Korea, which has fallen to be a vassal of China for many centuries, has a unique destiny for the country of the East during the period of colonialism. This is the only country that was under the colonial domination of not the Western, but the Eastern power, Japan. Such a circumstance in itself did not change much in the historical fate of Korea, but nevertheless it is worth recalling it, as well as the fact that Japan was the only eastern power that had colonial possessions. Not vassal territories like China, but colonial possessions exploited by Western-style colonial methods, including colonial trade, capital import, resource development and industrial development of the colony, including the creation of the necessary infrastructure for all this.

Although Korea was considered a vassal territory from China (this vassalage was, by the way, not very noticeable), at the end of the 19th century. many influential sections of its population were more oriented towards Japan, seeing in its post-reform development a model for their country. Local pro-Japanese reformers in the early 1880s they even tried to arrange a coup with the support of the Japanese consul, but he failed. The result of this was the strengthening of China's position in the country, but not for long. Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 put an end to Chinese influence in Korea. Reformists came to power. And although, along with the Japanese in the country, the influence of Russian capital also increased in these years, under the terms of the Russo-Japanese agreement of 1898, Russia officially recognized Japan's predominant economic interests in Korea. After Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was turned into a Protectorate of Japan.

Almost devoid of natural resources itself, Japan actively took up the capitalist development of Korea. Mines and forests, railroads and light industry, Korea's foreign trade - everything ended up in the hands of Japanese companies, in any case, mainly in their hands. In 1910, it was officially proclaimed annexation of Korea, which was managed on behalf of the Japanese emperor by the colonial administration headed by the Japanese governor-general. Optimal conditions were created in the country for the development of Japanese capital, whose interests were protected by a well-thought-out system of military-police coercion. To the detriment of Korean, the Japanese language was artificially implanted. Korean workers in factories were brutally exploited. As for the sphere of agrarian relations, the privatization of land was proclaimed in Korea, and a significant part of it turned out to be the property of Japanese settlers, as well as capitalists or the governor general, i.e. Japanese state. As in Japan itself, the agrarian reform contributed to an increase in the marketability of agriculture, and landless peasants went in masses to the cities, where they replenished the ranks of workers in industrial enterprises and in mines, the number of which was constantly growing.

The powerful popular uprising of 1919, suppressed with difficulty by the colonialists, forced them to make certain concessions and abolish military forms of government. Korean legislative assemblies were introduced under the Japanese administrative bodies. The number of Korean and mixed Japanese-Korean companies has increased. Trade unions, public associations, and parties began to form in Korea. After the Japanese invasion of China and the creation of Manchukuo, Korea became the Japanese military-industrial foothold on the continent. Industrial production here, as well as in Japan itself, developed at an accelerated pace, which should be noted as a positive fact that played a role in the subsequent development of the peninsula. Metallurgical plants, power plants, chemical plants were built. Since the end of the 1930s, after the start of the Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese tried to win over the Koreans to their side, putting forward the pseudo-patriotic slogan "Japanese and Koreans are brothers."

The defeat of Japan in World War II resulted in the appearance of Soviet and American troops in Korea and division of the peninsula into two parts. In the northern part, as is known, a course was taken for the construction of Marxist socialism in its most rigid modification. South Korea has undergone roughly the same transformations as Japan. These transformations, based on the socio-political, financial and economic industrial base created by the Japanese colonizers, contributed to the development of the country in the same direction and at the same rapid pace as in Japan. However, a lower starting level for quite a long time did not allow the South Korean state to achieve the same impressive results in all areas of the economy and lifestyle as modern Japan has achieved. But today the South Korean standard is practically equal to the Japanese in this respect.

Korea's interaction with its neighbors has always been difficult. For many centuries, the country of morning freshness has suffered from the influence of China, Mongolia, Manchu raids and wars of conquest against the Japanese. But colonial period(식민지 시대) has a special place in the history of the country.

Map of the Japanese Empire with the dates of the seizure of territories, the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th centuries.

During the period Korea was a Japanese colony from 1910 to 1945. The decision to become part of the Japanese Empire was not voluntary, the occupation was violent. The Japanese pursued a harsh policy towards the Koreans, subjecting them to both physical and psychological violence. However, the opinions of contemporaries regarding this period were divided. Some (supporters of the so-called "colonial modernization") believe that at that time Korea achieved unprecedented economic growth, and society was going through one of the stages of development. Others (supporters of the so-called "colonial exploitation") believe that the Korean economy had to be developed from scratch after 1945, and the country was subjected to harsh exploitation during this period.

To better understand the reason for Japan's interest in Korea, it is necessary to know what happened in both countries on the eve of the colonial period.

Japan

In the period from 1868 to 1889, Japan is transformed from an agrarian country into one of the leading states in the world. This time in history is called Meiji Restoration».

The name of the period was given by Emperor Mutsuhito (1852 - 1912) - "Meiji" ("enlightened rule").

The country refuses from self-isolation and makes a "leap" from the past to the future, changing the logic of the traditional way of life and forming a society along the European lines. The reign of the samurai ended, power was returned to the emperor. Almost all spheres of life were reformed, from the economy to education. In particular, the feudal structure of the country was eliminated, private property was allowed, the University of Tokyo was founded, universal military service was introduced, the “master-servant” behavior model was eliminated, inter-class marriages were allowed, etc. Having strengthened its internal position, Japan decides to dominate the entire region. In particular, relations with Korea are of great interest.

Korea

Korea is in no hurry to improve relations with its neighbors. In the late XIX - early XX centuries, it shows itself weak player in the global political arena. The country, torn apart by internal contradictions and riots, cannot repulse external invaders. The king, later emperor, Kojong, having no real power, continues the policy of isolation begun by his predecessors. Japan, after a short debate and provocation, decides to capture Joseon Korea, which refuses to make contact.

