Needs and needs

According to Philip Kotler, "need is the lack of something necessary that is felt by a person." Needs are inherent in every person from birth, their number is limited and stable (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.). They are caused by human physiology, without their satisfaction life is impossible. Need is what brings people together. everyone has the same set of them, they exist a priori, and are not created by society or marketing activities.

The need is a specific form of manifestation of need and depends on the historical period, cultural, national, personal characteristics of the consumer. Needs are what separates people Needs change and are influenced by social forces and marketing activities. Needs are transformed into demand for goods if they are supported by the financial ability to satisfy and the desire to buy. Marketing tries to influence needs by creating demand by making the product attractive and available.

John Kenneth Galbraith believed that if a need is really felt, then the production of a product is useful, while at the same time advertising is responsible for creating needs in order to "generate desires that did not previously exist." In this case, there is an artificial need. Marketing creates needs and demand, and this activity should be carried out on the basis of social responsibility. Needs that cannot be transformed into demand through low purchasing power cause psychological discomfort and create social tension. The influence of the media can lead to the emergence of needs that are contrary to ethical and moral standards.

"False" and "real" needs

French researchers Jean Marie Guyot and Jacques Attali developed the theory of false and real needs. Real needs are based on needs, while "false" needs are created by society and the manufacturer. In addition, they believe that "false" needs are artificially formed and, as a result, begin to be considered "normal and natural." Dependence on certain goods begins to form and they move into the category of need.

Absolute and relative needs

John Maynard Keynes classifies needs into absolute and relative Under absolute he understands needs that do not have a level of satisfaction, they are either satisfied or not Relative - needs that have a level of satisfaction Relative needs cannot be satiated, because the higher their level, the greater the desire exceed this level. Saturation of absolute needs is possible, but relative - no. Even in the pursuit of material comfort, it is impossible to objectively determine the level that would correspond to satisfaction. When a person reaches the level defined as the target, she begins to predict a new stage of possible improvement.

Often people whose standard of living has risen in absolute terms are inclined to believe that their situation has worsened if those whom they have always considered as an object of comparison began to live better than they(J.M. Keynes).

Generic and derived needs

Lyman Abbott divided needs into generic and derived, or quasi-consumptions. A derived need is a technological response (product) to a generic need. For example, a car is a derived need from a generic need for individual vehicles. Saturation of a generic need is impossible, unlike a derived need. The marginal utility of a derived need tends to decrease. However, the generic need is not saturated because the consumer buys new improved goods and, therefore, to satisfy new derived needs. These derived needs, in turn, are saturated, and then changed with the help of new, improved goods. This illustrates the product life cycle model. The saturation of derived needs occurs at two levels: firstly, when improving the technical characteristics of goods (more economical cars) and, secondly, when replacing one technological solution with another that has higher parameters (flash cards replace CDs) .

The concept and nature of human needs.

Need- this is a state of a person that develops on the basis of a contradiction between what is available and what is necessary (or what seems necessary to a person) and encourages him to work to eliminate this contradiction

Personality is formed in the process of active interaction with the outside world, which is made possible through activity. To identify the causes of this activity, its psychological forms and manifestations, means to characterize the personality from the side of its orientation and the most important life relationships.

Freud argued that a person is active as a result of the fact that he has instinctive urges inherited from animal ancestors, and, above all, the sexual instinct and the instinct of self-preservation. However, in society, instincts cannot reveal themselves as freely as in the animal world, society imposes many restrictions on a person, subjects his instincts or drives to “censorship”, which forces a person to suppress, slow them down. Instinctive drives are thus forced out of the conscious life of the individual as shameful, unacceptable, compromising and pass into the subconscious, go underground, but do not disappear. While retaining their energy charge, they continue to control the behavior of the individual, reincarnating into various products of human activity.

The needs of people are constantly evolving, the satisfaction of some needs and desires causes the emergence of others. With the growth of the diversity of production and the life of society in general, needs change. An important role in this process is played not only by technical and social progress, but also fashion.

The development of human needs is closely related to the nature of human abilities. People are able to produce beneficial effects in the processing of the substance of nature, the use of energy and the receipt of information. The person is curious and therefore the need for constant development of knowledge about the world around us and oneself. A person is able to create something new, he is a creative being, and therefore he needs freedom for his activities, resources for various forms of creativity, and social support for other members of society.

