinguistics are called by different researchers in different ways, and the most common names are paralinguistic elements (units), paralinguistic units,pronunciation units and paralinguisms. I will use only the first two terms, because in combination pronunciation unit, as it seems to me, the twofold - linguistic and paralinguistic - role of the pronunciation means is not taken into account. Following R. K. Potapova, I propose to retain the term paralinguisms for non-verbal means of expressing connotative semes (see Potapova 1997, pp. 6-7).

As in any science, in paralinguistics one can distinguish the center and the periphery.

AT the center of the paralinguistic system includes, for example,

(a) individual non-speech sounds emanating from the oral and nasal cavities of a person; (b) sound complexes that arise and take an active part in various types of physiological reactions and which, in the act of communication, allow conventional semiotization, or signification (that is,

2 By the way, just such an understanding was from the very beginning generally characteristic of our domestic science; see, for example: Nikolaeva, Uspensky 1966, p. 63 et seq.

there acquire special contextual meanings; cf. runny nose, cough, spitting, hiccups, sobbing, whistling, etc.); (c) the voice and its constant qualities, the vocal features of actually sounding speech or voice acting (phonations), as well as (d) paralinguistic prosodic elements involved in the communication process and contributing to the organization and transmission of semantic information (that is, what could be would call paralinguistic prosody). These include, for example, the emotional accentuation of syllables and larger fragments of the speech flow, the rate of speech realization of phrases in fluent speech or chanting, the tonal level of loud, quiet and whispered speech, the duration of the syllable, for example, in drawling speech, the duration sections between phonetic syntagmas, etc. An important role in the prosodic realization of meaning is also played by gestures and facial expressions that accompany emotional intonations, primarily when expressing subjective-modal (evaluative, expressive, etc.) meanings. For example, when expressing bewilderment, when IC-6 is usually implemented with a low level of pitch increase (cf. Where did he disappear to? I just have no idea) the speaker's shoulders are usually raised, the arms are spread apart, the head is also slightly retracted to the side. In this way, peculiar intonation-kinetic complexes are formed (on such unities, see Mukhanov 1989, p. 11 et seq.);

(e) significant silences and pauses.

To the periphery of the paralinguistic system can include ventrological sounds and their parameters, sounds of nature and various mechanisms or devices, often signified and

playing an important role in human communication; the prosody of the corresponding sound sequences also adjoins here. The periphery of the parapinguistic system also includes various sounds or sound sequences that occur during human actions with some natural objects and artifacts (for example, the sound of a slap, the sounds of applause, the sound of hitting a table with a fist in a situation where, for example, a person is angry , or knocking on the door at the entrance to the house), as well as the sounds arising from his contact with the human body, both with his own and with someone else's.

The peculiarity of all paralinguistic means is that, although they are not speech and are not part of the natural language system, they largely organize and determine the communicative act. Only an extremely small number of oral speech messages can become a fact.

human communication without any paralinguistic accompaniment: paralinguistic means are presented to some extent in every oral utterance. Almost 100% necessarily present in speech, these means are distinguished by their non-systematic and irregular nature of their real implementation. Here is just one example: when pronouncing Russian interrogative sentences of a certain semantic type, say, private questions with the word what, a strictly fixed intonational contour is required (Kreidlin, Rakhilina 1984), while the type of modal and timbre coloring of the utterance remains indeterminate and, in principle, can be anyone. If the type of intonation is a fact of speech and language, then the nature of modal and timbre coloration is a fact that lies “near linguistics”, that is, paralinguistic (Greek para, in fact, does not mean “about”).

Following Fernando Poyatos (Poyatos 1993), one of the most authoritative foreign experts in the field of semiotics, anthropology and communication theory, we single out four main paralinguistic categories- parameters sounds, qualifiers, distinguishers (differentiators)

and alternates. The composition of these categories, as we see it, however, differs from that indicated by F. Poyatos. However,

and our list is rather arbitrary - in many respects

due to the still insufficient development and study of a huge number of paralinguistic units themselves. It does not have the desired clarity of composition and boundaries; in any case, the list of paralinguistic categories proposed below is neither a formal calculation nor a classification.

1.1. Sound options

Sound options(primary qualities, according to Poyatos) are the main components (features and their combinations) of human speech ■ non-speech sounds that perform a communicative or emotive function.

Sound parameters include, for example, melody intones, gradations of sound intensity, duration of pauses and syllables, tempo, rhythm, pitch, etc.

Different sound characteristics can be due to various reasons:

(a) biological.

For example, men usually have a lower timbre of voice than women; old people usually have a quieter voice than young people,

(b) psychological.

So, in people who are in a state of pronounced depression, the intonation is monotonous, and the speech is monotonous; in a person in a state of extreme excitement - and in women this is manifested to a greater extent than in men - under the influence of emotional influence, the voice trembles in conversation, often becomes louder than usual, reaches a scream and, as they say in Russian, breaks or breaks. According to Newman and Maver 1938, the speech of people in a state of depression differs from ordinary speech in its resonant characteristics and reduced tempo.

Finds its consistent reflection in the characteristics of speech and the actual emotional state of a person (see this in detail in Chapter 4). In particular, peak pitches were found to be inherent in expressions of grief.

and love that the extremes of volume distinguish contempt

and rage, and the rate of speech, which is sharply reduced compared to the norm, indicates the indifference, indifference of the speaker to the topic of the conversation or to the events taking place around him. Some psychological states, such as irritability, nervousness, or happiness, are more easily recognized by us in the act of communication by voice than others, such as, say, fear or surprise. This circumstance, seems to be to some extent connected with the fact that human manifestations of fear and surprise can be restrained and even suppressed (cf. normal combinations restrained surprise, suppress fear and abnormal * restrained nervousness, *suppress happiness). Finding out whether our interlocutor is currently experiencing these emotions is often quite difficult, and neither voice nor gestural behavior usually helps here. For example, some scientists, in particular Flora Davis (see Davis 1973, p. 51 et seq.), directly link the nervous behavior of a person with such gestures and movements as licking the lips with the tongue, rubbing the eyes, involuntary movements of the body, in particular involuntary twitching of the shoulders. However, even these movements and gestures do not speak unequivocally about the nervous state of a person.

Labialization in the Hungarian language, according to the work of Fonagy and Maglich 1963, is one of the means of expressing

"tenderness" expressions: special tpm.pmy ".* marks are closely related"

certain emotions experienced. In a series of experiments described in Fairbanks, Pronovost 1939, professional actors who were hidden from the eyes of the subjects read aloud to them the same passage in different tones, corresponding, in their opinion, to feelings of regret, fear, anger, sadness and indifference. And listeners were able to recognize these feelings with fairly high accuracy, ranging from 88% for indifference to 66% for fear.