Warlord of the Joseon era, 1863

However, this process is gradual. The colonization was preceded by a number of measures on the part of the Japanese, namely: the signing in 1876, the Japanese-Korean friendship treaty on about. Ganghwado, according to which the largest seaports of Busan, Wonsan and Incheon were opened to Japan. In addition, the Japanese won the right to acquire Korean land holdings and effectively deprived the country of customs autonomy. They gradually penetrated into all spheres of activity, first controlling the press and individual departments, and then becoming "advisers" to the king. And finally, the murder of Queen Ming, the wife of Kojon, who actually rules in his place. All these conditions created fertile ground for the annexation of Korea.

It should also be noted that Korea at that time was the center of a clash of interests of several countries at once besides Japan: Russia, China, the USA, England, France, Austria, etc. However, due to the remoteness, the Western states quickly surrendered, and Japan unleashed a war in which she emerged victorious. Therefore, no one could prevent Japan from realizing its plans as a metropolis.

Korea as a colony

During the colonial period, Korea was led by a governor-general appointed from Tokyo. As a rule, the governor-general was appointed from among the military Japanese. This explains the rigidly authoritarian policies pursued in the colony. However, in 1919, Saito Makoto was appointed to this post - the only one not from among the military. He spent a relatively mild " cultural management policy”, encouraged Korean culture and was opposed to violent measures.

Seoul during the Japanese occupation.

Became a colony, Korea lost sovereignty. The country acted as a market for both labor and farmed products. About 90% of all investments belonged to the Japanese, as well as 3/5 of all enterprises.

The people were subjected discrimination, the Korean language was banned from teaching in schools. Over 200,000 Korean historical documents were burned. The right to be a judge, to elect and be elected was awarded only to the Japanese, and the supreme legislative and executive power was in the hands of the governor-general. There was an Advisory Council under the government, which consisted of well-known Koreans, but it had no real influence.

In 1911, the Japanese demolished part of the buildings of the famous Gyeongbokgung palace complex, building the House of the Governor General. Released in 1939 Decree to change names, according to which every Korean had the right to change his name to Japanese. In fact, more than 80% of Koreans took Japanese names, as they were persecuted if they refused. The colonialists actively promoted Shintoism and built Shinto shrines. The whole world became infamous " comfort stations" - brothels for the Japanese military, where "comfort women" were in sex slavery. The girls were either kidnapped, or, promising work in Japanese factories for a large pay, they were tricked into brothels by deceit. Not everyone was destined to return home: many died from daily torture, many committed suicide.

At the same time, it was during the period of occupation that the time of growth of the Korean economy, education and industry fell.

Economics and politics

By the end of the colonial period, there were over 7,000 factories in Korea employing about 300,000 workers. The average growth rate of the Korean economy was about 4%. In agriculture, new technologies were introduced, the area of ​​cultivated agricultural land grew. Many buildings were built that became the prototypes of modern ones. Among them: Keijo Station, Chosen Bank, People's House. For about 10 years, railroads were built that connected modern Seoul with the northern regions of the Korean peninsula. Export of products was carried out both directly to Japan and to China, Russia, the USA, India, and Thailand. Import - mainly from China, Manchuria, USA. A judicial system of three levels was introduced: local, appeal and Supreme. The territory of the country is divided into provinces, each headed by a governor (Japanese or Korean). Established a law enforcement system.

Chosen Bank, now the Bank of Korea Museum, 1909

Social sphere

Korean traditional medicine was viewed with distrust by the Japanese. But the use of modern medicines was introduced, in connection with which the life expectancy of the population increased from 20 to almost 45 years. The population has almost doubled and amounted to about 27 million people. At the same time, the number of prisons has steadily increased, as There were many dissatisfied with the colonial policy.

In 1924, the first Korean university, Keijo Imperial University, was opened (it was on its basis that Seoul National University was later established). True, only the Japanese had the opportunity to visit it, since the training was conducted in Japanese. The literacy rate increased significantly: from 2% to 40%. In the field of school education, the Japanese model was taken as a basis, with the division into junior and secondary schools. There was an opportunity to attend classes in special vocational schools, where they taught, incl. and kisaeng.

The first newspapers appeared in Japanese and Korean (Meil Shinbo, which still exists today, Joseon Ilbo). The censorship system was quite strict only for Korean publications. In 1927, the first radio appeared, which was very popular. During the occupation, Korean literature, in particular prose, also flourished. When writing works, they now used exclusively Korean writing, leaving Chinese in the past.

Fight for independence

The Koreans did not abandon their attempts to gain independence on the peninsula. March 1, 1919 the first major independence movement took place. Its origins were Korean students and patriots who advocated the need for a Declaration of Independence.

The movement was massive. Starting in Seoul, it gradually expanded throughout the country, increasing its supporters every day. One year later the uprising was brutally suppressed the Japanese army. As a result, about 7 thousand people died, but the imperial policy towards Korea softened - it was at this time that Saito Makoto took over. To commemorate the first national resistance, 1 March was declared Independence Movement Day.

Seoul residents greet freedom fighters released from prison, 1945

Later, the Korean government-in-exile establishes Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai. Among the founders is the first President of the Republic of Korea - Lee Syngman. The activity of the unrecognized Provisional Government is to coordinate the guerrilla units and control the Korean Liberation Army. But in reality, despite all efforts, Korea manages to achieve independence only years later due to the capitulation of Japan and the impossibility of its further control of the colony.

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End of the first part

Relations between Japan and South Korea are still strained, the main reason is the accusation of the Japanese in the colonial exploitation of the Korean Peninsula. The Japanese, on the other hand, believe that their rule civilized the Koreans: it gave them infrastructure and education. In addition, Japan, starting in the 1960s, paid the Koreans in full with money.