Human needs are public-private character. This finds expression, firstly, in the fact that even to satisfy needs that seem to have a narrowly personal character, the results of the social division of labor are used.

Secondly, in order to satisfy needs, a person uses the methods and techniques that have historically developed in a given social environment, and needs certain conditions.

And, thirdly, a lot of human needs are expressed not so much by his narrow-minded needs as by the needs of society, the collective, the group to which the person belongs, with which he works - the needs of the team acquire the character of the needs of the individual.

Explaining needs through the concept of motive

Satisfaction of needs is connected with the motives of human activity. in scientific theory, the concept of need denotes not a need experienced by a person, but a constant contradiction between the current situation and the necessary conditions for human life and development (for example, quenching one’s thirst with a glass of water does not eliminate a person’s need for water, without which his normal life activity is impossible). Therefore, needs act as a constant internal stimulus for any activity (including human activity). This thesis is also associated with the 4th stage of the implementation of the motive - consolidation (when repeated repetition leads to the transformation of the motive into a character trait, into a constant motivating potency).

Classification of needs

Biological (nutrition, water, movement, procreation).

Social (work, social activity, self-realization and self-affirmation in society).

Spiritual (knowledge, knowledge).

Such a variety of needs reflects the complex essence of man as a biosocio-spiritual being. The unity of the various aspects of human existence is expressed in the close interconnection, interdependence and interdependence of its needs. Biological human needs for drink, food, sleep are satisfied in social forms. In turn, the satisfaction of spiritual needs (for example, in knowledge) often serves as a means of realizing social needs (getting a profession, changing one's own social status). Sexual attraction develops into one of the most subtle and sublime spiritual needs - the need for individual love.

Psychologists distinguish needs authentic(reasonable) and imaginary(unreasonable, false). Satisfaction of only imaginary needs leads to physical and spiritual degradation of the individual and society, damages nature and society. Genuine needs encourage a person to an active, prudent, socially useful life, contribute to the physical and spiritual improvement of the individual without harming nature and other people.

The problem of needs among thinkers of antiquity The first Greek philosophers sought to build a harmonious relationship between man and the world. They viewed man as a microcosm - a miniature copy of the vast cosmos (macrocosm), in which all the forces of the universe are represented. There is a certain harmony between nature, man and the social world, and the satisfaction of needs should not violate it. So, the first Greek philosopher - Thales of Miletus(c. 625 - c. 547 BC) said that happy is the one who is “healthy in body, rich in kind, well-educated in soul”. From other statements of Thales it can be seen that he sought to teach the individual reasonable behavior in the human community, the ability to combine personal and public interests, not satisfy individual needs to the detriment of fellow citizens.

The thinkers of ancient Greece identified the main worldview problems that arise in the formation of needs. The founder of the materialistic trend in Western philosophy Democritus drew attention to the growth of needs, the existence of reasonable and unreasonable needs. “How much smarter than a man is an animal that, having a need, knows its size! he exclaimed. - Man does not know the limits of his needs". Here, the rise of needs is clearly seen as a lack of man. Democritus was one of the first to prove that in order to achieve happiness, it is not an unbridled pursuit of pleasures that is necessary, but control over one’s needs, a reasonable restriction of desires: “If you go beyond the measure, then the most pleasant will become the most unpleasant”, “Immeasurable desire is characteristic of a child, not a mature husband”, “Strong desires, aimed at achieving one thing, make the soul blind in relation to everything else.” The Greek philosopher offers a way to counteract the destruction of the human personality that arises from the dissatisfaction (or from the feeling of dissatisfaction) of material needs. Ancient thinkers countered the immoderate pursuit of material goods with the desire for spiritual goods. “People should take more care of the soul than of the body,” Democritus argued. According to surviving evidence, he highly valued the need for knowledge and argued that he would rather "prefer to find one causal explanation than to acquire the Persian throne." Ancient thinkers considered material needs less important than spiritual ones. This also applied to material labor activity - the emerging engineering, technical creativity. Material labor was considered the lot of slaves - the lowest class of society, which cannot be compared with free aristocrats.