Such an important feature as the psychological type of personality also has stable correlations with speech parameters. Thus, the volume and speed of speech in extroverted people is usually higher than introverted ones; These people differ from each other in the manner of speaking.

(c) physiological.

An example of the influence of physiological factors is the age-related breakdown of the voice in young men. And here are some more examples. People with a runny nose tend to speak with a nasal resonator; in the absence of complete closure of the ligaments, the volume of the voice decreases, hoarseness, hoarseness appear. There are also known special properties of voices in people who have undergone a throat operation such as a tracheotomy, or in people with an abnormal structure of the lower jaw, such as micrognathia, that is, an abnormally small jaw. There are special signs of sounding, defined by F. Poyatos as spasmodic aphonia (Poyatos 1993, p. 206), a speech pathology that consists in irregular alternation of voice with a whisper or combination of one with another.

(d) social.

At people occupying a higher place on the social hierarchical ladder, when talking to people below their rank, the rate of speech is usually slower than that of their interlocutors; the speech of the priests who read the sermon is, as a rule, measured and calm; the voice of the doctor when talking with the patient is often sharp, abrupt, especially when

Yes, it accompanies commands such as “Take off your clothes”, “Show your tongue” or “Stand up”, etc. There are special social types of voices, see more about this below in Chapter 4;

(e) national-ethnic and cultural.

According to data obtained from scientific sources (see, for example, Kochman 1981), and according to my own observations made during my stay in the USA, black African Americans normally sound louder and fuller than white "Anglo-Saxon" Americans. . modern

historian and linguist, and the sixth expert on Semito

Hamitic languages ​​and the socio-linguistic situation in modern Israel, I. Grinfeld noted (in an oral conversation with me) that the Sephardic Jews living in Israel in their general mass speak Hebrew more slowly, as if drawing out words, compared to Ashkenazi Jews . Among the English, special palatalization of sound is noted as a modification characteristic of zealous but poorly educated hard workers (eager-beavers), who have occupied a fairly high social position and consider palatalization to be an elegant decoration of speech, just as speakers of some dialects do in the east of the United States. Meanwhile, in contemporary Czech Republic, as noted by M. Kay (Key 1975), palatalization as a paralinguistic means is experimentally fixed as characteristic of the first words of Czech children and, apparently, is a special expressive phonetic element. In French and Polish, nasalized vowels are an element of the structure of the language, while in Russian and English, nasalized vowels occur only in paralanguage, for example, in the so-called lisping speech or hate words, in ironic and sarcastic speech, in the stylized speech of certain youth groups, in speech communication of thieves and bandits. Nasalization is also characteristic of a speech sound, reminiscent of the sound from a stretched string, what in English is called nasal twang; this sound is often found in the speech of an American - a typical representative of the "deaf province" (hillbilly), see also Kay 1975 for this.

(f) genre-stnlnstnchesknmi.

There are special sounds that distinguish sarcastic or ironic speech, that is, the transmission of some positive information in the sound or intonational expression of the speaker's negative attitude towards someone or something. Another example of the genre-stylistic characteristics of the sound is the banter expressed by the voice or kindly mockery of a person to whom the speaker is well disposed. Joking is a presentation of negative content in a positive tone, a negative assessment of someone or something, directly expressed in the text, or a hidden assessment, concluded, for example, in speech acts of condemnation and criticism, but transmitted in speech with softened sounds, a special warm tone. ; see also Chapter 4 on this.

(g) pragmatic.

Speed ​​(for example, loss of normal fluency or, conversely, accelerated speech), timbre and general tonality of speech,

features of the qualitative characteristics of individual sounds and the structure of the speech flow as a whole, the use of special paralinguistic means and tactics of communicative speech behavior (pauses, speech oscillations and phonations, speech omissions and errors, reduced or, on the contrary, excessively high verbal productivity, distinctive sound, voice and tonal signs indicating the transition from one semiotic code to another, the parallel use of verbal and non-verbal units, special conditions and methods of transferring a communicative speech course from one person to another, and much more) distinguish true speech from false. The identification and description of paralinguistic diagnostic parameters that allow, with varying degrees of probability, to establish the facts of conscious deception or accidental delusion of the speaker, the construction of special methods and the organization of permissive procedures for detecting speech tricks, cunning and lies today constituted a separate, extremely important in the social regarding the field of paralinguistic research - "paralinguistics of lies"; it suffices at least to indicate such areas of possible application of the results obtained in this area as business, in particular business negotiations, politics, trade, rhetoric, education, and very many others.

1.2. Qualifiers

Qualifiers include various in their properties and usually consciously caused by a person sound effects - additional modifiers to speech, aimed at achieving a specific communicative goal.

Comment. I will immediately note that the same paralinguistic element can be a qualifier in one speech context, and in another, for example, a distinguisher (see Section 1.3 below), so that the described paralinguistic categories, separated functionally, are, as I already said, overlapping classes.

The appearance of qualifiers in a communicative act is due to many biological and other reasons that cannot yet be fully and consistently calculated, from the features of the arrangement of airways and the passage of air flow through them to the anatomical structure

organs of sound production and the degree of their muscular tension during articulation. Thus, a nasal sound can appear in speech not only due to special phonetic techniques, as noted above, but also be a genetically innate sound arising from the special structure of the nasal septum. The voice can be raspy, so to speak, by itself, due to certain physiological features, for example, anomalies in the structure of the speech apparatus, or it can become raspy in actual speech if its owner intends to use such a voice to express contempt for the interlocutor or wants to mock him. In Chapter 4, we will return to the different kinds of voices and the meanings they express.

To qualifiers also belong to sound effects

and functions of whispered, often intimate, speech or, for example, a hard voice formed due to vibrations of the lower jaw or its strong protrusion.

1.3. Distinguishers (differentiators)

The third paralinguistic category is distinguishers, or differentiators. Distinguishers are paralinguistic constructs of different nature, combined, as the name implies, functionally. Among them, the following types are distinguished - depending on what exactly the constructs distinguish:

(a) sounds distinguishing patterns of behavior or separate components of patterns in which these sounds are an integral and important constituent element. Sighs, yawns, coughs, weeping, sobbing, whistling, laughter, sniffing, hiccups, and many others can serve as examples of distinguishers of this type. Some of the listed behavioral forms and the sounds and sound effects associated with them play a decisive role in the communication of interpersonal relationships and in the expression of actual emotional states; cf. weeping and sobbing in grief, sounds of laughter in the implementation of positive or negative social relations, for example, laughter of flattery or under halimage, laughter when nervous tension is relieved (laughter of joy or relief), mockery of the interlocutor, etc .;

(b) different types of pathological sound variants, i.e., sounds characteristic of patients and not characteristic of healthy people. cf. neurotic cry. hysterical crying and screaming

(c) paralinguistic sound and vocal devices regularly associated with deception, manipulation, or language play, such as a particular way of pronouncing certain words and utterances, voice acting (see Chapter 4 below for a detailed discussion of relevant examples);

(d) sounds distinguishing physiological reactions of various functional types: physical (for example, the sounds of a strongly beating heart), chemical (borrowing in the stomach), dermatological (rubbing the skin and sounds from it, sounds during skin peeling), thermal (high temperature, associated with groans), etc.

