Caliphate as a medieval state formed as a result of the unification of Arab tribes, the center of settlement of which was the Arabian Peninsula (located between Iran and Northeast Africa).
A characteristic feature of the emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the 7th century. there was a religious coloring of this process, which was accompanied by the formation of a new world religion - Islam (Islam is translated from Arabic and means "surrendering oneself" to God). The political movement for the unification of the tribes under the slogans of rejecting paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the tendencies of the emergence of a new system, was called "Hanif".
The search by Hanif preachers for a new truth and a new god, which took place under the strong influence of Judaism and Christianity, is associated primarily with the name of Muhammad. Mohammed (about 570-632), a shepherd who became rich as a result of a successful marriage, an orphan from Mecca, on whom "revelations descended", then recorded in the Koran, proclaimed the need to establish the cult of a single god - Allah and a new social order that excluded tribal strife. The head of the Arabs was supposed to be a prophet - "the messenger of Allah on earth."
Calls of early Islam for social justice (limiting usury, establishing alms for the poor, freeing slaves, honesty in trade) displeased the tribal merchant nobility with the "revelations" of Muhammad, which forced him to flee with a group of closest associates in 622 from Mecca to Yathrib (later - Medina , "city of the Prophet"). Here he managed to enlist the support of various social groups, including the Bedouin nomads. The first mosque was erected here, the order of Muslim worship was determined. From the moment of this resettlement and a separate existence, which received the name "Hijra" (621-629), the summer reckoning according to the Muslim calendar begins.
Muhammad argued that the Islamic teaching does not contradict the two previously widespread monotheistic religions - Judaism and Christianity, but only confirms and clarifies them. However, already at that time it became clear that Islam contains something new. His rigidity, and sometimes even fanatical intolerance in some matters, especially in matters of power and power, was quite clearly manifested. According to the doctrine of Islam, religious power is inseparable from secular power and is the basis of the latter, in connection with which Islam demanded equally unconditional obedience to God, the prophet and "those who have power."
For ten years, in the 20-30s. 7th century the organizational restructuring of the Muslim community in Medina into a state entity was completed. Mohammed himself was in it a spiritual, military leader and judge. With the help of the new religion and military detachments of the community, a struggle began with the opponents of the new socio-political structure.
The closest relatives and associates of Mohammed gradually consolidated into a privileged group that received the exclusive right to power. From its ranks, after the death of the prophet, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs ("deputies of the prophet"). Some groups of Islamic tribal nobility formed an opposition group of Shiites, which recognized the right to power only by inheritance and only for the descendants (and not companions) of the prophet.
The first four caliphs, the so-called "righteous" caliphs, suppressed dissatisfaction with Islam among certain sections and completed the political unification of Arabia. In the VII - the first half of the VIII century. Huge territories were conquered from the former Byzantine and Persian possessions, including the Middle East, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa and Spain. The Arab army also entered the territory of France, but was defeated by the knights of Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732.
In the history of the medieval empire, called the Arab Caliphate, they usually distinguish two periods, which also correspond to the main stages in the development of the Arab medieval society and state:
- Damascus, or the period of the reign of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750);
- Baghdad, or the period of the reign of the Abbassid dynasty (750-1258).
Umayyad dynasty(since 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the next Abbasid dynasty(from the descendants of a prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the X century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.
The most famous of the Abbasids were Caliph Haroun al-Rashid, who became one of the characters in the Thousand and One Nights, as well as his son al-Mamun. These were enlightened autocrats who combined concerns about spiritual and secular education. Naturally, in the role of caliphs, they were also busy with the problems of spreading the new faith, which they themselves and their subjects perceived as a commandment to live in equality and universal brotherhood of all true believers. The duty of the ruler in this case was to be a just, wise and merciful ruler. The enlightened caliphs combined the care of administration, finance, justice, and the military with support for education, art, literature, science, and trade and commerce.
Organization of power and administration in the Arab Caliphate
The Muslim state for some time after Mohammed remained a theocracy in the sense of recognizing it as the true possession of God (state property was called God's) and in the sense of striving to govern the state according to the commandments of God and the example of his Messenger (the prophet was also called rasul, i.e. messenger).
The first environment of the prophet-ruler was composed of Mujahirs(the exiles who fled with the prophet from Mecca) and Ansar(assistants).
Characteristic features of the Muslim social system:
- the dominant position of state ownership of land with the widespread use of slave labor in the state economy (irrigation, mines, workshops);
- state exploitation of the peasants through rent-tax in favor of the ruling elite;
- religious-state regulation of all spheres of public life;
- the absence of clearly defined class groups, the special status of cities, any freedoms and privileges.
State of the Arab Caliphate
Ancient Arabia did not have favorable conditions for economic development. The main part of the Arabian Peninsula is occupied by the Nejd plateau, whose land is not very suitable for cultivation. In ancient times, the population was mainly engaged in livestock breeding (camels, sheep, goats). Only in the west of the peninsula, along the coast of the Red Sea, in the so-called Hijaz(Arabic “barrier”), and in the southwest, in Yemen, there were oases suitable for agriculture. Caravan routes ran through the Hijaz, which contributed to the creation of large trading centers here. One of them was Mecca.