Greek philosopher Xenophon wrote: “People can be made obedient with a word, indicating that obedience is useful for them. For slaves, even such an education, which seems purely animal, is very suitable to teach them to obey. For by catering to the inclinations of their stomach, much can be gained from them. Praise works well on ambitious natures, since some crave praise no less than others for food and drink. Satisfaction of the simplest physiological needs was considered as the main form of remuneration for slave labor: “For a slave, the food he receives is a reward”, “Slaves assigned to more noble occupations need to be given attention, and slaves engaged in low labor should be fed enough”, “Hunting for labor can also be caused by a freer regime, a freer measure of food and clothing”, “Leaders should be encouraged with rewards and try to have slaves for cohabitation, from whom they would have children.” In this way, dosing the degree of satisfaction of biological and social needs served under conditions of slavery as an effective mechanism for managing labor. The first classification of human needs was given by a follower of Democritus - the ancient Greek atomist Epicurus“It must be taken into account,” he wrote, “that desires are one - natural, others - empty, and of the natural ones, some are necessary, while others are only natural; and of the necessary ones, some are necessary for happiness, others for the tranquility of the body, and still others for life itself. A similar classification is actually used by modern scientists. In fact, Epicurus first divides all needs (which he calls "desires") into reasonable ("natural") and unreasonable ("empty"). Then reasonable are divided into necessary and not necessary. Necessary, in turn, are divided into those necessary for happiness, necessary for a person as a living organism (body) and, finally, vital (i.e. absolutely necessary, without the satisfaction of which life is basically impossible). This classification basically corresponds to the modern doctrine of needs, which are usually divided into essential (necessary for life itself) and non-essential (necessary for happiness and necessary for the body).

Needs and abilities

Needs

The words "need" and "ability" are known to everyone. Now we understand what is behind them. At the everyday level, a need is what a person wants, and an ability is what he can. In science, it is somewhat more complicated, but also simple. Need is a constant contradiction between the existing situation and the constant need of a person for something. (For example, a person wants to sleep, he has a need for sleep now - and he got enough sleep. At this particular moment, the need is satisfied, but the potential need for sleep remains - the person will still want to sleep anyway). In order to satisfy any need, a person must do something. It follows from this that Need is a constant internal stimulus of a person to action, that is, to activity.

instinct and need. Their types and relationship

At the heart of any human need is a corresponding innate instinct. Instinct is a biological, that is, a natural factor inherent in an individual as a living being.

Instincts can be divided into three groups:

1. Vital (Latin - life), that is, ensuring the vital activity of the organism (food, reproduction, etc.);

2. Social - the need for relationships between individuals;

3. Intellectual - the need for knowledge of the world around. (orienting instinct)

As I have already written, instincts determine needs. Therefore, the needs can be divided into similar groups:

1. Biological - the need for everything that provides life;

2. Social - the need for work, self-realization, self-affirmation - in a word, in what follows from human relationships.

3. Spiritual - the need for knowledge, knowledge, culture ...

Imaginary and real needs

You can also distinguish between real and imaginary needs. Without dwelling on this for a long time, I will say the essence: Genuine needs are those that lead to the development of personality. Imaginary or false - on the contrary, lead to degradation. You can find examples on your own.

Capabilities

Ability is an individual feature of a person, on which the success of the activity performed by him depends. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that ability is not just the ability to do something well, but also how quickly, how completely, how firmly (in the sense of duration) something is done. Abilities are now considered as a synthesis of biological and social in a person. Simply put, abilities are laid down genetically (there are genetic programs of behavior encoded in DNA molecules), but they develop only in the process of life. In other words, it is not the ability itself that is genetically laid, but the ability to have the ability. Therefore, the development of any ability depends on many social factors. The criterion for the typology of abilities is usually various types of activity - science, music, art. And abilities are distinguished - artistic, musical, engineering, literary, etc. In addition, within the framework of psychology, general abilities are also distinguished that are responsible for success in various types of activities. (that is, if a student has mathematical abilities, for example, mathematics, history, physics, biology are successfully taught ...)

Talent and genius.

As a middle and extreme version of the development of abilities, talent and genius are distinguished. Talent is a set of abilities that allows you to create something that is perfect, but within the framework of existing knowledge or skills. Genius is such a combination of abilities or an ability that allows you to create a fundamentally new, something that has no analogues yet.