1.4. Alternants

Another paralinguistic category, alternants, are single non-speech sounds and combinations of sounds opposed to normative speech that occur in communication either in isolation or together with speech. Alternants include the so-called kinetic-voice forms such as throat clearings, clicks, pharyngeal and laryngeal ingressions and exgressions (i.e., air entry into the lungs and air exit from the lungs, respectively). Alternants are, for example, hissing and hissing, sounds that occur when air is sucked in, sounds that fill gaps, mm, uh, etc., sounds extracted with closed teeth or a wide open mouth, sounds from friction and thousands of others. Every language and every culture has a huge number of alternatives that form a unique vocabulary and are constantly involved in communication.

Alternants are characterized by the fact that, firstly, most of them have lexical and systemic significance, and therefore carry a certain semantic and functional, primarily regulatory, load during dialogical interaction. Compare, for example, the sound of a deep exhalation, indicating physical fatigue, or the sound of a “heavy” sigh, denoting, in particular, something like psychological fatigue from adversity and hard life, or meaning that everything is bad ”(in this regard, we can recall the story - an anecdote about how two men are riding in a train compartment, are silent for a while, and then suddenly both take turns sighing loudly. And then the first of the passengers says: “Well, maybe it’s enough for us to talk about politics ?*). various "moos".

exact expression of thought or gaining time for planning speech, which was written, in particular, by our wonderful psychologist N. I. Zhinkin (Zhinkin 1998, pp. 146-152) and others. language, cf. the appearance in the Russian language of interjections metiygm, brr, uf, etc. dialogue partner).

§ 2. PERIPHERAL MEANS. ADAPTERS

Keywords: paralanguage, paralinguistics, non-verbal, system, periphery of the paralinguistic system, paralinguistic, unit, category, adapter, body adapter, volitional, non-volitional, self-adapter, adapter-object, communication (communication).

I will now dwell on individual peripheral paralinguistic means, in particular, on non-throat sounds that can occur during the dialogic interaction of people or when a person performs some actions with one or another material object - a human body or object.

Complexes of sounds arising from actions with or over material objects, and the objects themselves - the sources of these sounds (including the human body and sounds arising from manipulations with it or over it), which take part in the act of actual communication and in in quite certain situations, they are semiotized, or signified, received the name of adapters. The term "adaptor" in relation to the analysis of non-verbal communication was first introduced, apparently, in the work of Ekman, Friesen 1969, in which, however, it means something different than ours: P. Ekman and W. Friesen have an adapter - it is not a complex, but an exclusively material object, essentially separated from the sounds produced with its participation. About some features of adaptive

3 The functions, semantics, and syntax of many of these interjections were described by N. R. Dobrushina (Dobrushina 1995) in her Ph.D. dissertation, completed under my supervision.

The moat and adapter-related gestures will be discussed in detail in Chapters 3 and 5 of this book. And here I will only note that from the point of view of the internal nature, all adapters can be divided into two main classes: adapters of the body (or adapters proper, and also - unfortunately, in the literature there is also such, in our opinion, unsuccessful word usage - adapter). I prefer to use the terms body adapters (rarely, actual adapters) and adapter-objects, leaving the term adapters as generic only.

2.1. Body Adapters

Body adapters are capable of adapting to changing external conditions, that is, adaptive forms of people's communicative behavior. These are complexes consisting of independent sign movements of the body or with the human body performed in a communicative act (see Vereshchagin, Kostomarov 1981, p. 37) and sounds from these movements and are functionally oriented, first of all, to a communication partner. Body adapters include, for example, sounds that owe their origin to such movements and gestures as patting on the shoulder, stamping the foot, applause (applause), stroking, clicking, slapping, hitting, slapping, etc. (more formally, body adapter - this is a complex like "a slap and a sound from this movement", "stomping with a foot and a corresponding sound", etc.).

Body adapters can change the meaning of a verbal message, further qualify it, refine it, and even completely replace a verbal statement. When a person is, for example, in a state of rage, he may clench his teeth or grind his teeth. Convincing with passion the addressee that he did something, the man sometimes beats his chest (“I, I did it”). We give a slap in the face in order to humiliate, and not to punish, as is often mistakenly believed, another person, thus expressing our contempt for him, and, conversely, we often defend ourselves with a slap in the face from the humiliation or insult received, cf., for example, She turned out to be unable to adequately endure the contempt and indifference of her husband that had fallen on her, and even her former school orientation to defend herself with a slap in the face from insult did not return to her (L. Petrushevskaya), but lashed on the cheeks as punishment for a very serious offense. We break the clasped hands - ours and our partner's - when making a bet, while extracting a characteristic sound, etc. In all

In these and similar cases, communicatively significant gestural actions are performed using body adaptors, and sound plays a significant semantic role in these actions.

Body adapters can be divided into two classes: volitional, or intentional, and non-volitional, forced (for example, forced by the crowd). Voluntary and non-volitional body adapters in the act of communication can be perceived and interpreted differently depending on whether the corresponding movements are performed by two (or more) communication partners at once or only by one of them; cf. gestures to hug someone, while expressing participation, sympathy or love for the addressee of the gesture, cf. Once in the evening, when she came in to make his bed, he went up to her and put his arm around her shoulder. She looked at him in dismay and blushing, whispered: "Go away" (I. Bunin. "Tanya"), and a hug (a mutual gesture of greeting4 usually carried out with a characteristic clapping sound).

In terms of meaning, body adapters are also very diverse. Their communicative and semantic purpose is to start and end non-verbal interaction in the actual act of communication (cf. the gesture to clap your hand<при рукопожатии>and the sound of clap - for one of the varieties of handshake when greeting, a gesture of an air kiss at parting). In addition, body adaptors express a variety of feelings and relationships between partners (cf., for example, stroking<рукой>when expressing affection, slap on the shoulder as a sign of approval), indicate aggression and readiness for defense, etc.

A special subclass of body adapters are self-adapters. Self-adapters are both sounds that a person extracts from various actions with his own body, and objects, which are the parts of the body involved in the production of such sounds. In this case, the actions of a person can be interpreted by the addressee as (a) conscious behavioral acts, the purpose of which is to convey this or that information to him, or as (b) spontaneous behavioral acts or uncontrolled actions that betray the speaker's feelings. In addition, the actions of a person with the body can be understood as (c) symbolic evidence and a demonstration of the person's relationship to the addressee or the subject of the message.

4 Gesture hugs are not always pleasant. Wed Zara

For some reason, her arms spread out for hugs always annoy her. You feel that you are being forced into acting. To match the world that is dancing in the eyes of a drunken person, you really have to go into gyas. And then these wide hugs coming at you mean at the same time: I will hug and not let go (F. Iskander. "Taboo") -

I will give examples of self-adapters. Sudden frequent jumping in place, combined with a smile, clapping your hands, means "strong joy, jubilation", and energetic clapping<себя>on the stomach conveys the idea of ​​"satiety". They tightly wrap their hands around their heads and even sometimes groan, being in despair. When a person taps his fist on his forehead, then on a tree, and then points to the addressee, he demonstrates, both by this gesture sequence and by the sounds produced during its implementation, that he considers the addressee himself or the actions just performed by the addressee to be stupid (about the connection of meanings " wooden" and "stupid" see our article Kreidlin 1990). A person’s instant decision-making is sometimes marked by a ringing slap on the thigh or thigh, and the fact that a person enjoyed the acting of actors can be expressed by applause of varying strength and duration. In all the examples given, the presence of self-adapters is obvious.

Adjacent to self-adapters are sounds derived from various actions performed by a person with clothes and other artifacts. These are peculiar projections of the body onto the surrounding world; they, strictly speaking, occupy an intermediate position between the first and second types of adapters. The circle of self-adapting sounds includes the creak of floorboards when walking around the house, the rustle of a dress, the sound of heels, the noise of shoes, and many others. All of them are extremely eloquent elements of the text, not only saturating the text with additional meanings, but also decorating it.

The use of self-adapters in living everyday speech depends on the degree of freedom a person has, in particular, whether he can touch himself and take certain postures in a particular communicative situation, whether he is able to perform certain actions (for example, whether a person can stand or walk with his hands closed behind his wrists, whether he can scratch or openly, not embarrassed by tears, sob and cry, whether he is free to cough or must suppress a cough, so as not to wake a sleeping child, for example). In other words, it is extremely important whether a person has the opportunity, as well as external and internal freedom, to put actions with his body on display in a given communicative act.

Self-adapters and the degree of freedom to use them vary by culture, geographic area, function, physical, mental, and social characteristics, such as

ethnicity, race, age, gender, health, current mental state, status, degree of acquaintance, attitude towards another person, and many others.

2. 2. Adapter Objects

The second class of adapters are adapter-objects. The adapter-objects include complexes used in the process of communication, consisting of objects and sounds that arise during human actions with such objects; cf. the sound of a drum roll, a knock on a door or a window, the rustle of a woolen blanket that accompanies death gestures among the Hindus (Clark 1885, p. 412), the sound of a slamming door, scratching, light tapping of fingers on the table, and hundreds of others.

Through the medium of adapter-objects, the semiotically important properties of a given culture or communicative act are often revealed. Such, for example, is the roll of drums, followed by or together with which fanfares sound, announcing the beginning of a solemn event, cf. also the semiotic significance in certain situations of the striking of clocks or chimes, the tapping or the sound of a bottle of champagne being smashed against the side of a ship.

With the help of adapter-objects, constant and variable qualities and character traits of the performer of a movement or gesture can be established (for example, a quick tapping of the fingers on the table may indicate the impatience of the gesturing person, and the continuous steps of an adult around the room indicate his excitement or impatient expectation of someone - something), the verbal messages transmitted in the process of communication are enriched in semantic terms. In this regard, let us recall the symbolic significance in our culture of the sound of night steps on the stairs, the symbolism of the noise from deliberately broken dishes, the contextual symbolization of a knock on a door or window. Thus, before entering a house, we usually ring or knock on the door, and, for example, in a number of villages where American Indians live, knocking is considered very rude behavior towards the owners and can lead to big trouble for the knocker: there a person must be summoned by voice. In a stereotypical way, but differently perceived and evaluated in Russian culture, a light and heavy knock on the door, a knock on the door with knuckles closed in a fist and a louder and obviously less pleasant knock on the door with a fist are signified differently. Banging on the door -

it's not at all the same as knocking on it, to knock (= to knock on the door, most likely, with the knuckles) is not the same as bludgeoning (if with the hand, then only with the fist!).

Typical adapter-objects include complexes that include material objects participating in communication, directly connected with the body of the speaker and designed to protect the body and satisfy various other bodily needs. For example, these are items that help the body in everyday everyday situations and even have a certain impact on human behavior: clothes (or its individual accessories), shoes, toilet items, jewelry, etc. Glasses, buttons, nasal handkerchiefs, ties, orders, umbrellas, boots, hats, handbags and some other items: despite the fact that with the help of these things a person mostly performs unconscious and subconscious actions, in a particular act of communication, a person’s actions with them can be interpreted by the addressee as conscious. For example, during a conversation, the speaker may purely mechanically, simply out of habit, fiddle with the buttons of his coat or suit, or constantly open and close his purse, but the addressee is free to consider such movements as evidence of the speaker's excitement or impatience.

Let me draw some conclusions.

Communicative, in particular vocal, behavior of a person is not only a narration of a person addressed to the interlocutor about himself, that is, about who he is in general, what state he is in now, what feelings he is experiencing or what he is doing or preparing to do, but and a request or command directed to the addressee, in which the speaker communicates how he wants to be perceived by him and, possibly, his environment. The human ear, as is known, is capable of distinguishing hundreds of thousands of voice sounds, of which only a few thousand belong to natural language. Most of the voice units used in paralanguages ​​are also used in the language itself, but there are some units that, as far as linguistics is known today, do not occur in any language system. The human voice produces many sounds that are not part of the language system, but are signified in the process of communication and form the foundation of paralinguistics. These sounds are caused primarily by the way and manner of speaking.

rhenium, quality of voice and tone, prosody, that is, how something is said and why it is said. In addition to purely vocal elements, the focus of paralinguistics is also on complex kinetic-vocal forms and various physiological reactions that are signified in the act of communication, carried out with the direct participation of the voice, as well as some natural and other sounds, in particular sounds arising from man's manipulations with objects of different types, including the human body (adapters).

The physical elements of paralanguage are divided into independent<от речи>and additional<к ней>. Examples of the former are distinguishing and alternatives: whistling, laughter, etc. The latter were named qualifiers- they change and expand articulation, thereby changing the quality of speech (cf. chuckle Ha, Hmm, coarsening of the voice, nasality).

In this chapter, more attention has been paid to the main aspects of paralinguistics that are associated with non-verbal units - kinems. Meanwhile, paralanguage, of course, is associated not only with non-verbal communication codes, but primarily with the language of speech, which we will discuss in more detail later in Chapter 4.

In our work, we took as a basis the work of G. E. Kreidlin “Non-verbal semiotics” (2002). The scientist calls the science that studies non-verbal communication non-verbal semiotics. It consists of separate but interrelated disciplines:

1. Paralinguistics - the science of the sound codes of non-verbal communication.

2. Kinesics - the science of gestures, gestural movements, gestural processes and gestural systems.

3. Okulesiki - the science of the language of the eyes and the visual behavior of people during communication.

4. Auscultation - the science of the auditory perception of sounds and the auditory behavior of people in the process of communication;

5. Haptics - the science of the language of touch and tactile communication;

6. Gastiki - the science of the symbolic and communicative functions of food and drinks, food intake, the cultural and communicative functions of potions and treats;

7. Olfactions - the science of the language of smells, the meanings conveyed by smells, and the role of smells in communication.

8. Proxemics - the science of the space of communication, its structure and functions.

9. Chronemics - the science of communication time, its structures, semiotic and cultural functions.

10. Systemology - the science of the systems of objects with which people surround their world, the functions and meanings that these objects express in the process of communication.

Of the above sciences, not all are given the same attention. The main sections - paralinguistics and kinesics - have been studied more deeply. The least studied are auscultation, gastika, olfaction, chronicle and systemology.

A) paralinguistics

Paralinguistics is understood as a science that constitutes a separate section of non-verbal semiotics. The subject of this science is paralanguage - additional sound codes included in the process of speech communications, which can transmit semantic information in this process.

The following characteristics of the human voice can serve as a means of achieving effective communication here:

The speed of speech. A lively, lively manner of speaking, a fast pace of speech indicates the impulsiveness of the interlocutor, his self-confidence. A calm, slow manner of speech indicates the equanimity, prudence of the speaker. Noticeable fluctuations in the speed of speech reveal a lack of balance, confidence, and slight excitability of a person.

· Volume. Greater volume of speech is inherent, as a rule, sincere motives or arrogance and complacency. While low volume indicates restraint, modesty, tact or lack of vitality, weakness of a person. Noticeable changes in volume indicate the emotionality and excitement of the interlocutor. As communication practice shows, in other cases, the absence of logical arguments contributes to the strengthening of emotional speech.

Articulation. Clear and precise pronunciation of words testifies to the internal discipline of the speaker, his need for clarity. An unclear, vague pronunciation indicates compliance, uncertainty, lethargy of will.

The pitch of the voice. Falsetto is often inherent in a person whose thinking and speech are more based on intelligence. A chest voice is a sign of increased natural emotionality. A high shrill voice is a sign of fear and excitement.

As in any science, in paralinguistics one can distinguish the center and the periphery.

The center of the paralinguistic system includes:

a) individual non-speech sounds emanating from the oral and nasal cavities of a person;

b) sound complexes that arise and take an active part in various kinds of physiological reactions, and which in the act of communication acquire special contextual meanings (runny nose, spitting, coughing, hiccups, sobbing, whistling, etc.);

d) paralinguistic prosodic elements involved in the process of communication and contributing to the organization and transmission of semantic information: emotional accentuated selection of syllables and larger fragments of the speech flow, the tempo of phrases in fluent speech or chanting, the tonal level of loud, quiet and whispered speech, the duration of a syllable, for example, in drawling speech, the length of sections between phonetic syntagmas, etc.

The periphery of the paralinguistic system includes the sounds of nature and various mechanisms or devices, which often play an important role in human communication; the prosody of the corresponding sound sequences also adjoins here. The periphery of the paralinguistic system also includes sounds arising from contact with the human body, both with one's own and with someone else's (for example, the sound from a slap in the face, the sounds of applause, the sound from hitting a table with a fist).

The peculiarity of all paralinguistic means is that, although they are not speech and are not part of the natural language system, they largely organize and determine the communicative act. Only an extremely small number of oral speech messages can become a fact of human communication without any paralinguistic accompaniment: paralinguistic means are to some extent presented in every oral utterance, but at the same time they are not systematic and irregular in their real embodiment.

There are 4 main paralinguistic categories - sound parameters, qualifiers, differentiators (distinguishers) and alternants.

Sound parameters (primary qualities) are the main components (features and their combinations) of human speech and non-speech sounds that perform a communicative or emotive function, disordered into a system. Sound parameters include, for example, melody intones, gradations of sound intensity, duration of pauses and syllables, tempo, rhythm, pitch, etc.

Qualifiers include various in their properties and usually consciously caused by a person sound effects - additional modifiers to speech, aimed at achieving a specific communicative goal.

The appearance of qualifiers in a communicative act is due to many biological and other reasons that cannot yet be fully and consistently calculated, from the features of the arrangement of airways and the passage of air flow through them to the anatomical structure of the sound production organs and the degree of their muscular tension during articulation. So, the voice can be creaky in itself, due to certain physiological features, for example, anomalies in the structure of the speech apparatus, or it can become creaky in actual speech, if its owner intends to use it to express contempt for the interlocutor or wants to mock him.

The qualifiers also include sound effects and functions of whispered, often intimate, speech or, for example, a harsh voice formed due to vibrations of the lower jaw or its strong protrusion.

Distinguishers are paralinguistic constructs of different nature, combined functionally. Among them are the following types:

a) sounds that distinguish behavior patterns or individual components of models in which these sounds are an integral and important constituent element. For example, sighing, yawning, coughing, crying, sobbing, whistling, laughing, sniffing, hiccups, and more. Some of the listed behavioral forms and their associated sounds and sound effects play a crucial role in the communication of interpersonal relationships and in the expression of actual emotional expressions; for example, crying and sobbing in grief, the sounds of laughter in the implementation of positive or negative social relations, for example, laughter of flattery or flattery, mockery of the interlocutor, etc.

b) various kinds of pathological sound variants, that is, sounds characteristic of patients and not characteristic of healthy people, cf. crying of a neurotic, hysterical crying and screaming, sobbing, moaning and whining in pain, etc.

d) sounds that distinguish physiological reactions of various types: physical (sounds of a strongly beating heart), chemical (rumbling in the stomach), dermatological (rubbing the skin and sounds from it, sounds when the skin is peeling), thermal (high temperature associated with groans) and etc. .

Alternants are single non-speech sounds opposed to normative speech and combinations of sounds that occur in communication either in isolation or together with speech. This includes kinetic - voice forms such as throat cleanings, clicks, inhalation and exhalation. Alternants are, for example, hissing and hissing, sounds that arise when air is sucked in, sounds that fill pauses “hm, mm, uh, etc.”, sounds extracted with closed lips or wide open mouth, sounds from friction and others. Every language and every culture has a colossal number of alternatives that form a kind of lexicon and are constantly involved in communication.

Alternants carry a certain semantic and functional, primarily regulatory, load during dialogical interaction. For example, the sound of a deep exhalation, indicating physical fatigue, or the sound of a “heavy” sigh, denoting something like psychological fatigue from adversity and hard life, or meaning that “everything is bad”, various “mooing”, indicating that the speaker is looking for the right word for the exact expression thoughts or gaining time for them to plan their speech. In addition, alternants constantly replenish the natural language dictionary, for example, the appearance of interjections hm, brr, uf, etc. in the Russian language.

Complexes of sounds arising from actions with or over material objects, and the objects themselves - the sources of these sounds (including the human body and sounds arising from manipulations with it or over it), which take part in the act of actual communication and in well-defined situations denoted, received the name of adapters. There are 2 types of adapters: body adapters (adapters themselves) and adapters - objects.

Adaptors of the body - able to adapt to the changed external conditions of the form of communicative behavior of people. These are complexes consisting of independent sign movements of the body or with the human body and sounds from these movements performed in a communicative act, which are functionally oriented, first of all, to a communication partner. Adapters include sounds resulting from a pat on the shoulder, applause, stroking, clicking, slapping, hitting, slapping, etc.

Body adapters can change the meaning of a verbal message, further qualify it, refine it, and even completely replace a verbal statement. For example, when a person is in a state of rage, they may clench their teeth or grind their teeth. Convincing the addressee with passion that it was he who did something, the man sometimes beats his chest (“I, I did it”). We give a slap in the face to humiliate, and not punish, as is often mistakenly believed, another person, thus expressing our contempt for him, and, conversely, we often defend ourselves with a slap in the face from receiving humiliation or insult. We break the clasped hands - ours and our partner's - when making a bet, while extracting a characteristic sound, etc. In all these and similar cases, communicatively significant gestural actions are performed using the body, and sound plays a significant semantic role in these actions.

Body adapters can be divided into 2 classes: intentional and forced. Such adapters in the act of communication can be perceived and interpreted differently depending on whether the corresponding movements are performed by two (or more) communication partners at once or only by one of them. For example, gestures to hug someone, expressing participation, sympathy or love for the addressee of the gesture and a hug.

In terms of meaning, body adapters are also very diverse. Their communicative and semantic purpose is to start and end non-verbal interaction in the actual act of communication, for example, an air kiss goodbye. Also, body adaptors express a variety of feelings and relationships between partners, for example, clapping on the shoulder in approval, indicating aggression and readiness for defense.

Adapters are objects used in the process of communication; complexes consisting of objects and sounds that occur during human actions with these objects; cf. the sound of a drum roll, a knock on a door or window, a light tapping of the fingers on the table.

B) Kinesics

Kinesics - in the broadest sense of the word - is the science of the language of the body and its parts. In a narrower sense, kinesics is the study of gestures, primarily hand gestures, mimic gestures, head and foot gestures, postures and sign movements. From the objects of its study, artificial sign languages ​​are excluded, primarily created for the deaf and dumb, as well as mimic language (the language of pantomime), sign languages ​​of relatively narrow social groups, ritual sign languages, professional sign languages ​​and dialects.

Gestures play a wide variety of roles in human communication:

1) they can repeat or duplicate actual speech information. For example, such gestures as pointing with the finger, eyes or even the head often or necessarily accompany the pronouns and adverbs this, out, here, here, there, etc. during communication.

2) gestures and kinetic behavior in general can contradict the speech statement (and thus even mislead the addressee). So, a smile can accompany a not at all friendly statement.

3) gestures can replace a speech statement. For example, the gesture of a nod is often used as the equivalent of a positive response.

4) gestures can emphasize or enhance some components of speech. For example, the use of kinema, in which the arms are spread wide apart when a phrase like “this is such a huge one” is pronounced, or an accentuated counting on the fingers.

5) gestures can complement speech in a semantic sense. The words of a threat, see mine, are often supplemented by a gesture of a threatening finger or even a fist towards the addressee.

6) gestures can play the role of a regulator of speech communication, in particular, be a regulator of maintaining speech.

Important in social and cultural terms is the allocation of adult and children's gestures. All gestures are divided into three classes: adults, children, adults and neutral, characteristic of both children and adults.

Russian children's gestures are, for example, kinemas of the "teaser" type, such as show the tongue, show the nose, puff out the cheeks, "make a face", etc. Adult gestures are Russian non-verbal signs to spread your arms, cover your face with your hands, shake your head, stroke your beard, bang your fist on the table and many others.

It is well known that the paralinguistic non-verbal behavior of women differs from that of men. There are masculine postures, masculine hand gestures, and masculine walking. Masculine are such Russian postures and gestures as sitting, lounging in an armchair; stand with your legs wide apart; scratch in the back of the head; rub your hands; bang your fist on the table. The female style of kinetic behavior is also reflected in special postures, gaits and gestures, such as fixing hair, slightly tilting the head; sit with knees closed; walk with swaying hips.

There are gestures without adapters and gestures with adapters. Russian gestures without adapters are waving, pointing, winking, standing still and many others. Body adapters are present, for example, in the gestures of clapping on the shoulder (the body adapter is the addressee's shoulder, as well as the sound of the clap) and applause (the body adapter is the hands of the applauding).

Obviously, a person's face can be used to judge his psychological, emotional state, for example, whether he is nervous, surprised by something, angry or happy. We observe bodily manifestations of emotions mainly in the muscular activity of individual parts of a person’s face, his arms, legs and head, in the postures that a person takes, in voice modulations and tone changes, in special breathing, etc.

The face and many mimic gestures and movements associated with it, such as raising eyebrows, closing eyes, pouting lips, pursing lips, biting lip, wrinkling forehead, frowning, smiling and some others, not only correlate with specific emotions, but also perform certain communicative and social functions. The face and facial expressions have the same basic functions as hand and foot gestures, but, first of all, the face as a place for expressing feelings, the internal state of a person and interpersonal relationships, i.e. one of the main functions of the face is emotive. The remaining functions of the face are: communicative, i.e. the transfer of certain information to the addressee and the reflection of interpersonal relations, and regulatory, in particular, contact-establishing and contact-supporting functions. In a dialogue, even the slightest changes in the face of the interlocutor are extremely informative, and on their basis people often make judgments about the communicative partner that are very diverse in nature.

Control over the messages sent by the face and the feelings expressed by the face is one of the most important types of control over non-verbal behavior. G. Kreydlin identifies four types of control that is exercised over a person. Firstly, these are cultural conventions shared by the whole society (or some particular part of it) (for example, in Russian culture it is not customary to look sad at weddings and name days, and cheerful at funerals). Secondly, these are hereditary, tribal customs or habits brought up in the family (for example, a child may be taught not to frown or look askance at adults with whom he plays or talks). Thirdly, these are social and professional requirements (the professional skills of diplomats, salesmen, doctors, actors and many others include, in particular, the ability to control one's face). Fourthly, it is control over facial expressions caused by the requirements of the current moment, in particular, the pursuit of some communicative goal or the solution of some problem that arose during the actual dialogue (hide something from a partner, hold back laughter, “put on a mask”, etc.). .).

The studies conducted by G. Kreidlin allow us to identify some important non-verbal kinetic parameters that serve as indicators of positive emotions and a person's positive attitude towards his communicative partner:

a) close compared to the usual position in relation to the addressee;

b) a slight inclination towards him;

c) the orientation of the head and body of the gesticulator is such that one can constantly see the face of the addressee and his reactions;

d) increased duration of eye contact;

e) more than the normative number of touches;

f) a friendly, welcoming smile;

g) the number and speed of head nods;

h) a large number of hand gestures;

i) more than in other dialogue, the number of narrative statements;

j) a relatively large number of positive sound signals.

Existing descriptions of postures in different cultures - their forms, meanings, functions, and areas of use - allow us to identify a number of concepts and meanings for which non-verbal posture signs are best suited to encode. It:

a) the type of relationship to another person. What feelings one person (gesturing) feels for another (addressee) in general or in a given communicative act is indicated not only by the posture itself, but also by the orientation of the gesturing body relative to the addressee, the degree of inclination of the body, the degree of openness of the body, primarily arms and legs . The relation to the other is clearly expressed, for example, in postures such as sitting, embracing, or kneeling.

b) status. Regardless of the type of relationship that exists between communicants, a person with a higher social position in a standing position has their shoulders straightened to a greater extent than a person with a lower social position. At the same time, the first one is held much more freely than the second one: his arms and legs are relaxed, the position of the arms and legs relative to the body is also freer, the head is usually lowered lower than that of the partner.

c) physical and mental state. A tired man who has stood on his feet all day wants to sit down. Many movements and postures of a person, as has been established in a number of studies on kinesics, indicate the degree of intensity of the emotion experienced by a person and the mood in which he is.

d) the degree of involvement in the dialogue or in the situation under discussion. So, we do not like to talk about something important on the go, but we prefer to talk while sitting. The pose can also make it clear to the partner something like “I am on your side (in what you are telling me about)”, etc.

e) seeking participation or warmth. The gestural complex “posture with the body tilted towards the addressee, reduced distance compared to usual, frequent looking into the partner’s eyes, nods, timid smiles” is usually interpreted as an expression of the desire to find a spiritual response, warmth or participation in the partner.

e) cheating. In the course of the dialogue, one can adopt, for example, a deliberately carefree pose, which, contrary to the real state of affairs, says that nothing has happened, cf. cross-legged or sit in a chair or on a chair, lean back and huge other postures.

Also, men and women often mark their attitude towards their dialogue partner with poses. The posture of a woman has a clearly defined frontal orientation in relation to a person who is pleasant to her, and a lateral orientation (i.e. the angle between the shoulders of partners is close to a straight line) to a person who she does not like. Men in conversations with men who are indifferent to them or for some reason unpleasant, often tilt their torso to the side somewhat.

B) Okulesika

The eyes, parts of the eyes and the expression of the eyes take on a special role in the non-verbal reflection of human emotions. Physiologists have established that the human eye is unique: in the iris of the eye alone, about 250 characteristic features can be counted, combinations of which are not repeated even in twins. The property and signs of the eyes of a particular person do not change over time. Without outside interference, many individual traits change over time in a person: face, voice, weight, height, hair color, nose, for example, a cut or iris of the eyes remain unchanged.

In oculesics, it is customary to distinguish the following types of views and eye behavior of people in a dialogue: “one-sided look”, the look of one person at another (but not at the face); "look in the face" - the look of one person on the face of another; "direct look (into the eyes)"; "joint look" - the look of partners in each other's face; "eye contact" or "visual contact" - both partners consciously look into each other's eyes; "eye avoidance" - a situation where one of the participants in the dialogue (or both) seeks to avoid looking into the eyes of the interlocutor; "missing a glance" - having no explicit intention of avoiding eye contact in spite of a partner.

The addressee always pays attention to a direct look into the eyes, usually interpreting it as a challenge, as a hypnotic or aggressive look. A direct look brings the addressee into a state of excitement and puts him in a difficult position. According to etiquette standards, a direct look should be very short in duration, and therefore, if partners look at each other like that for longer than usual, then after a short time both partners almost simultaneously interrupt this look, looking away. On the contrary, averting the eyes to the side and lowering the eyes are seen as soothing or soothing communication signals that relieve unnecessary tension. They perform a role in dialogue similar to that usually performed by a smile that suddenly appears on the face of one of the partners.

Direct eye contact should not be identified with eye contact, a gesture of a different semantics and scope of use. It is in the case when they look directly into our eyes that we often say He was staring or She was staring at me. We don’t like it at all when people look at us like that, especially if it happens for a relatively long time, and therefore often people are annoyed and react rudely. Often, the indicated mimic gesture is used in order to attract the attention of a person who is looked at in this way by the power of a “burning look”, especially in situations where speech is prohibited or impossible.

The main communicative functions of the eyes:

1. cognitive (the desire to convey some information with the eyes and read the information in the eyes of a communication partner);

2. emotive (expression with the eyes and reading from the eyes of the feelings experienced);

3. controlling (implementation of eye monitoring in order to check whether the transmitted message or some of its fragment was perceived and understood, indicating to the addressee that the speaker has completed the transfer of a certain portion of meaning to him, etc.)

4. regulatory (expressed by the eyes, the requirement to respond verbally or non-verbally to the transmitted message or, conversely, to suppress the intended reaction with the eyes).

D) Haptics

The sphere of the use of touches is formed by extremely different situations of communication, from everyday household to ritual and magical ones. The origin of touches, their types, functions and meanings, as well as the high frequency of use in communicative acts make touches an extremely important and interesting object of study.

The following functions of everyday touches in a communicative act can be distinguished:

1. Expression of friendship, participation or care in relation to the addressee of the gesture.

2. Reflection of an intimate relationship to the addressee, in particular sexually intimate. The desire for intimate bodily contact, as many believe, is a deeply hidden physiological need that arises in a person in early childhood and stretches throughout his life.

3. Establishing contact between the gesticulator and the addressee and drawing the attention of the addressee to someone or something.

4. Reflection of the dominant position of a person on a certain social scale.

Contacts often occur in dialogical interactions of socially and communicatively unequal partners, for example, in such pairs as a teacher - a student, a doctor - a patient, a boss - a subordinate, etc.

Of the perceptual abilities of a person, touch is one of the main ones. Touch is always the establishment of physical contact with a person, with his skin, hair or clothes, with objects that a person holds, wears, etc. The skin, unlike the eyes, is able to perceive and transmit messages in the dark: it instantly reacts to external disturbances, clearly recognizes objects and recognizes acts of behavior.

Touching is readily used by friends, and a person usually does not like being touched by strangers. In Russian culture, touching is always an active intrusion into the personal sphere of another person, so they should be cautious and unobtrusive actions. The conditions for the applicability of the rules of tactile interaction inherent in Russian non-verbalism include not only information about the availability or inaccessibility for touching certain areas of the body or information about the type of touch and the meaning expressed by touch, but also information about the current psychological state and qualities of the addressee, about his attitude to touch in general and to this type of touching in particular: whether, for example, the touch will infringe on his pride, whether it will hurt his honor, whether it will please him, etc.

Gestures of greetings and farewells, approvals and consolations, contracts and alliances sealed with handshakes, non-verbal expressions of love - all include touch as an essential element. Gesture greetings and farewells are not just customs and rituals, the meaning of which is revealed only when people, for whatever reason, do not perform them. Non-verbal greetings serve to open the meeting, while non-verbal farewells serve to end. These are ceremonies that people perform in order to touch another, feel it and remind the partner who they are to each other and in what society they live, in order to relieve tension from an unexpected meeting and calm the partner. Deviations from the norms of greetings and farewells are usually poorly tolerated by people, and not only because they destroy personal ties, but also because they affect the system of social relations as a whole.

The following factors influence the meaning and interpretation of gesture touches:

1. Which part of the body touches which. Touching the hands with the lips clearly has a different semantics than touching the lips with the lips. In the same way, when a man walks holding hands, this posture means one thing, and when a woman walks next to a man and takes his arm, then this posture means something completely different;

2. Gesture duration. The statements "He held her hand in his" and "He quickly pulled his hand away" have completely different meanings. The gesture of a long kiss on the lips is not synonymous with the gesture of a quick kiss: if the first is a gesture of expressing love, then the second has no such meaning.

3. Is there pressure (squeezing) of the partner's body part in addition to touching, and if so, how strong. Shaking hands with a "flaccid" hand is one kind of gesture, shaking hands with a "male" hand is completely different. An emblematic gesture to take by the elbow, of medium strength, can mean: “a gesticulator (usually a man) shows that he wants to take the addressee aside in order to talk with her / him in private.”

4. Whether movement occurs after contact has occurred, and if so, what kind. After a handshake, some men shake their hands clasped together - this, for example, often happens when pronouncing some congratulatory words. Stroking is always a movement along the surface of the body, and a slap is a jerky, quick, not very strong, single blow. A pat on the shoulder is usually three or four blows, very weak in strength and applied to the same segment of the shoulder area; sound plays an important role in this;

5. Are strangers present when touched, and if so, who are they. Intimate touch does not involve the presence of strangers. Handshakes are performed both in public and outside prying eyes, but if the gesture form homonymous with a handshake means a “bet” in which the clutch of the hand should be broken, then the presence of at least one more, third person “breaking” is almost necessary. He is usually a person who is an acquaintance or friend of two arguing (in Russian culture, it is not customary to ask completely unfamiliar or unfamiliar people to break the hands of the arguing). Such a person is specifically asked: “Break it!”. And breaking a bet is also a gesture.

6. The type of context within which the touch occurs. Touching the hand or touching the shoulder of a grieving person during a funeral in a cemetery or during a mourning ceremony where words are inappropriate is a non-verbal (tactile) expression of sympathy or consolation, a sign of solidarity and unity with the addressee of the gesture in common grief with him. And it’s completely different to touch a friend’s shoulder or hand during, for example, a sports relay race or a game: this is a signal that it is the turn to run to the person who was touched.

7. The nature of the style of non-verbal behavior and relationships between partners. The American scientist R. Heslin singled out five types of non-verbal styles and five types of relationships between communicators characteristic of each of them: (a) functional style and business type of relationships; (b) social style and politeness as a type of relationship; (c) friendly communication style and warmth; (d) love communication and intimacy (intimacy); (e) sexual intercourse and sexual arousal.

In every culture, in social non-verbal style and polite relationships, there are rigid limits that prescribe who, whom, how and when can touch. Of the most typical gestures here, one can name a handshake, kissing a hand, giving a hand when a man helps a woman, for example, to get off the bus.

In a loving non-verbal style of communication, which is combined with a very close, intimate relationship between partners, and in sexual contact, touch conveys the meanings of “sexual desire” and “love”. The methods of touching and the places of touching should not cause even the slightest feeling of discomfort among partners. Love, and especially sexual touch, should be pleasant to both partners and give them mutual pleasure / enjoyment, and this information is included in the meaning of the corresponding gestures.

Gesture touch is, first of all, an act of communication, establishing contact with a communicative partner, and therefore at the level of friendly communication, when contacts are not just made, but bodily relations are established, people are quite open to tactile confirmation of their closeness to each other in various forms.

D) Proxemics

Proxemics is the science of the space of communication, or communicative space, it is the science of how a person thinks of a communicative space, how he inhabits and uses it.

One of the favorite subjects of proxemics is the semiology (i.e., filling with cultural meanings) of various parts of the house, which cannot be considered accidental, since a house, apartment, room are the main personal territories of a person. Proxemics is looking for answers to various questions related to the semantic load of these spaces. The semiology of the home also includes human behavior in the enclosed space of the home. A person usually strives to have his own angle, i.e. a separate place in the house, apartment, room, and even at work, as he also has a favorite chair, table, clothes, car, etc. objects that he especially cherishes and which he is ready to protect and protect from external encroachments.

In connection with different spatial behavior, three main types of social interactions between people can be distinguished:

a) interaction with friends, comrades or just well-known people who are open to dialogue;

b) interaction with unfamiliar or complete strangers who want to communicate;

c) interaction with strangers who do not expect any contact or do not want contact with this person. Each of these relationships generates a special type of communicative situation, which is characterized by its own rules for choosing space and distance between communicants in order to ensure the comfort of communication and a special type of non-verbal communicative behavior, for example, certain postures and manual gestures.

Each person has their own personal territory. It would be more correct to say that this is not a territory, but a space, an air shell that surrounds the human body from all sides. The size of the shell depends on the population density of people in their places of residence. And although no one teaches us how close we can approach another person, we subconsciously know at what distance it is more convenient to talk with a close friend, and at what distance with a suspicious stranger.

There are four spatial zones:

1) Intimate zone (from 15 - 50 cm). Of all the zones, this is the most important, since it is her that a person guards as if it were his property. Only children, parents, spouses, lovers, close friends and relatives are allowed in this zone. This zone is characterized by trust, a quiet voice in communication, tactile contact, touch. Studies show that violation of the intimate zone entails certain physiological changes in the body: increased heart rate, increased release of adrenaline, a rush of blood to the head. Premature intrusion into the intimate zone in the process of communication is always perceived by the interlocutor as an attack on his inviolability.

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