In pre-Islamic Arabia, nomadic Arabs (Bedouins) and settled Arabs (farmers) lived in a tribal system. This system carried strong vestiges of matriarchy. Thus, kinship was counted along the maternal line, cases of polyandry (polyandry) were known, although polygamy was also practiced at the same time. Marriage among the Arabs was terminated quite freely, including on the initiative of the wife. Tribes existed autonomously from each other. From time to time they could enter into alliances with each other, but stable political formations did not arise for a long time. At the head of the tribe was seyyid(lit. “orator”), later the seyyids were called sheikhs. The power of the seyyid was potestary in nature and was not inherited, but the seyyids usually came from the same clan. Such a leader supervised the economic work of the tribe, he also led the militia in case of hostilities. During the campaign, the seyyid could count on receiving a quarter of the spoils of war. As for the activity of popular assemblies among the Arabs, science does not have information about this.
At the turn of the VI-VII centuries. Arabia was in a serious crisis. The country was devastated as a result of the wars waged in this region by the Persians and Ethiopians. The Persians moved the transport routes to the east, to the region of the Persian Gulf, the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates. This led to the decline of the Hijaz's role as a transport and trade hub. In addition, population growth caused a land famine: land suitable for agriculture was not enough. As a result, social tension among the Arab population increased. In the wake of this crisis, a new religion arose to restore harmony and unite all Arabs. She got the name Islam("submissiveness"). Its creation is associated with the name of the prophet Muhammad(570–632 ). He came from a tribe of Quraysh who dominated Mecca. Until the age of forty, he remained an ordinary person, his transformation took place in 610 miraculously (through the appearance of the archangel Jabrail). Since that time, Muhammad began to transmit heavenly messages to the world in the form of suras (chapters) of the Koran (al-Kur'an means "reading", since the prophet had to read the heavenly scroll on the orders of the archangel). Muhammad preached the new creed in Mecca. It was based on the idea of a single God - Allah. This was the name of the tribal deity of the Quraysh, but Muhammad gave it the meaning of the universal God, the Creator of all things. The new religion absorbed much from other monotheistic cults - Christianity and Judaism. The prophets of the Old Testament and Jesus Christ were declared prophets of Islam. Initially, the preaching of monotheism met with fierce resistance from the Quraysh nobility, who did not want to part with pagan beliefs. Clashes began in Mecca, which led to the resettlement of Muhammad and his supporters in the neighboring city of Yathrib (later called Medina an-Nabi - "the city of the prophet"). Migration (hijra) took place in 622, this date was then recognized as the beginning of the Muslim chronology. This meaning of the hijra is due to the fact that it was in Medina that the prophet managed to create ummah- the Muslim community, which became the embryo of the first Islamic state. Relying on the forces of the Medinans, the prophet was able to conquer Mecca by military means. In 630, Muhammad entered his hometown as a victor: Mecca recognized Islam.
After the death of Muhammad in 632, the Muslim community began to elect his deputies - caliphs("he who follows after, the successor"). The name of the Muslim state is connected with this - the Caliphate. The first four caliphs were called "righteous" (in contrast to the subsequent "godless" Umayyad caliphs). Righteous caliphs: Abu Bakr (632-634); Omar (634–644); Osman (644–656); Ali (656–661). The name of Ali is associated with a split in Islam and the emergence of two main currents: Sunnis and Shiites. Shiites were adherents and followers of Ali ("Ali's party"). Already under the first caliphs, the aggressive campaigns of the Arabs began, the territory of the Muslim state expanded significantly. The Arabs capture Iran, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, they penetrate into the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, subdue Afghanistan and northwestern India to the river. Ind. In 711, the Arabs crossed into Spain and in a short time captured the entire Iberian Peninsula. They advanced further into Gaul, but were stopped by Frankish troops led by Major Charles Martel. The Arabs also invaded Italy. As a result, a huge empire was created, surpassing in scale both the empire of Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire. Religious doctrines played an important role in the Arab victories. Belief in one God rallied the Arabs: Islam preached equality between all adherents of the new religion. For a while, this smoothed out social contradictions. The doctrine of religious tolerance also played its role. During jihad(the holy "war in the way of Allah"), the warriors of Islam were supposed to show religious tolerance towards the "People of the Book" - Christians and Jews, but only if they accept the status dhimmi. Dhimmis are those non-Muslims (Christians and Jews, in the 9th century Zoroastrians were also included in them) who recognize Muslim authority over themselves and pay a special poll tax - jizya. If they resist with weapons in their hands or refuse to pay tax, they should be waged war as with other "infidels". (Muslims were also not supposed to be tolerant of pagans and apostates.) The doctrine of religious tolerance turned out to be quite attractive to many Christians and Jews in the countries occupied by the Arabs. It is known that in Spain and in the south of Gaul, the local population preferred a softer Muslim government to the harsh rule of the Germans - Visigoths and Franks.