Orientalist Anna Melkina tells about this in the collection of articles "Actual Problems of Modern Japan", issue XXIX, in the article "The Problem of Korean-Japanese Historical Contradictions: A View from Japan".

The image of the Japanese as evil and cruel colonizers in South Korea has become a classic. Defending the thesis that Japanese colonization has brought her good can cost her a career. However, no matter how disgusted the South Korean government and public opinion may be, Japan's colonial policy really benefited previously backward Korea, contributing to its further development and the transformation of the current ROK into one of the most developed states in the world.

According to supporters of this position, the annexation put an end to the period of incessant wars that directly or indirectly affected the Korean Peninsula (Japanese-Chinese 1894-1895, Russian-Japanese, etc.). This gave the country more than 20 years (until Japan's expansion into Manchuria in 1931) for the peaceful development of the economy.

Then, Japan's colonization policy towards Korea was fundamentally different from that pursued by the Western powers in the countries of Asia and Africa: a) the expropriation of land in favor of the mother country was not widespread - the land was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Governor-General only if there was no documentary evidence of ownership to the ground; b) from military methods of management, already after 9 years, they switched to the so-called policy of cultural management (after the March 1st movement in 1919, the Japanese radically revised their colonial policy and management methods); c) active modernization of various spheres of life in Korean society was carried out; d) an attempt was made to "merge" together the two nations - Japanese and Korean.

This was perceived by the Koreans as "the dissolution of the Korean ethnic group into the Japanese", however, from the point of view of the Japanese, who were brought up in the spirit of national exclusivity, such measures were a boon for the Koreans; As for the European colonialists, they did not try to create a single nation with the inhabitants of the metropolis from the subject peoples, but regarded them as second-class people. It was this strategy that made it possible to achieve the following results.

Administrative-territorial division

During the first 8 years of Korea's existence within the Japanese Empire, more than 24 million yen was spent on exploring new territory. As a result, various plans and maps were drawn up, which the Koreans still use today. Thanks to the work carried out, conflicts related to the previous intricate Korean system of land ownership were resolved, and the basis was prepared for the introduction of universal land ownership: the land was divided into owned by the Governor General of Korea, Japanese colonists who came from the metropolis and local Korean residents. The latter had an absolute majority: out of 4.42 million chobu (chobu - a Japanese unit of measurement of the surface - 0.99 hectares), 3.91 million belonged to the Koreans, the rest was in the possession of the governor general (270 thousand chobu) and the Japanese (240 thousand chobu).

A clear system for managing administrative units was developed, special courts were created to resolve land disputes, and tax collection was streamlined. Such a clear organization of the territory of the newly annexed part of the country made it possible to subsequently develop infrastructure, which is also a great achievement of the Japanese colonialists.

Infrastructure

Isabella Bishop, who traveled around Asia at the end of the 19th century, described Seoul as one of the dirtiest and most backward cities in Asia in her book Korea and Its Neighbors. The situation in the rest of the country was no better: for example, the length of railways until 1910, for example, was only 100 km. However, with the arrival of the Japanese, as well as Japanese financial resources amounting to $8 billion, the situation began to change for the better: years for men and 24.6 years for women up to 43 years and 44 years respectively; b) the length of the railway track increased to 6000 km; c) ports, lighthouses, bridges were built, a telegraph and telephone were installed, forest plantations increased annually in area14; d) high-quality roads were built connecting the most remote corners of the country.

This infrastructure made it possible to later build a number of large factories in the north of the Korean Peninsula, create an "industrial belt", and open capitalist-type trading enterprises in the south; economic growth rates are estimated at 3.5% in 1914-1927. and 12.4% (much higher than the world average) in 1928-1940.

Education

On the one hand, the Koreans sharply criticize the General Government for imposing everything Japanese, including in the field of education; on the other hand, when their Korean names were left to them, they began to demand the right to change their names to Japanese (for example, this was demanded by Korean peasants who moved to farming in Manchuria - so as not to be robbed by Chinese robbers because of their origin given by Korean surnames).

In the field of education in Korea during the years of its entry into the Japanese Empire, one could observe tremendous progress. Thus, the Korean Governor-General actively opened secondary schools, and if at first the goal was “3 villages - 1 school”, then in 1942 the task “1 village - 2 schools” was put forward. Despite this, the Japanese are reproached for a number of points.

1)Not six-grade schools were opened, as in Japan, but four-grade ones. First, given that the literacy rate in Korea in 1910 was estimated at 4-6% of the population, any opportunity to receive a minimum education was expensive in itself. Moreover, the general government strove for the fullest coverage of Korean children with education, therefore, it was precisely the quantitative growth of schools that carried out.

Interestingly, in the pre-colonization period, Korea had a system of four-year elementary schools, so the Japanese retained the cultural traditions of the Koreans. Finally, the transition to the six-year system was carried out in the early 1940s: in 1943, there were 5960 state "six-year-olds" throughout the country.

2) Education in Korea was optional, so the coverage of the population with education was much less than in Japan. The budget injections of the empire into Korea were colossal, but, naturally, there were not enough funds for everything: there were too many problems to solve them all at once. This was also the case with schools: they were actively opened throughout the country, but it was impossible to build so many schools at once and provide them with qualified Korean-speaking teachers. By the end of the colonial period, 76% of boys attended school (90% in Japan itself) and 33% of girls (given the difficult situation of women in pre-colonial Korea, this can be considered a great success).

Despite the fact that in the 40s Japan was waging a war on which huge funds were spent, the General Government was preparing an education reform by 1946, according to which primary sixth-grade education would become compulsory: the reform simply did not have time to be implemented.