Needs and value system

So, the value system, being a psychological characteristic of a mature personality, one of the central personality formations, expresses a person's meaningful attitude to social reality and, as such, determines the motivation of his behavior, has a significant impact on all aspects of his activity. As an element of the personality structure, value orientations characterize the internal readiness to perform certain activities to meet the needs, indicate the direction of its behavior. Each society has a unique value-oriented structure, which reflects the identity of this culture. In general, we can conclude that the needs of a society, a group of people or an individual are always in deep connection with value systems. And if we characterize this relationship within the framework of service activities, then it must be said that services are in demand only if they harmoniously fit into the value system of potential consumers or correspond in their content to the direction in which it is currently changing.

True and false needs

Books by Luule Viilma, and in particular, her reasoning about the importance of understanding the difference between “want” and “need”, helped to understand the difference between desires and true needs. She suggested doing a very simple experiment that you can do right now without getting up from your chair.

Imagine some thing that you would like to have and repeat many times: “I want, I want, I want ... this thing ...” At the same time, observe your feelings. The most observant, or, rather, sensitive, will notice how an aggressive feeling grows at the same time. And, indeed, what “I want” is - this is the desire to seize (grab), get something, by all means. Remember what children look like when they demand toys from their parents at the counters. Children shout "I want, buy" and the most natural in their manifestations, they really demonstrate aggression. Noticed?

The second part of the experiment is to repeat the word "need" in the same way. You will notice that you feel very different energies. There is no aggression at all costs to get something. The word “need” reflects a true, thoughtful, real NEED.

This is where the dog is buried. When we WANT TO HAVE HEALTH, we want it. And where there is aggression, anger, there is fear, which goes along with aggression. Fear that we won't get what we so passionately want. A person who says that he WANTS money is simply afraid that he will not survive without money. A person who says that he WANTS to get well demonstrates that he is simply afraid of not getting that same health. What is his health for? After all, what is the value of health in itself? Why do we need health at all? If we substantiated this NEED, thought over and explained to ourselves why we NEED our health, then, perhaps, we would have it and would be cured easily and naturally.

And they would say to themselves that “I need to be healthy in order to have the strength and opportunities to realize my plans, my mission on this Earth, my spiritual, creative potential. I NEED it."

From the book The Strategy of Reason and Success author Antipov Anatoly

True and false goals How to get rid of false goals and not exchange yourself and your life for nothing? Not only science and art are interested in these questions, they arise - sooner or later, one way or another - before everyone who has any meaningful and responsible attitude to

From the book 12 Christian beliefs that can drive you crazy by John Townsend

True and False Goals of Happiness There are so many people in the world who have passed exams, bought a car and a house, made a career, but they have neither peace of mind, nor joy, nor happiness. How to free yourself from false goals and not exchange yourself and your life for nothing ? Not only science and

From the book Life Without Effort. A short guide to contentment, attention and flow. by Babaut Leo

Satisfying Our Needs Helps Me Satisfy Other People's Needs The misconception that satisfying our own needs is a sign of selfishness is so common among Christians precisely because we all want to be loving and

From the book Harmony of Family Relations author Vladin Vladislav Zinovievich

From the book Psychology of the Subconscious author Underwater Absalom

TRUE AND IMAGINARY DISORDERS Impotence has always, or at least has been a real punishment for men for a very long time. This is evidenced by at least such facts - a significant part of medicines, plants, animals or their parts have been prescribed since ancient times.

From the book How to recognize a liar by sign language. A practical guide for those who do not want to be deceived author Malyshkina Maria Viktorovna

False needs There are needs that are formed not by the spirit, but by consciousness and the environment; they can safely be called false. We will consider two of them: the need for pleasure and the need for happiness. Pleasure has a single function - it is an indicator of quality

From the book Success or Positive Thinking author Bogachev Philip Olegovich

How to Recognize True Feelings People are often unaware of how contradictory their behavior looks. They say one thing, but gestures, postures and facial expressions express something completely different. It is body language that expresses true feelings and attitudes. Ability to understand non-verbal

From the book Supersensitive Nature. How to succeed in a crazy world by Eiron Elaine

From the book Pledge of the Possibility of Existence author Pokrass Mikhail Lvovich

Chapter 10 Soul and Spirit Where are the true treasures hidden? HSPs also have mental and spiritual properties. By soul I mean something more refined and sublime than the physical body, but personified like dreams and fantasies; the spirit rises and at the same time contains