Political system. According to the form of government, the Caliphate was theocratic monarchy. The head of state, the caliph, was both a spiritual leader and a secular ruler. Spiritual power was denoted by the word imamate, secular - emirate. Thus, the caliph was both the supreme imam and the main emir of the country. In the Sunni and Shiite traditions, there was a different understanding of the role of the ruler in the state. For the Sunnis, the caliph was the successor of the prophet, and through the prophet, the executor of the will of Allah himself. In this capacity, the caliph had absolute power, but in the legislative sphere his powers were limited. The caliph did not have the right to interpret the supreme law contained in the main sources of Islamic law. The right of interpretation belonged to Muslim theologians who had high authority in the community - mujtahids. Moreover, the decision had to be made by them in a coordinated form, and not individually. The Caliph, however, cannot create new legislation, he only enforces the existing law. The Shiites defined the powers of the Imam-Caliph more broadly. The imam, like a prophet, receives a revelation from Allah himself, therefore he is endowed with the right to interpret sacred texts. The Shiites recognized the ruler's right to legislate.
The idea of the succession of the Caliph's power was also different. The Shiites recognized the right to supreme power only for the descendants of the caliph Ali and his wife Fatima, the daughter of the prophet (i.e., for the Alids). The Sunnis adhered to the principle of election. At the same time, two methods were recognized as legal: 1) the election of the Caliph by the Muslim community - in fact, only by the Mujtahids; 2) the appointment of his successor as caliph during his lifetime, but with the obligatory approval of him in the ummah - by the mujtahids, their consensual opinion. The first caliphs were usually elected by the community. But the second method was also applied: the first precedent was given by the caliph Abu Bakr, who appointed Omar as his successor.
After the death of Caliph Ali in 661, Muawiyah, a relative of the third Caliph Osman and Ali's enemy, seized power. Muawiyah was the governor of Syria, he moved the capital of the Caliphate to Damascus and founded the first dynasty of caliphs - the dynasty Umayyads
(661–750
). Under the Umayyads, the power of the caliph began to acquire a more secular character. Unlike the first caliphs, who led a simple way of life, the Umayyads started their own court and lived in luxury. The creation of a huge power required the introduction of numerous bureaucracy and increased taxation. Taxes were imposed not only on dhimmis, but also on Muslims, who had previously been exempted from paying taxes to the treasury.
In the multinational empire, the Umayyads tried to pursue a pro-Arab policy, which caused discontent among non-Arab Muslims. A broad movement to restore equality to the Muslim community led to the downfall of the dynasty. Power in the Caliphate was seized by the descendant of the uncle of the prophet (al-Abbas) Abu-l-Abbas the Bloody. He ordered the destruction of all Umayyad princes. (One of them escaped death and founded an independent state in Spain.)
Abu-l-Abbas laid the foundation for a new dynasty of caliphs - Abbasids (750–1258 ). Under the next caliph Mansur, a new capital, the city of Baghdad, was built on the river. Tiger (in 762). Since the Abbasids came to power, relying on the support of the population of the eastern regions of the Caliphate, primarily the Iranians, a strong Iranian influence began to be felt during their rule. Much was borrowed from the Persian dynasty of Sassanid kings (III-VII centuries).
Central authorities and administration. Initially, the caliph himself directed and coordinated the activities of various departments and services. Over time, he began to share these functions with his assistant - vizier. At first, the wazir was only the personal secretary of the caliph, who conducted his correspondence, followed his property, and also trained the heir to the throne. Then the wazir became the chief adviser to the caliph, the keeper of the state seal and the head of the entire bureaucracy of the Caliphate. In his submission were all the central institutions of the empire. It should be borne in mind that the wazir had only the power that the caliph delegated to him. So the caliph had the right to limit his powers. In addition, the wazir did not have actual power over the army: the emir-commander was at the head of the army. This undermined the influence of the wazir in the state. Usually educated Persians were appointed to the post of Abbasid wazir, the position could be inherited. The central departments were called sofas. First, the registries of persons receiving salaries and pensions from the treasury were designated this way, then - the departments where these registries were stored. The main sofas were: office, treasury and army management. The main post office (Diwan al-barid) was also singled out. It was in charge of the management of roads and post offices, the creation of means of communication. The officials of the sofa, among other things, were engaged in the perusal of letters and performed the functions of the secret police in the state.
At the head of each sofa was sahib- the chief, he had subordinates katibs- scribes. They underwent special training and constituted a special social group in society with their own hierarchy. This hierarchy was headed by a wazir.
local government. The Umayyad Caliphate was characterized by a strong decentralization of power. When conquering new regions, a governor was sent there, who was supposed to keep the local population in obedience and send part of the military booty to the center. At the same time, the governor could act almost uncontrollably. The Abbasids borrowed the experience of organizing the Persian state of the Sassanids. The entire territory of the Arab Empire was divided into large districts along the lines of the Persian satrapies. In each such province, the caliph appointed his official - emir who bears full responsibility for his actions. His important difference from the governor of the Umayyad era was that he performed not only military and police functions, but also carried out civil administration in the province. The emirs created specialized departments like capital sofas and exercised control over their work. The assistants of the emirs were naibs.