3) The education system was focused on the destruction of the Korean national identity: the Korean language was actively banned in schools. Until 1940, teaching in Korean schools was conducted in the Korean language. It was thanks to the Japanese Fukuzawa Yukichi that the Korean national alphabet Hangul, which had previously been almost banned in Korea, began to be used together with Chinese characters. That is, it was the Japanese who helped the Koreans regain part of their national culture.

As for dissatisfaction with too much emphasis in education on the Japanese language, then, firstly, it was the state language, and, secondly, its study made it possible to continue education in Japan, which created solid career prospects.

4)Korean education was inferior: there was nowhere to go beyond elementary school. Supporters of the Japanese position object: in Korea at the end of colonial rule, there were more than 1,000 specialized educational institutions that trained specialists in various fields necessary for the development of the country. Moreover, in 1924, the sixth state (imperial) university in the entire Japanese Empire, Keijo teikoku daigaku, was opened in Seoul, which later became the Seoul National University. Korea has its own institution of higher education, which the Asian and African colonies of European countries could not even dream of.

This is not a complete list of the advantages that, according to the Japanese side, colonization brought Korea. The Koreans got voting rights, enterprises, which later became the basis for the rapid pace of economic growth in the Republic of Kazakhstan; in Japanese social institutions (educational institutions and the army), the intelligentsia and the ruling elite of this country were "grown", etc. However, the Koreans do not want to admit it, such facts are hushed up in every possible way; and accusations against Japan continue to be made, not only about the colonial past, but also about its modern interpretation.

Another point of Korean claims is the demand for compensation, starting with compensation for the total damage caused to Korea during the years of colonization, including the payment of compensation for 20,000 Zainichi (Koreans permanently residing in Japan) who suffered from the atomic bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. From the Japanese point of view, such claims look more than unfounded:

1. Of course, the number of war crimes committed by the Japanese during the Second World War (not only against the Koreans) was enormous; it is quite natural to lay the blame and responsibility for these acts on the militaristic government of Japan at that time. However, it is well known that the atomic bombings of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were carried out by the US military. Moreover, as a result, a huge number of Japanese suffered, far more than the Zainichi Koreans. If anyone should pay compensation for a crime that claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of civilians, it is clearly not the Japanese side most affected by these bombings.

2. With regard to compensation in general, this issue was very clearly and clearly spelled out in the 1965 agreement between Japan and the ROK "On the solution of problems related to property, material claims and economic cooperation." According to paragraph "a" Art. 1, Japan pledged, within 10 years from the date of entry into force of this agreement, to pay to Korea, on a gratuitous basis, the amount of 300 million dollars (approximately 2.5 billion modern dollars); according to paragraph "b" of the same article, Japan was to provide Korea with long-term low-interest loans of $200 million.

Japan satisfied these requirements in full within the terms specified in the agreement, therefore, the issue of compensation should be considered closed. Japan also paid another $300 million in "aid to the civilian population."

In the period from 1966 to 1975, 20% of all capital investments in the Republic of Kazakhstan were precisely Japanese money. Subsequently, Japan has repeatedly paid various kinds of compensation to the Republic of Kazakhstan. A very illustrative example in this case is the payment to the families of 9,500 Koreans who died during the Second World War, being drafted as military or civil servants into the army, as well as mobilized as workers. That is, there were also compensations designed specifically for ordinary Koreans.

3. In addition to gratuitous assistance, Japan has repeatedly provided the RK with long-term low-interest loans. These are one-time loans (for example, in 1983, at the urgent request of Chun Doo-hwan, a loan of 1.85 billion dollars was provided), and assistance under the government's Official Development Assistance (ODA) program, which consisted of three components: , gratuitous financial assistance, technical assistance. In total, under this program, the Republic of Kazakhstan received over 250 million dollars from Japan.

4. Moreover, from a formal point of view, it is Japan that can claim compensation from the RK. It is known that the defeat of Japan in World War II was followed by the occupation of the Korean Peninsula by American and Soviet troops. The so-called Korean industrial belt (a number of large industrial enterprises concentrated on the territory of the current DPRK) ended up in the hands of the leader of the northern part of the peninsula, Kim Il Sung. At the same time, in the south, all private Japanese enterprises, private Japanese investment capital, production facilities and infrastructure (built with Japanese money, not without the participation of private capital) - all this ended up in the hands of the American occupying forces and was later transferred to the newly formed Republic of Korea.

But according to the Hague Convention on the Laws and Customs of War on Land of October 18, 1907, “private property is not subject to confiscation” (Article 46), and the army “occupying the area [of an occupied state] can only take possession of money, funds and debt claims, constituting the property of the State ... ”(Article 53). The United States participated in the conference that developed this convention, and also signed the document itself, therefore, they are obliged to comply with it, which was not done.

But if we take into account that the United States quite quickly transferred all Japanese property to the government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, which did not sign the convention, then it seems that the issue of returning Japan's property should be closed. However, there is a precedent when India, which became independent from Great Britain, paid compensation to the former metropolis for private British property remaining on its territory and transferred to the new government.

Supporters of the position stated by the author emphasize that Japan seeks to overcome historical contradictions for the sake of partnership with one of its closest neighbors, however, it is not clear whether South Korea will be able to meet halfway by removing the label of “enemy No. 1” from Japan

In the Far East there are two peoples who live in the neighborhood, but in the most radical way have different attitudes towards Christianity. Korea and Japan. Japan is traditionally called the grave of missionaries, while Korea is the beacon of world Christianity. In Japan, there is hardly one Christian for every 500 Japanese. In Korea, more than a quarter of the population are Christians, and most of them are non-nominal, ethno-cultural Christians, such as the Orthodox in Russia. The contrast between the two neighbors has long attracted the attention of church historians and missiologists. This phenomenon was described in most detail by Mamoru Ogata, doctor of the Fuller Seminary of Japanese origin, in his fundamental work "Comparison between the Church of Japan and Korea." Extracts from this work, prepared by missiologist Eiko Takamizawa of Torch Trinity University (Seoul, Korea), form the basis of this Bible lesson. POLITICAL ASPECT Over the years, Koreans have been invaded by the Mongols, Chinese, Russians and Japanese. Since the 16th century, the Japanese have been trying to colonize the Korean peninsula, and in 1910 they finally annexed it, making Korea part of the Japanese empire. Koreans suffered from the Japanification of culture, up to the change of their Korean names, the lack of political, religious, economic freedoms, were in the category of second-class citizens. Christians were especially hard hit. By this time, the gospel had already been preached among the Koreans, and especially in the northern part, Christianity was actively developing. The royal capital of Korea - Pyongyang, had the glory of "Jerusalem in the East", up to a third of its population attended churches. The Japanese authorities demanded from the Koreans to worship in front of Shinto shrines, thereby expressing political loyalty to the imperial authorities. It was similar to what the first Christians of Rome faced: a symbolic sacrifice in front of the statue of the emperor. Korean Christians, like their Roman predecessors, perceived worship as a renunciation of Christ and refused to worship the emperor. In response, pastors and lay believers were arrested and some died under torture. Christians became the main supporters and decisive force of the independence movement. They initiated the creation of the Nonviolent Independence Movement, and on March 1, 1919 proclaimed the Declaration of Independence of Korea. The declaration was supported by thousands of rallies across Korea, which were attended by about 2 million people. Human. The Japanese sent military force to suppress the protest. Historian Park Eun-sik estimates that 7,509 people were killed, 15,961 injured and 46,948 arrested. The Japanese authorities stepped up pressure on Christians by setting up places of worship for the emperor in every locality, forcing everyone to attend the ceremony as a sign of loyalty to the authorities. This practice continued until Japan's defeat in World War II. When China became communist after the war, it tried in turn to colonize Korea under the guise of fraternal aid to the working people of Korea. This led to a brutal civil war, the division of the country into southern and northern, controlled by the communists. In the north, the most severe repressions against Christians began, including such torture as burying people alive in the ground. Approximately a quarter of the population of the north managed to escape to South Korea. These ardent Christians, who remained faithful to God under the most severe persecution, brought a wave of prayerful awakening to the south. It is important to note that none of the countries that occupied Korea were Christian. Shintoists of Japan, Confucians and Communists of China, atheists of the Soviet Union. On the other hand, the liberation of Korea was brought by a Christian nation - the United States and its allies, who first liberated from the Japanese occupation, and then from the threat of communist China and the USSR. This naturally aroused the sympathy of Koreans for Christians who sacrificed their lives for their freedom. The situation is quite different in Japan. The country was not captured by enemies, but more often itself acted as an invader and colonizer. When the Japanese were introduced to Christianity in the 16th and 17th centuries through Catholic and later Protestant missionaries, they perceived it as a Western threat. The Christian preaching of the equality of all people before God was especially threatening for the Japanese authorities. So the government, after a short period of uncertainty, embarked on a brutal persecution of Christians that lasted for 270 years. The most effective way to destroy the church was the so-called. "System of Five Houses" (Gonin gumi Seido). If a Christian was found anywhere who did not want to renounce, then the members of the five families around him were subjected to torture and persecution. This system made the Japanese afraid of the appearance of Christians in their villages more terrible than the plague. THE MISSIOLOGICAL ASPECT Although the early missionaries in Korea, such as Horace Allen in 1884, concentrated their efforts on working with the king and his associates, most of the missionaries served among ordinary Koreans. They practiced the so-called. principles of John Nevius in the ministry, which emphasized the independence of young churches, namely: 1. The Bible is the basis and center of all activity. 2. Self-preaching. 3. Self-management. 4. Organization of Bible studies for all Christians. 5. Training leaders, strictly according to the Scriptures. 6. Mutual assistance and support of other Christian churches and organizations. 7. Refusal to apply to the court for damages. The Christians of Korea preferred, like their longtime predecessors in the Roman Empire, not to seek redress in court. 8. Actively promote the economic development of communities and the country. Unlike Korea, missionaries in Japan concentrated on establishing schools and hospitals. Moreover, these schools were intended for children from the upper classes. In this way, Christianity spread among the educated urban stratum, leaving aside the poor and rural people who made up the majority of the population of Japan. Dr. Tetsunao Yamamori, a member of the Lausanne Committee for Evangelism, admitted that this focus on Japan's wealthiest and most influential circles made it impossible to mass evangelize the country. LINGUISTIC ASPECT The Korean language itself contributed to the spread of the gospel. The simple Hangul alphabet, in contrast to the complex systems of Japanese characters, contributed to the universal literacy of Koreans, who voraciously read the Bible translated into Hangul in 1882. It should be added that according to the principles of Nevius, Koreans did not even receive Bibles for free. They were ready to pay for the Book of Books and valued it. Protestant translators of the Bible have found a very successful Korean equivalent for the word God - "Hananim" - "The Only One". The Japanese translation of the Bible used many Chinese characters that only the most educated Japanese could read. Another failure accompanied the translation in the choice of the word "God" - "Kami". For the Japanese, "Kami" is the whole pantheon of Shinto deities, so the missionaries struggled with how to convey the idea of ​​the Creator of the whole world, without tying him to a host of Japanese gods and gods, without turning Him into some kind of pantheistic spirit of nature. THEOLOGICAL ASPECT The Korean churches during their planting and growth period professed a conservative theology with a strong emphasis on the inerrancy of Scripture. The first missionaries in Korea were American Presbyterians and Methodists, whose churches were themselves then experiencing a revival, so that the missionaries infected new Korean converts with evangelistic enthusiasm. Japanese Christians were influenced by liberal German theology, which questioned the inspiration of the Bible, the divinity of Christ, and the uniqueness of salvation through the cross of Christ. As a result, Japanese Christians lost their sense in preaching faith in Christ as the only Savior of the whole world. BELIEVERS' TESTIMONY Missionaries and converts in Korea have provided impressive examples of self-sacrifice in the face of trials. In the persecution of 1866, out of 20,000 Korean Catholics, 10,000 became martyrs for the sake of Christ. Some time later, the Protestants showed the same courage. William Scranton, a medical missionary, served during the cholera epidemic without fear of infection, which made a lasting impression on the Koreans. When the political persecution of Christians began, and the Japanese authorities forced them to worship in front of the imperial shrines, they preferred to go to prison or die. In 1939 alone, 2,000 pastors and laity were arrested. 50 pastors died in custody. After the outbreak of World War II, the Japanese invaders imprisoned thousands more believers and closed 200 churches. American missionaries were among those persecuted. Their example inspired Korean Christians to remain faithful to God in the face of severe persecution. In Japan, by contrast, the churches adopted the godless practice of worshiping the emperor as a god. They explained this by the fact that the ritual has not a religious meaning, but a political one and is an expression of loyalty to the state. The government took control of the church and created the Nihon Kirisuto Kyuodan (Japanese Christian denomination) manual organization. The few churches that refused to join the denomination were declared traitors to the nation. When Japan attacked Manchuria in 1931, and then other countries in Southeast Asia, Japanese Christians remained silent. Like the church in Germany, they accepted the fascist regime as a power from God. ECCLESIOLOGICAL ASPECT In Korea, local communities remained the main center of Christian life, where believers drew strength and energy for growth. It was in the local communities that Bible teaching, prayer meetings, meetings of believers at home and evangelism were carried out. Koreans taught in Sunday schools not only children, but also adults. In Japan, the focus has been on evangelistic actions and programs carried out by various denominations and with support from abroad. When the action ended, the local churches did not pick up the fire, remaining as passive as before the evangelization. The main, and often the only, event of the local churches was the Sunday service. The Christian life has been reduced to the ritual of attending worship once a week. CONCLUSION Eiko Takamizawa comes to the following conclusion. Comparative characteristics of the churches of the two neighboring nations once again proves the correctness of the Gospel. God favors the oppressed and the humble, not the oppressor and the proud. He cleanses the church in the furnace of suffering, blessing it afterwards with His active presence, growth, and grace. Petr Novochekhov for Bibleika.org online school

With the beginning of the democratization of public life in the Republic of Korea at the turn of the 1980s-1990s. a heated debate began in South Korean society about the influence of the colonial period on the history of Korea in general and on the modern situation in particular. This article is devoted to the analysis of the main "colonial" problems that are discussed in the modern Republic of Korea, and their historical background.

Key words: Korea, colonialism, perception of history.

K. V. Ivanov
Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk

The colonial period is one of the most controversial and problematic issues in Korean history. Beginning in 1910, the year of Japan's annexation of Korea, Korean intellectuals have been wondering how legitimate the annexation of Korea is and what it will lead to. However, under the conditions of the colonial regime and the corresponding system of censorship, the discussion was reduced to justifying the current situation. The liberation of the country in 1945 opened up the opportunity for free assessments. However, they were reduced to denunciation of the Japanese and Japan. At the same time, many Koreans were involved in the system of colonial administration, all Korean big business was closely connected with the Japanese (which was an indispensable condition for its successful development), and many Korean intellectuals were ardent Japanophiles.

The division of Korea into North and South, as well as the Korean War, temporarily removed the study of the problems of the colonial period from the agenda. However, in the 1960s and 1970s attitudes have developed in both Koreas. In the DPRK, the colonial period was given an exclusively negative assessment, the rule of the Japanese was compared with the occupation. Typical for the historiography of the DPRK is Song Yong-jong's Outline of Korean History. In the Republic of Korea, the colonial period was considered not so unambiguously. In addition, the processes of democratization in the late 1980s - early 1990s. contributed to the revision of a number of officially approved provisions. The process of rethinking the colonial period, including the problem of cooperation between Koreans and the colonial authorities, continues in the Republic of Korea to this day.

The task of the work is to analyze these discussions, highlight their main problems, their connection with the current trends in the political and economic development of the country. It is very important to determine the role of colonial discourse in modern Kazakhstan, taking into account the processes of democratization and partial rethinking of the colonial period.

To begin with, we formulate a list of the most discussed problems:

• the legitimacy of the annexation of Korea in 1910, the establishment of a protectorate in 1905, and the change in ownership of the Dokdo archipelago;
• assessment of the modernization of Korea and the policy of assimilation of Koreans;
• evaluating the cooperation of Koreans with the Japanese authorities and defining the criteria for "cooperation";
• Korean involvement in the Japanese war effort.

Although some points unite a number of problems, such an association has a right to exist. First, the current territorial disputes between Korea and Japan are the result of decisions made during the annexation of 1910 or in 1905, during the formation of the protectorate. Secondly, the modernization processes in Korea took place taking into account the Japanese experience and, often, according to Japanese models, so the processes of modernization and Japaneseization in colonial Korea were interconnected. Thirdly, the problem of cooperation with the Japanese authorities is very ambiguous, given that in many areas of activity it was impossible to achieve any success without the assistance, or at least the absence of opposition from the colonial authorities. Often the line between “traitor to the nation”, “opportunist” and patriot became very blurred.

The very legality of the conclusion of the protectorate treaty on November 17, 1905, when it was signed by five Korean ministers, but not by Emperor Gojong of Korea, is disputed. Moreover, since 1904, Japanese troops were stationed in Korea. Something similar happened on August 22, 1910, when Korean Prime Minister Li Wang-yong (one of those five ministers), "with the consent" of Emperor Sunjong of Korea, signed the annexation treaty. Despite the controversial legality of the design of the protectorate and annexation treaties, they were approved or tacitly taken into account by most of the great powers. Japan had the ability to occupy Korea without any treaties. However, they helped Japan maintain a veneer of "legality". These plots are revealed in detail in the work of A. Dadden "Japanese colonization of Korea: discourse and power" .

The problem of the islands of Dokdo (Liancourt, Takeshima) is closely connected with the annexation of Korea. The Dokdo Islands are located to the east of the Korean Peninsula. On Russian, European and American maps they are designated as Liancourt Rocks, on Japanese maps - Takeshima. Captured by Japan during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Returned to Korea after World War II, subject to a territorial dispute between the ROK and Japan. They did not have a permanent population and were used by Korean and Japanese fishermen as a temporary stop. Although the Japanese government confirmed Korea's right to Dokdo in 1877, in February 1905 the head of Shimane Prefecture issued a decree placing Dokdo under the control of the governor of the Oki Islands. During the colonial period, Korea's claims were meaningless. In 1948, the United States transferred Dokdo to the jurisdiction of the South Korean government. However, in the text of the San Francisco Treaty of 1952, the ownership of the archipelago was not clearly defined. Japan renounced only "all rights, titles and claims to Korea, including the islands of Quelpart, the port of Hamilton and Dagelet". The status quo persisted until 1994, when South Korea and Japan, on the basis of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, announced the creation of a 200-mile exclusive economic zone. Japan declared its claims to Dokdo, since 2005, the authorities of Shimane Prefecture decided to consider February 22 as Takeshima Day. Then, in South Korea, measures began to be taken to propagate their position. Disagreements over Dokdo led to great tension between the ROK and Japan.

The modernization of Korea within the Japanese Empire is a problem that is considered mainly in Korea, Japan and the United States (mostly by researchers of Korean origin). To briefly describe the position of the majority of Korean researchers, the modernization of Korea went in parallel with its Japaneseization and served to ensure that Japan could receive even more resources from Korea. Typical in this sense is Xing Yongha's monograph Criticism of Japanese Colonial Policy and Colonial Modernization. Some ways of arguing this thesis are described by Andrey Lankov. According to him, during the years of colonial rule, life expectancy in Korea has almost doubled (mainly due to the introduction of water supply, sewerage and simple hygiene measures). But Korean authors prefer to give data only for the first year of annexation, when the average life expectancy was 22.6 years for men and 24.6 years for women.

The debate about the extent to which the Japanese took into account the interests of Korea and the Koreans in the course of their modernization policy is conducted mainly in academic circles. For Korean public opinion, Japanese modernization is seen predominantly in a negative light. A. Lankov gives the characteristic titles of chapters of Korean history books: "Seoul Station - a starting point for [Japanese] aggression on the continent", "Banks and department stores - a springboard for economic robbery" .

Despite the fact that the levers of economic development were exclusively in the hands of the Japanese, it was during the colonial period that a layer of Korean entrepreneurs of the modern type appeared. Of course, for the successful conduct of business, they needed to cooperate with the Japanese authorities and Japanese companies. However, such cooperation did not make them traitors to national interests. This has been explored in detail by Dennis L. McNamara in The Colonial Origins of Korean Enterprise: 1910-1945. Korean researchers do not avoid this topic, pointing out that the majority of Korean entrepreneurs adhered to the positions of "moderate Korean nationalism." It is noted, for example, that in 1923 the Tona Ilbo newspaper and the Korean tycoon Kim Seongsu supported the Buy Korean Goods movement.

The topic of Korean entrepreneurship closely intersects with the acute and painful problem of cooperation between Koreans and the colonial authorities. They are called chinilpha (Korean for “pro-Japanese faction”, “pro-Japanese collaborators”). Initially, this term was used in relation to representatives of high officials, large industrialists and merchants, that is, those who collaborated with the Japanese mainly for their own selfish purposes, sometimes trampling on the national Korean interests. However, later the term chinilpha was extended to minor officials of the colonial administration, pro-Japanese intellectuals, police officers and those who voluntarily joined the Japanese army even before the introduction of universal military service. These people were mostly guided by career or ideological motives and did not receive any special preferences from their cooperation.

At the beginning of the XX century. Japan has been a model of development for the countries of East Asia, including Korea. Her success convinced many educated Koreans of the effectiveness of the country's development along the Japanese lines. For Korean businessmen, Japan was a profitable trading partner. These strata of Korean society, together with the highest Korean officials, largely contributed to the annexation of Korea in 1910. After the annexation, several dozen Korean nobles received cash gifts and even the Japanese nobility. Many members of the intelligentsia consciously cooperated with the colonial authorities, seeing this as a way to develop Korea. The well-known Korean writer Lee Gwangsu took part in the Korean independence movement in his youth and was one of the authors of the February 2nd Declaration of Independence, which played an important role in the March 1st Movement of 1919. After 1937, he changed his mind and became an ardent supporter of Japanese rule in Korea. In 1940, during a campaign to change names and surnames to Japanese, Li Gwangsu took the name Kayama Mitsuro, explaining that he considered himself a subject of the Empire of Japan, and urged Koreans to follow his example.

Lee Gwangsu, one of the founders of modern Korean literature, was under investigation for "crimes against the nation" after the country's liberation. The investigation took place from August 1948 as part of the activities of the Committee for Revealing the Facts of Anti-People Activities (Panminchok haenwi cheobolpop) and affected several hundred representatives of Korean entrepreneurship, intellectuals and officials. However, already at the end of 1949, the investigation was terminated under pressure from the ruling elite of South Korea, since it affected many influential representatives of big business and officials. In the modern Republic of Korea, an ambivalent attitude towards Lee Gwangsu remains. He is perceived both as a classic of Korean literature and as "an accomplice of the Japanese colonialists." He was far from the only writer to take a pro-Japanese stance, but he is perhaps the most famous.

The future President of the Republic of Korea, Park Chung-hee, entered the Manchukuo army in 1940 under the name Takaki Masao, then studied at the Japanese Higher Military Academy, and after graduation continued to serve in the Manchukuo army with the rank of lieutenant. After the liberation of Korea, Park Chung Hee was accepted into the new army as an experienced military man, then dismissed on suspicion of participating in a conspiracy, but soon returned to duty due to the outbreak of the Korean War.

In the late 1980s The process of democratization began in the Republic of Korea, censorship restrictions were weakened. Pak Chunghee, other military, businessmen and intellectuals were accused of collaborating with the Japanese authorities during, as they prefer to say in Korea, the “Japanese occupation”. Such rhetoric is used primarily for political purposes, to cut the ground from under the opponent's feet.

During the first decade of the XXI century. South Korean parliamentarians, in collaboration with historians from the Union for the Preservation of the Spirit of the Korean Nation, compiled the so-called Chinilpha Dictionary, or List of Collaborators. This list includes Lee Gwangsu and Park Chunghee, prominent publicist and founder of the Korean newspaper Tona Ilbo Kim Seongsu, historian Lee Bendo, founder of Ewha Women's University, and Korea's first doctorate holder Kim Hwallang. In 2009, a complete list of 4389 people was published. At the same time, about 20 Korean public organizations stated that the pro-Japanese activities of many of the famous people included in the directory were not confirmed.

As a rule, people of left and extreme left views have a sharply negative attitude towards such historical figures. A significant part of those who share such views are Korean students, which largely explains, for example, periodic acts of vandalism against monuments to the founder of Ewha Women's University Kim Hwallang and the founder of Korea University, teacher and politician Kim Seong-su.

Now the colonial discourse is used rather in the sphere of Korean-Japanese relations. In addition to the already mentioned problems of the Dokdo Islands and claims against Japan about the "colonial robbery", in the 1990s. the topic of recruiting Korean women to work in military brothels (so-called comfort stations) was raised. A similar practice existed in other countries where the Japanese military was present - China, the Philippines, Indonesia. Japanese women were often involved as "comfort women" (Korean "wianbu"). Despite the fact that the Japanese government in 1998 agreed to pay compensation to Korean wianbu, it refused to acknowledge the fact of forced recruitment, emphasizing the purely voluntary nature of prostitution. For more on the wianbu problem, see Herman Kim's article "To Japan Under Duress".

In the modern Republic of Korea, a painful attitude towards the colonial period remains. This is largely due to the fact that she did not receive

no reparations, no apologies. Its representatives did not take part in the conclusion of the San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951. Although, after the restoration of relations in 1965, Japan paid the Republic of Korea about $800 million in loans, many Koreans considered this an agreement and Japan's refusal to recognize its crimes. Fuel was added to the fire by Japanese history books, which defended the idea that Japan "was forced" to occupy Korea in order to prevent its colonization by Russia, that the Dokdo Islands are Japanese territory. Korean activists still occasionally bring up the problem of Japanese school textbooks by holding rallies, usually on the anniversary of Korea's liberation - August 15, and on the anniversary of the annexation of Korea - August 22 (the day the annexation treaty was signed) or August 29 (the day the treaty entered into force in force).

Korean-Japanese relations are periodically aggravated in connection with visits by high-ranking Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni Shinto shrine, which contains memorial tablets with the names of fallen soldiers and officers of the Japanese army, including those who were recognized as war criminals. In Korea and China, a visit to Yasukuni is regarded as an insult to the memory of the victims, as a revival of militarism. Japanese officials vaguely formulate their apologies to the victims of Japanese aggression in Asia while visiting Yasukuni. However, during the period of aggravation of Japanese-Korean or Japanese-Chinese relations, the Japanese Prime Minister sometimes refrains from visiting the temple. In August 2013, Shinzo Abe refused to visit Yasukuni, but made a donation to the temple as the leader of the ruling party in order to "save face".

A characteristic marker of colonial discourse is South Korean cinema. An example is the film Blue Swallow (2006), dedicated to Park Kyungwon, the first female pilot of colonial Korea and the Japanese Empire of Korean origin. The film sparked heated discussions in Korean society, as it raised the issue: was it possible to achieve professional success without cooperating with the Japanese authorities? .

It is likely that in the coming years in Korea there will be a smooth departure from the radical perception of “collaborationism”. First, because it is often very difficult or even impossible to define the criteria for this concept. Classifying someone as a chinilpha, "collaborationist" is often controversial, as is the definition of the degree of "collaborationism" and "betrayal of the Korean people." Secondly, many have realized that the accusation of "collaborationism" has become a tool in the political struggle. One of the indicators of this attitude was the victory in the 2012 presidential election of Park Geun-hye, the daughter of Park Chung-hee. The evolution of attitudes towards the colonial period is significantly complicated by the tension in Korean-Japanese relations. However, predominantly internal Korean factors will play a decisive role, and over time, Korean society will reach a consensus on the perception of the colonial period in general and chinilpha in particular.

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