From the book Codependency - the ability to love [a manual for relatives and friends of a drug addict, alcoholic] author Zaitsev Sergey Nikolaevich

NEEDS FOR “NEEDS SATISFACTION SIGNALS” - IS THESE A NEW NEEDS? The first direction in which a person develops needs acquired during life is nothing more than the identification by him in the process of practical interaction with

From the book Reasonable World [How to live without unnecessary worries] author Sviyash Alexander Grigorievich

NEEDS FOR WAYS OF ACTIVITY (IN SKILLS), NEEDS FOR ACTIVITY AND ACTIVE STATE (IN STRENGTH) The second direction in which the formation of acquired needs is carried out is the formation of needs for skills

From the book Live with Feeling. How to set goals for which the soul lies author Laporte Daniella

SUMMARY. NEEDS FOR SIGNALS OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SATISFACTION - REAL NEEDS

From the book 52 Mondays [How to achieve any goals in a year] by Johnson Wick

Chapter 20: The True Size of the Threat Perhaps codependents underestimate the danger, and therefore do not want to act effectively. Why codependents do not want to act effectively? No, it cannot be said that they do nothing for the patient. They do, and a lot, but

From the author's book

Life realizes true desires Hence the recommendation follows - try to order what you really need, which is your true desire. Life fulfills our true desires well and poorly - far-fetched ones. The true ones are those who live in the depths

From the author's book

How to Know Your True Desired Feelings This is the most important and beautiful reason why we are here. It's time to listen to your inner self and hear your desires sing.

From the author's book

Exercise #27 Dive into the Real Reality of Success Here's your challenge for this week—find a person who has succeeded at the same or a similar goal as you and find out what the positives and negatives of their success are. For example,

There are needs that are formed not by the spirit, but by consciousness and the environment; they can safely be called false. We will consider two of them: the need for pleasure and the need for happiness.

Pleasure has only one function - it is quality indicator meeting a need; and together with the withering away of the need, the pleasures specific to it end without any harm to the person. The habit of pleasures of any type is a false (that is, artificially created) program that greatly distorts the rhythm of a person's energy life.

As for happiness, a person is not created for him, like a bird for flight, contrary to the opinion of the classic of socialist realism. Happiness is a spiritual category, not an emotional one, and since emotional life is secondary to spiritual life, happiness cannot be an emotional state or its consequence. Happiness is the gingerbread that is given out personally by the spirit when a person follows the true path, this is not a mental or emotional, but a spiritual state, when a person essentially, deep inside, feels the support of his spirit. And find happiness(sorry for the cliché, dear reader) a person can only for a short period of time, since a tireless spirit will create a new need, a new tension in the outside world, new trials - life goes on!

Striving for power. Depending on the evolutionary level and environment, this need can take various forms: domestic tyranny, political power, dominion over the minds, dominion over nature, dominion over oneself (in a broad sense); it is necessary to distinguish the desire to obtain power from the desire to exercise power (say, to freely move posts in one's diocese at the behest of one's own "left foot"). The basis of the need for power is the desire of the spirit to reveal its volitional aspect, that is, about which is called in religious texts omnipotence(the last term means not t about that God can do anything, and about that all power belongs to Him). Man really needs feel this power; the question of its correct application is one of the central spiritual tasks of man.

The need for communication has very complex roots. In addition to the desire for self-expression and knowledge, the need for communication is largely due to group human karma - but this topic is beyond the scope of the treatise, so the author will limit himself here to brief remarks. The fact is that in order to get rid of group karma, coordinated actions of groups of people are required, and this very need is given for successful unification to help humanity; the problem of loneliness is a karmic connection arising from unwillingness to listen to group (family, national, etc.) problems. Satisfaction from communication in the form of appropriate energy flows arises only when the result of communication is work for the benefit of evolution (and not mutual pleasure!). Communication with the aim of obtaining pleasure (of any kind) can bring the indicated pleasure, but the lack of communication, that is, the whip of the corresponding need, does not remove.

death instinct. This is a very powerful and ancient program, the purpose of which is to facilitate the decay and death of the physical body at the end of life. V. Veresaev has interesting observations on this topic in his Notes of a Doctor.