Judicial system. Initially, the court was not separated from the administration. The caliphs were the supreme judges, from the caliphs the judicial power was delegated to the governors of the regions. From the end of the 7th century there is a separation of the court from the administration. The caliph and his deputies began to appoint special judges, called cadi("the one who decides"). Qadi is a professional judge, an expert in Islamic law (Sharia). At first, the qadi was not independent in his actions and depended on the caliph and his governor. Qadi could appoint a deputy subordinate to him, and the deputy had assistants in the districts. This branched system was headed by qadi al-kudat("judge of judges"), appointed by the caliph. Under the Abbasids, the qadi became independent of the local authorities, but his subordination to the center was preserved. The appointment of new qadis began to be carried out by a special sofa, like the Ministry of Justice.
Qadi could conduct both criminal and civil cases (there were no differences in the judicial process in the Arab Caliphate yet). He also monitored the state of public buildings, prisons, roads, supervised the execution of wills, was in charge of the division of property, established guardianship, and even married single women who were deprived of a guardian.
Part of the criminal cases was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the qadi. Security cases and homicide cases were handled by the police - shurta. Shurta made the final decision on them. It was also the body of preliminary investigation and the body of execution of the court sentence. Headed the police sahib-ash-shurta. Cases of adultery and the use of alcohol were also removed from the jurisdiction of the qadi and were considered by the mayor, sahib al-madina.
The Caliph was the highest court of appeal. Wazir was also endowed with judicial powers: he could consider cases of "civil offences." The court of the wazir complemented the Sharia court of the qadi and often acted more effectively.
The further fate of the Caliphate. Already in the VIII century. The Arab empire begins to disintegrate. The provincial emirs, relying on their troops, achieve independence. By the middle of the X century. under the control of the caliph, only Arabia and part of Mesopotamia, adjacent to Baghdad, remain.
In 1055 Baghdad was captured by the Seljuk Turks. Only religious power remained in the hands of the caliph, secular power passed to to the sultan(literally "ruler") of the Seljuks. As the spiritual leaders of the Sunni Muslims, the Caliphs of Baghdad retained their importance until 1258, when Baghdad was captured by the Mongols, and the last Caliph of Baghdad was killed on the orders of Khan Hulagu. Soon the Caliphate was restored in Cairo (Egypt), where it existed until 1517. Then the last Cairo Caliph was taken to Istanbul and was forced to renounce his powers in favor of the Ottoman Sultan. Secular and spiritual power were again united in the hands of one person.
In 1922, the last Turkish sultan, Mehmed VI, was deposed, and the duties of caliph were assigned to Abdul-Mejid II. He became the last caliph in history. In 1924, the Turkish Grand National Assembly passed a law on the liquidation of the Caliphate. Its more than a thousand-year history has come to an end.
After Muhammad's death in 632, secular and spiritual power in the state that united all Arabs passed to his closest associates - the caliphs. It was believed that the caliph ("caliph" in Arabic - deputy, governor) only replaces the deceased prophet in the state, called the "caliphate". The first four caliphs - Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and Ali, who ruled one after the other, went down in history as "righteous caliphs." They were succeeded by caliphs from the Umayyad family (661-750).
Under the first caliphs, the Arabs began to conquer outside Arabia, spreading the new religion of Islam among the peoples they conquered. Within a few years, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia and Iran were conquered, the Arabs broke into Northern India and Central Asia. Neither Sassanid Iran nor Byzantium, bled white by years of wars against each other, could offer them serious resistance. In 637, after a long siege, Jerusalem passed into the hands of the Arabs. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher and other Christian churches were not touched by Muslims. In 751, in Central Asia, the Arabs fought the army of the Chinese emperor. Although the Arabs were victorious, they no longer had the strength to continue their conquest further east.
Another part of the Arab army conquered Egypt, victoriously moved along the coast of Africa to the west, and at the beginning of the 8th century, the Arab commander Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to the Iberian Peninsula (to modern Spain). The army of the Visigothic kings who ruled there was defeated, and by 714 almost the entire Iberian Peninsula was conquered, with the exception of a small area inhabited by the Basques. Having crossed the Pyrenees, the Arabs (in European chronicles they are called Saracens) invaded Aquitaine, occupied the cities of Narbonne, Carcassonne and Nimes. By 732, the Arabs reached the city of Tours, but at Poitiers they suffered a crushing defeat from the combined troops of the Franks, led by Charles Martell. After that, further conquests were suspended, and the reconquest of the lands occupied by the Arabs - the Reconquista - began on the Iberian Peninsula.
The Arabs unsuccessfully tried to take Constantinople as well - either by surprise attacks from the sea and from land, or by a stubborn siege (in 717). Arab cavalry penetrated even the Balkan Peninsula.
By the middle of the 8th century, the territory of the caliphate had reached its largest size. The power of the caliphs then extended from the Indus River in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, from the Caspian Sea in the north to the Nile rapids in the south.
Damascus in Syria became the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate. When the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids (descendants of Abbas, Muhammad's uncle) in 750, the capital of the Caliphate was moved from Damascus to Baghdad.
The most famous Caliph of Baghdad was Harun ar-Rashid (786-809). In Baghdad, under him, a huge number of palaces and mosques were built, striking with their splendor all European travelers. But the amazing Arabic tales of the Thousand and One Nights made this caliph famous.
However, the flourishing of the caliphate and its very unity proved to be fragile. Already in the 8th-9th centuries, a wave of rebellions and popular unrest swept through. Under the Abbasids, the huge caliphate began to rapidly disintegrate into separate emirates headed by emirs. On the outskirts of the empire, power passed to the dynasties of local rulers.
As early as 756, an emirate arose on the Iberian Peninsula with the main city of Cordoba (since 929 - the Caliphate of Cordoba). The Spanish Umayyads, who did not recognize the Baghdad Abbasids, ruled in the Emirate of Cordoba. After some time, independent dynasties began to appear in North Africa (Idrisids, Aghlabids, Fatimids), Egypt (Tulunids, Ikhshidids), in Central Asia (Samanids) and in other areas.
In the 10th century, the once united caliphate broke up into several independent states. After Baghdad was captured by representatives of the Iranian family of Buyids in 945, only spiritual power was left to the Baghdad caliphs, they turned into a kind of “popes of the East”. The Caliphate of Baghdad finally fell in 1258, when the Mongols captured Baghdad.
One of the descendants of the last Arab caliph fled to Egypt, where he and his descendants remained nominal caliphs until the conquest of Cairo in 1517 by the Ottoman sultan Selim I, who proclaimed himself caliph of the faithful.
The Arab Caliphate was a paramilitary theocratic state that existed in the 7th-9th centuries on the lands of Asia, Africa and Europe. It was formed in 630 during the life of the Prophet Muhammad (571-632). It is to him that humanity owes the rise of Islam. He preached his doctrine from 610. For 20 years, all of Western Arabia and Oman recognized the new faith and began to revere Allah.
Muhammad had an amazing gift of persuasion. But abilities in themselves would be worthless if the prophet himself did not sincerely believe in what he preached. Around him formed a group of the same people, fanatically devoted to the new faith. They did not look for any benefits and benefits for themselves. They were driven only by the idea and faith in Allah.
Prophet Muhammad (Ancient miniature from an Arabic manuscript)
That is why Islam spread so quickly in the lands of Arabia. But it should be noted that Muslims (followers of Islam) were not at all distinguished by tolerance towards representatives of other religions. They planted their faith by force. Those who refused to recognize Allah as their god were killed. The alternative was to flee to other lands, the only way to save life and their religious beliefs.
Shortly before his death, Muhammad sent letters to the Byzantine emperor and the Persian shah. He demanded that the peoples subject to him accept Islam. But, of course, he was refused. The rulers of powerful powers did not take seriously the new state, united by one religious idea.
First caliphs
In 632 the prophet died. Since that time, caliphs appeared. The caliph is the viceroy of the prophet on earth. His power was based on sharia- a set of legal, moral, ethical and religious norms of Islam. Abu Bakr, a faithful follower of Muhammad, became the first caliph.(572-634). He performed the duties of the governor from 632 to 634.
It was a very difficult period for Muslims, because after the death of the prophet, many tribes refused to recognize the new religion. I had to put things in order with an iron fist. All opponents were ruthlessly destroyed. As a result of this activity, almost all of Arabia recognized Islam.
In 634 Abu Bakr fell ill and died. The second caliph was Umar ibn al-Khattab(581-644). He performed the duties of the prophet's viceroy from 634 to 644. It was Umar who organized military campaigns against Byzantium and Persia. These were the largest powers of that time.
The population of Byzantium at that time numbered about 20 million people. The population of Persia was slightly smaller. These largest countries at first did not pay any attention to some Arabs who did not even have horses. They made their marches on donkeys and camels. Before the battle they dismounted and so they fought.
But never underestimate the enemy. In 636, two battles took place: at Yarmuk in Syria, and then at Qadissia in Mesopotamia. In the first battle, the Byzantine army suffered a crushing defeat, and in the second battle, the Persian army was defeated. In 639, the Arab army crossed the Egyptian border. Egypt was under Byzantine rule. The country was torn apart by religious and political contradictions. Therefore, there was practically no resistance.
In 642, Alexandria, with its famous Library of Alexandria, fell into Muslim hands. It was the most important military and political center of the country. In the same year 642, the Persian troops were defeated at the Battle of Nehavend. Thus, a crushing blow was dealt to the Sassanid dynasty. Its last representative, the Persian Shah Yazdegerd III, was killed in 651.
Under Umar, after the battle of Yarmuk, the Byzantines ceded the city of Jerusalem to the victors. The caliph first entered the city gates alone. He was wearing the simple cloak of a poor man. The inhabitants of the city, seeing the conqueror in this form, were shocked. They are accustomed to the puffy and luxuriously dressed Byzantines and Persians. Here it was the complete opposite.
The Orthodox Patriarch Sofroniy gave the Caliph the keys to the city. He assured that he would keep all Orthodox churches intact. They will not be destroyed. Thus, Umar immediately established himself as a wise and far-sighted politician. He prayed to Allah in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, and in the place where the Jerusalem Temple used to rise, he ordered to build a mosque.
In 644, an assassination attempt was made on the caliph. The Persian slave Firuz performed this act. He complained to Umar about his master, but he considered the complaint unfounded. In retaliation for this, the Persian stabbed the viceroy of the prophet in the stomach with a knife. After 3 days, Umar ibn al-Khattab died. The 10th anniversary of the victorious march of Islam through the Persian and Byzantine lands has ended. The caliph was a wise man. He preserved the unity of the Muslim community and significantly strengthened it.
Uthman ibn Affan became the third Caliph(574-656). He performed the duties of the prophet's viceroy from 644 to 656. I must say that in terms of his moral and volitional qualities, he lost to his predecessor. Uthman surrounded himself with relatives, which caused discontent among the rest of the Muslims. At the same time, Persia was completely captured under him. The local population was forbidden to worship fire. The fire worshipers fled to India and live there to this day. The rest of the Persians converted to Islam.
Arab caliphate on the map
But the Arab Caliphate was not limited to these conquests. He continued to expand his borders further. The next in line was the richest country of Sogdiana, located in Central Asia. It included such major cities as Bukhara, Tashkent, Samarkand, Kokand, Gurganj. All of them were surrounded by strong walls and had strong military detachments.
Arabs began to appear in these lands in small groups and began to capture one city after another. Somewhere they tricked the city walls, but mostly took them by storm. At first glance, it seems surprising how poorly armed Muslims could defeat such a strong and rich power as Sogdiana. Here the strength of the spirit of the conquerors affected. They turned out to be more persistent, and well-fed residents of rich cities showed weakness of spirit and outright cowardice.
But further progress to the east stopped. The Arabs went out into the steppes and faced the nomadic tribes of the Turks and the Türgush. The nomads were offered to convert to Islam, but they refused. And I must say that the entire nomadic population of South Kazakhstan was extremely small. In the foothills of the Tien Shan lived Turgesh, Yagma and Chigils. The steppes were inhabited by the ancestors of the Pechenegs, who were called Kangars, and these lands themselves were called Kangyui. The ancestors of the Turkmens and the descendants of the Parthians lived up to the Syr Darya in a vast territory. And this rare population was quite enough to stop the Arab expansion.
In the west, under Uthman, the Arabs reached Carthage and occupied it. But further hostilities ceased, as serious political disagreements began in the Arab Caliphate itself. Several provinces revolted against the caliph. In 655, the rebels entered Medina, where Uthman's residence was located. But all the claims of the rebels were resolved peacefully. But the following year, Muslims dissatisfied with the power of the caliph broke into his chambers, and the vicegerent of the prophet was killed. From that moment began fitna. This is the name of the Civil War in the Muslim world. It continued until 661.
After Uthman's death, Ali ibn Abu Talib became the new caliph.(600-661). He was a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. But not all Muslims recognized the authority of the new ruler. There were people who accused him of protecting the killers of Usman. Muawiya (603-680), the governor of Syria, belonged to those. One of the former thirteen wives of the prophet Aisha and her like-minded people also opposed the new caliph.
The latter settled in Basra. In December 656, the so-called Camel Battle took place. On the one hand, the troops of Ali took part in it, and on the other hand, the rebel troops, led by the brother-in-law of the prophet Talha ibn Ubaydullah, the cousin of the prophet Az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and the ex-wife of the prophet Aisha.
In this battle, the rebels were defeated. The center of the battle was near Aisha, who was sitting on a camel. Hence the battle got its name. The leaders of the uprising were killed. Only Aisha survived. She was arrested but then released.
In 657, the Battle of Siffin took place. It met the troops of Ali and the rebellious Syrian governor Muawiyah. This battle ended in nothing. The caliph showed indecision, and Mu'awiya's rebellious troops were not defeated. In January 661, the fourth righteous caliph was killed with a poisoned dagger right in the mosque.
Umayyad dynasty
With the death of Ali, the Arab Caliphate entered a new era. Muawiya founded the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled the state for 90 years. Under this dynasty, the Arabs marched along the entire African coast of the Mediterranean. They reached the Strait of Gibraltar, crossed it in 711 and ended up in Spain. They captured this state, crossed the Pyrenees and were stopped only at Rouen and Rhone.
By 750, the followers of the Prophet Muhammad had conquered a vast territory from India to the Atlantic Ocean. Islam was established in all these lands. I must say that the Arabs were real gentlemen. Conquering another country, they killed only men if they refused to convert to Islam. As for women, they were sold for harems. Moreover, the prices in the bazaars were ridiculous, since there were a lot of captives.
But the captive aristocrats enjoyed special privileges. So the daughter of the Persian Shah Yazdegerd was sold at her request. Buyers passed in front of her, and she herself chose which of them she would go into slavery. Some men were too fat, others too thin. Some had voluptuous lips, and some had too small eyes. Finally, the woman saw a suitable man and said: "Here, sell me to him. I agree." The deal was made right there. Among the Arabs, slavery at that time wore such exotic forms.
In general, it should be noted that in the Arab Caliphate a slave could be bought only with his consent. Sometimes there was conflict between the slave and the slave owner. In this case, the slave had the right to demand that he be resold to another master. Such relations were more like a contract for hire, but were formalized as a sale and purchase.
Under the Umayyads, the capital of Islam was in the city of Damascus, so sometimes they say not Arabic, but Damascus Caliphate. But it's the same. It was noteworthy that during the time of this dynasty, the unity of the Muslim community was lost. Under the orthodox caliphs, people were united by faith. Starting from the time of Muawiyah, the faithful began to divide themselves along sub-ethnic lines. There were Medinan Arabs, Meccan Arabs, Kelbite Arabs, and Kaysite Arabs. And between these groups, disagreements began to arise, which very often resulted in a brutal massacre.
If we count the external and internal wars, it turns out that their number is the same. Moreover, internal conflicts were much more violent than external ones. It got to the point that the troops of the Umayyad caliph stormed Mecca. At the same time, flamethrower weapons were used and the temple of the Kaaba was burned. However, all these outrages could not continue indefinitely.
The final came under the 14th Caliph of the Umayyad dynasty. This man's name was Marwan II ibn Muhammad. He was in power from 744 to 750. At this time, Abu Muslim (700-755) entered the political arena. He acquired his influence as a result of the conspiracy of the Persians with the Arabs-Kelbits against the Arabs-Kaisites. It was thanks to this conspiracy that the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown.
In July 747, Abu Muslim openly opposed Caliph Marwan II. After a series of brilliant military operations, the troops of the Prophet's viceroy were defeated. Marwan II fled to Egypt, but was caught and executed in August 750. Almost all other members of the royal family were killed. Managed to save only one representative of the dynasty, Abdu ar-Rahman. He fled to Spain and in 756 founded the Emirate of Córdoba on these lands.
Abbasid dynasty
After the overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty, the Arab Caliphate received new rulers. They became the Abbasids. These were distant relatives of the prophet who had no rights to the throne. However, they suited both the Persians and the Arabs. The founder of the dynasty is considered to be Abu-l-Abbas. Under him, a brilliant victory was won over the Chinese, who invaded Central Asia. In 751, the famous battle of Talas took place. In it, Arab troops met with regular Chinese troops.
The Chinese were commanded by the Korean Gao Xiang Zhi. And the Arab army was led by Ziyad ibn Salih. The battle went on for three days, and no one could win. The situation was reversed by the Altai tribe of Karluks. They supported the Arabs and attacked the Chinese. The defeat of the aggressors was complete. After that, the Chinese Empire vowed to expand its borders to the west.
Ziyad ibn Salih was executed for participation in the conspiracy about six months after the brilliant victory at Talas. Abu Muslim was executed in 755. The authority of this man was enormous, and the Abbasids feared for their power, although they got it just thanks to Muslim.
In the VIII century, the new dynasty retained the former power of the lands entrusted to it. But the matter was complicated by the fact that the caliphs and members of their families were people with different mentalities. Some of the lords of the mother had Persians, others had Berbers, and still others had Georgians. There was a terrible mix. The unity of the state was maintained only due to the weakness of the opponents. But gradually the unified Islamic state began to fall apart from within.
First, as already mentioned, Spain seceded, then Morocco, where the Kabyle Moors lived. After that, it was the turn of Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Central Asia, Khorasan, and the eastern regions of Persia. The Arab caliphate gradually disintegrated into independent states and ceased to exist in the 9th century. The Abbasid dynasty itself lasted much longer. She no longer had the former power, but attracted the eastern rulers by the fact that her representatives were the vicegerents of the prophet. That is, the interest in them was purely religious.
Only in the second decade of the 16th century did the Ottoman sultan Selim I force the last Abbasid caliph to renounce his title in favor of the Ottoman sultans. Thus, the Ottomans acquired not only administrative and secular, but also spiritual supremacy over the entire Islamic world.
Thus ended the history of the theocratic state. It was created by the faith and will of Muhammad and his companions. Reached unprecedented power and prosperity. But then, thanks to internal strife, a decline began. And although the caliphate itself collapsed, it did not affect Islam in any way. It's just that Muslims have broken into ethnic groups, because in addition to religion, people are still connected by culture, ancient customs and traditions. They were the ones that were fundamental. There is nothing surprising in this, since through such historical upheavals he pierced all the peoples and states of our multinational world.
The article was written by Mikhail Starikov
On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the II millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples. In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, engaged in crafts and trade.
The other part wandered in the deserts and steppes, engaged in cattle breeding. Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. This oasis was inhabited by the Arab tribe Qureish, whose tribal nobility, using the geographical position of Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.
In addition, Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. Here was located the ancient pre-Islamic temple of the Kaaba. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Quraish Allah tribe (from Arabic ilah - master).
In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia, in connection with the movement of trade routes to Iran, the importance of trade falls. The population, which lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to look for sources of livelihood in agriculture. But there was little land suitable for agriculture. They had to be conquered.
For this, forces were needed and, consequently, the unification of fragmented tribes, moreover, worshiping different gods. The need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis was more and more clearly defined.
This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Mohammed (c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam. This religion is based on the tenets of Judaism and Christianity: belief in one God and his prophet, the Last Judgment, retribution after death, unconditional obedience to the will of God (Arabic Islam-obedience).
The Jewish and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced by the names of the prophets and other biblical characters common to these religions: the biblical Abraham (Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Ilya (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus (Isa), Mary (Maryam) and others. Islam has common customs and prohibitions with Judaism. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, forbid portraying God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.
At the first stage of development, the new religious worldview of Islam was not supported by most of the tribesmen of Muhammad, and first of all by the nobility, as they feared that the new religion would lead to the cessation of the cult of the Kaaba as a religious center, and thereby deprive them of their income. In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina).
This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim chronology. The agricultural population of Yathrib (Medina), competing with merchants from Mecca, supported Muhammad. However, only in 630, having recruited the necessary number of supporters, did he get the opportunity to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit to the new religion, all the more it suited them that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.
Much later (c. 650), after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected into a single book of the Koran (translated from Arabic means reading), which became sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.
Later Islamic religious literature is called Sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who recognized the Koran and the Sunnah became known as Sunnis, and those who recognized only one Koran became Shiites. The Shiites recognize only his relatives as legitimate caliphs (deputies, deputies) of Muhammad, spiritual and secular heads of Muslims.
The economic crisis in Western Arabia in the 7th century, caused by the displacement of trade routes, the lack of land suitable for agriculture, and high population growth, pushed the leaders of the Arab tribes to seek a way out of the crisis by seizing foreign lands. This was also reflected in the Koran, which says that Islam should be the religion of all peoples, but for this it is necessary to fight against the infidels, exterminate them and take away their property (Koran, 2:186-189; 4:76-78, 86).
Guided by this specific task and the ideology of Islam, Muhammad's successors, the caliphs, launched a series of conquest campaigns. They conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia. Already in 638 they captured Jerusalem. Until the end of the 7th century under the rule of the Arabs were the countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia. In the 8th century Central Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, North-West Africa were captured.
In 711, Arab troops under the leadership of Tarik sailed from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from the name of Tarik came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tarik). Having quickly conquered the Iberian lands, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel.
By the middle of the IX century. Arabs captured Sicily, Sardinia, the southern regions of Italy, the island of Crete. This ended the Arab conquests, but a long-term war was waged with the Byzantine Empire. Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.
The main Arab conquests were made under the caliphs Abu Bakr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and the caliphs from the Umayyad dynasty (661-750). Under the Umayyads, the capital of the Caliphate was moved to Syria in the city of Damascus.
The victories of the Arabs, the capture of vast areas by them were facilitated by the many years of mutually exhausting war between Byzantium and Persia, disunity and constant enmity between other states that were attacked by the Arabs. It should also be noted that the population of the countries occupied by the Arabs, suffering from the oppression of Byzantium and Persia, saw the Arabs as liberators, who reduced the tax burden primarily to those who converted to Islam.
The unification of many former disparate and warring states into a single state contributed to the development of economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Crafts, trade developed, cities grew. Within the Arab Caliphate, a culture developed rapidly, incorporating the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian heritage.
Through the Arabs, Europe got acquainted with the cultural achievements of the Eastern peoples, primarily with the achievements in the field of exact sciences - mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.
In 750 the Umayyad dynasty in the eastern part of the Caliphate was overthrown. The caliphs were the Abbassids, descendants of the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad - Abbas. They moved the capital of the state to Baghdad.
In the western part of the caliphate, in Spain, the Umayyads continued to rule, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Caliphate of Cordoba with its capital in the city of Cordoba.
The division of the Arab caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were the rulers of the provinces - emirs.
The Abbassid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbassid state ceased to exist.
The Spanish Umayyad Caliphate was also gradually shrinking. In the XI century. As a result of internecine struggle, the Caliphate of Cordoba broke up into a number of states. This was taken advantage of by the Christian states that arose in the northern part of Spain: the Leono-Castile, Aragonese, Portuguese kingdoms, which began to fight the Arabs for the liberation of the peninsula - the reconquista.
In 1085 they conquered the city of Toledo, in 1147 - Lisbon, in 1236 Cordoba fell. The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab Caliphate as a state ended.
The caliphate as an institution of the spiritual leadership of the Arabs by all Muslims continued to exist until 1517, when this function was transferred to the Turkish sultan, who captured Egypt, where the last caliphate, the spiritual head of all Muslims, lived.
The history of the Arab Caliphate, numbering only six centuries, was complex, ambiguous, and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution of human society on the planet.
The difficult economic situation of the population of the Arabian Peninsula in the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the movement of trade routes to another zone necessitated the search for sources of livelihood. To solve this problem, the tribes living here embarked on the path of establishing a new religion - Islam, which was supposed to become not only the religion of all peoples, but also called for a fight against infidels (gentiles).
Guided by the ideology of Islam, the Caliphs carried out a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of the former disparate tribes into a single state gave impetus to economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe.
Being one of the youngest in the East, occupying the most offensive position among them, incorporating the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, the Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge impact on the spiritual life of Western Europe, representing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages. .