Modern chemotherapy and resuscitation services can do much to oppose this program, sometimes successfully stretching the agony of death for a long time. Reflections of the death instinct can also be seen in the normal course of life: these are some depressions, bad moods, decreased tone - in general, a state of low energy (the essence of the death instinct is that the corresponding program closes the chakras, primarily muladhara, and blocks energy flows). The subconscious mind tries to find a way out by opening the higher chakras - thoughts of a philosophical nature, about God, fate, etc., enter the person’s head. Sometimes there is an update, there is a revelation or local enlightenment, and sometimes nothing like this happens. However, it should be borne in mind that “silent” suicide, that is, a conscious constant call to the death instinct (the slogan: “I don’t want to live”), which gradually destroys the physical body, is no better than ordinary suicide from a karmic point of view, since in both cases, a person does not complete his karmic deeds and ties a strong karmic knot on himself and others; According to yoga teachers, suicide is murder.

Read the information.
Need - the need experienced and realized by a person for what is necessary for the maintenance of the body and the development of his personality.
There are various classifications of human needs. In fact, they can be grouped into three groups:

• biological(natural, innate, physiological, organic, natural) - needs that are associated with the biological (physiological) nature of man, i.e. with everything that is necessary for existence, development and reproduction.

• social- needs that are associated with the public (social) nature of man, i.e. determined by a person's belonging to society.

• spiritual(ideal, cognitive, cultural) - needs that are associated with the knowledge of the surrounding world, oneself and the meaning of one's existence, i.e. in everything that is necessary for spiritual development.

Features of human needs:
1. All human needs are interconnected. For example, while satisfying hunger, a person takes care of the aesthetics of the table, the variety of dishes, the cleanliness and beauty of dishes, pleasant company, etc. The satisfaction of biological needs acquires many social facets in a person: culinary subtleties, the decor, the table setting, the quality of the dishes, the design of the dish, and the pleasant company that shares his meal are important.
2. not all human needs can be satisfied.
3. needs should not contradict the moral standards of society.
Genuine(reasonable) needs- needs that help develop in a person his truly human qualities: the desire for truth, beauty, knowledge, the desire to bring good to people, etc.
Imaginary(irrational, false) needs- needs, the satisfaction of which leads to the physical and spiritual degradation of the individual, damages nature and society.
4. inexhaustibility, infinity, an infinite number of needs.

• describing human needs, the American psychologist A. described man as a "desiring being", which rarely reaches a state of complete, complete satisfaction.

• Russian psychologist and philosopher S.L. spoke of the insatiability of human needs.

Consider examples.

Need group
Biological	Satisfying hunger, thirst, the desire to protect themselves from the cold, breathe fresh air, housing, clothing, food, sleep, rest, etc.
Social	Social ties, communication, affection, caring for another person, attention to oneself, participation in joint activities, belonging to a social group, social recognition, labor activity, creation, creativity, social activity, friendship, love, etc.
Spiritual	Self-expression, self-affirmation, knowledge of the surrounding world and one's place in it, the meaning of one's existence, and many others. others

Additionally consider information about what underlies the classification of needs from the point of view of well-known psychologists.

Used Books: 3. Unified State Examination 2009. Social studies. Reference book / O.V.Kishenkova. - M.: Eksmo, 2008. 4. Social science: USE-2008: real tasks / ed. O.A. Kotova, T.E. Liskova. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2008. 8. Social science: a complete reference book / P.A. Baranov, A.V. Vorontsov, S.V. Shevchenko; ed. P.A. Baranova. - M.: AST: Astrel; Vladimir: VKT, 2010. 9. Social science: profile. level: textbook. For 10 cells. general education Institutions / L.N. Bogolyubov, A.Yu. Lazebnikova, N.M. Smirnova and others, ed. LN Bogolyubova and others - M.: Education, 2007. 12. Social science. Grade 10: textbook. for general education institutions: basic level / L.N. Bogolyubov, Yu.I. Averyanov, N.I. Gorodetskaya and others; ed. L.N. Bogolyubova; Ros. acad. Sciences, Ros. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". 6th ed. - M.: Education, 2010. 13. Social science. Grade 11: textbook. for general education institutions: basic level / L.N. Bogolyubov, N.I. Gorodetskaya, A.I. Matveev and others; ed. L.N. Bogolyubova; Ros. acad. Sciences, Ros. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". 6th ed. - M.: Education, 2010. Used Internet resources: Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia