1. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist A. A. Reformatsky: “What in the language allows it to fulfill its main role - the function of communication? It's the syntax." Arguing your answer, give 2 (two) examples from the read text. When giving examples, indicate the numbers of the required sentences or use citations. You can write a work in a scientific or journalistic style, revealing the topic on linguistic material. You can start the composition with the words of A. A. Reformatsky. The essay must be at least 70 words. A work written without relying on the text read (not on this text) is not evaluated. If the essay is a paraphrase or a complete rewrite of the source text without any comments, then such work is evaluated by zero points. Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting.
2. Write an essay-reasoning. Explain how you understand the meaning of the text fragment: “Lyosha did not answer right away, because in such cases, as you know, an invisible conductor gives a sign to invisible violins, and joining a sounding orchestra is not easy for an unusual person.” In your essay, give 2 (two) arguments from the read text that confirm your reasoning. When giving examples, indicate the numbers of the required sentences or use citations. The essay must be at least 70 words. If the essay is a paraphrase or a complete rewrite of the source text without any comments, then such work is evaluated by zero points. Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting.
3. How do you understand the meaning of the word LOVE? Formulate and comment on your definition. Write an essay-reasoning on the topic “What is true love”, taking the definition you gave as a thesis. Arguing your thesis, give 2 (two) examples-arguments that confirm your reasoning: give one example-argument from the read text, and the second - from your life experience. The essay must be at least 70 words. If the essay is a paraphrase or a complete rewrite of the source text without any comments, then such work is evaluated by zero points. Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting.
(1) A model of an atom with a silvery nucleus and electrons fixed on wire orbits stood on a rickety shelf supported by Zinochka Kryuchkova, a very small and very proud girl with a sharp face. (2) Around against the background of glass cabinets, diagrams and tables of the physical cabinet, a stormy life was in full swing.
- (3) Well, so no one will help hammer in a nail? Galya Vishnyakova, the most beautiful girl in the school, was indignant. (4) She, along with Zinochka, could not cope with the shelf in any way. - (5) Boys, I have already knocked off all my fingers.
(6) Lyosha would very deftly hammer this nail. (7) Not a great feat, but still it would be somehow easier: universal recognition could save him from the bitter feeling of loneliness. (8) But as soon as he approached the girls, how Gali again had a desire for independence. (9) She was clearly expecting something else. (10) And waited. (11) The hammer was intercepted by a slender giant in sweatpants - Vakhtang.
(12) Zinochka took pity on Lyosha.
- (13) Let this type beat, - to console Lyosha, Zinochka nodded dismissively at Vakhtang, - he is taller.
(14) Lyosha watched sadly as Vakhtang, having made several “warm-up” movements, hit the hammer past the nail and jumped, blowing on his bruised fingers. (15) Forgetting about Lyosha, the girls laughed favorably: Vakhtang was forgiven everything.
(16) Lyosha walked away from them with a contemptuous gesture: “This shelf of yours is waist-deep.” (17) But the gesture did not help: the bitter feeling did not pass.
(18) And suddenly, in a beam of light falling from the window, Lyosha saw a new one. (19) From an inconspicuous girl, she has now turned into the most noticeable. (20) With glasses, chocolate brown from a southern tan, the girl smiled at him so much that he even looked around.
(21) But there was no one else to whom this smile could have been intended.
- (22) Is your name Lesha? the girl asked, and Lyosha realized that she had been watching him for a long time.
(23) Lyosha did not answer right away, because in such cases, as you know, an invisible conductor gives a sign to invisible violins, and joining a sounding orchestra is not easy for an unusual person.
- (24) I remember, - Lyosha said carefully and, it seems, did not spoil anything.
- (25) Because I’m reading about Clairaut, and his name was Alexis.
- (26) And you are Zhenya Karetnikova, from Krasnodar, - Lyosha answered, fearing that the conversation would get stuck on the unknown Alexis.
- (27) I remember, - Zhenya said.
(28) Gradually, Lyosha realized that the orchestra was playing a not-so-difficult melody, that some liberties were possible in it, and that he, Lyosha, was also quite on the level.
- (29) Why do you look out the window all the time in class? Zhenya asked and went to Lyosha's window. - (30) What did you see there?
(31) Lyosha stood next to Zhenya.
(32) From the window they could see the large open pavilion "Fruits and Vegetables", located on the other side of the street. (33) Nearby, a glass telephone booth reflected the dazzling blue of the autumn sky.
- (34) Is it necessary to listen to what the teachers say in the lessons? - Lyosha asked with irony, which he had never been able to demonstrate to any girl.
- (35) If you didn’t come up with something new instead of: “I taught, but forgot.”
(36) Lyosha laughed.
- (37) These words must be carved in marble, - he said.
- (38) You can ... at my table ... (39) I am also sitting alone, - Zhenya suggested.
(According to M. Lvovsky) *
*Mikhail Grigoryevich Lvovsky (1919-1994) - Russian Soviet songwriter, playwright, screenwriter.
Explanation.
1. The famous linguist A. A. Reformatsky said: “What in the language allows it to fulfill its main role - the function of communication? It's the syntax." To understand the meaning of this statement, you need to find out the meaning of the word "syntax". Syntax is a branch of grammar - the science of connecting words and building sentences. The author of the statement is convinced that the connection between objects and phenomena in our minds is expressed, among other things, through syntactic norms for constructing phrases and sentences.
Let us turn to the text of M. G. Lvovsky.
Let's analyze the grammatical structure of sentence 1 (A model of an atom with a silvery nucleus and electrons fixed on wire orbits stood on a rickety shelf supported by Zinochka Kryuchkova, a very small and very proud girl with a sharp face.) It is a complex sentence with an attributive clause. In addition, the sentence is complicated by the common separate application "a very small and very proud girl with a sharp face." This allows the author to make a capacious statement.
Sentence No. 38 (You can ... at my table ...), on the contrary, is simple, as if unequivocally summing up the unexpectedly started conversation of the guys: their life will now change. For example, syntax resources help express the author's intent accurately and coherently.
Summing up our reasoning, we come to the conclusion that Reformatsky was right in asserting the important role of syntax for expressing the speaker's attitude to the outside world.
2. The hero of the text by M. G. Lvovsky Lyosha did not expect that Zhenya could speak to him. He drew attention to her, he even liked her, but from an unexpected question he was embarrassed and it was necessary to urgently decide what to do next. That is why the author compares the situation with the sound of an orchestra: “Lyosha did not answer right away, because in such cases, as you know, an invisible conductor gives a sign to invisible violins, and it is not easy for an unusual person to join a sounding orchestra.”
Lesha's relationship with his classmates is not simple, he did not become “one of his own” for them, and therefore he feels insecure. Lyosha is so unsure of himself that he is embarrassed by Zhenya's attention. It is difficult for him to build relationships, he doubts whether the interlocutor will be interesting.
In a crowd of strangers, Lyosha found his "cherished" girl. Imperceptibly, on a subconscious level, a great feeling arises, the name of which is Love.
Not everyone in life happens to experience true love. And if you have been given this feeling, rejoice that fate has not deprived you of one of the most beautiful trials on earth.
3. What is love? What meaning do we put into this word? Why do we need it? Is it needed at all? These eternal questions haunt many generations.
Love is a great, bright feeling, peculiar only to a person on Earth, it is a feeling of deep sympathy and a selfless desire to make a loved one happy.
The hero of the text by M. G. Lvovsky, Lyosha, found his “cherished” girl: something pushed them to each other, for some reason they saw each other. Imperceptibly, on a subconscious level, a great feeling arises, the name of which is Love.
Love, to be lasting, must be based on feelings such as trust and respect. It's hard to love someone you don't respect and don't trust.
An example of a real feeling is the love of Romeo and Juliet. The heroes of Shakespeare are ready for anything, just to be together, because without each other the world ceases to exist for them, because without each other life is meaningless. And even when they need to drink a deadly poison, they do not think, because they trust each other.
It's wonderful when you meet true love along the way, it means that fate has not deprived you of one of the most beautiful feelings on earth.
Sochin Option 15
Task 15.1
Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist A.A. Reformed: " What in the language allows it to fulfill its main role - the function of communication? This is the syntax." Justify your answer by giving 2 examples from the text you read.
Let's remember what is syntax.
Syntax together with morphology constitutes the grammar of the Russian language.
Syntax (gr. syntaxis - compilation) is a section of linguistics that studies the ways of combining words into phrases and sentences, various types of syntactic units, their structure, functions and conditions of use. It turns out that syntax studies the structure of connected speech.
The syntactic units are the sentence and the phrase. Their role and purpose in speech are not the same. The minimum unit of communication is the sentence. A sentence is the basic syntactic unit. It serves as the main means of expressing and communicating thoughts in the process of communication between people. A phrase is an auxiliary unit used to build a sentence.
Therefore, syntax studies a sentence - its structure, grammatical properties and types, as well as a phrase - the minimum grammatically related combination of words. (© www.tutoronline.ru)
Let's write an essay together!
The famous linguist A.A. Reformed wrote: What in the language allows it to fulfill its main role - the function of communication? This is the syntax." (Following sentence tocomments on this statement based on theoretical information about syntax - see above.) As you know, syntax studies a phrase and a sentence, which is the minimum unit of communication. It is syntactic units built according to certain laws that serve as a means of expressing thoughts in communication between people. To confirm the validity of this thought, let us turn to the proposed text.
The story of L. Panteleev is a dialogic unity, that is, a sequence of interrelated remarks. This is its main syntactic feature. It is during the dialogue that the narrator receives an answer to his many questions about why the sentry boy cannot leave his post: "... quote sentence 22..."
In addition to the short sentences typical of dialogue, there are more complex syntactic constructions in the text. (Give a complex sentence as an example, indicate the types of syntactic links in it. Tell me why in this case the author used a complex sentence. Further, in green font, I give my example, but when writing an essay should replace him to others.) complex sentence "If you gave your word of honor, you have to stand like that, no matter what happens, but it's a game or not a game - it doesn't matter" different types of communication between the parts are used: writing and subordinating. Subordinate conditions and concessions help the author express his attitude towards the boy with a strong will and a strong word.
(You can give examples of sentences 1, 23, 30 or 55)
(Write the conclusion) So, A.A. The Reformed is right: it is the syntax, which is responsible for the construction of the sentence and the whole text, that helps to carry out the communicative function of the language.
Task 15.2
Let's write an essay together!
At the end of his story "Honest Word" L. Panteleev writes: "A boy who has such a strong will and such a strong word will not be afraid of the dark, will not be afraid of hooligans, and will not be afraid of even more terrible things." In this sentence, the narrator expresses his admiration for the child's deed. Alone, dreading the coming night, the boy still... (keep it up)
The boy could not break his word, although the circumstances had changed: they forgot about him and the assignment given to him. But for him, playing war is a serious occupation: "I am a sentry", "I said my word of honor." And this is a strong word!
Remaining true to this promise, the boy showed amazing willpower for a child. (Give examples from the text. Pay attention to sentences 5-6, 27-29).
(You need to complete the essay so as not to repeat the phrases "strong will" and "strong word", which we have already used more than once in the essay).
So, the author managed to convince readers that nothing will force his little hero to be a coward. With his high concept of honor and duty, he will grow up to be a real... (see sentence 47), real... (see sentence 55)
Task 15.3
How do you understand the meaning of the word SELF-EDUCATION? Formulate and comment on your definition. Write an essay-reasoning on the topic: “What is self-education”, taking the definition you gave as a thesis. Arguing your thesis, give 2 (two) examples-arguments that confirm your reasoning: give one example-argument from the text you read, and the second from your life experience.
The essay must be at least 70 words.
When you write an essay, keep in mind that the boy's behavior in an emergency is the result of his work on himself, the result of self-education.
Texts about Suvorov and Demosthenes can serve as examples from life experience. After all, these people, too, from childhood, brought up the will and purposefulness in themselves.
The term "syntax" is used as the name of a branch of the science of language, designed to study the construction of sentences and phrases. They are used by people to communicate with each other. If it comes to the process of communication, then syntax plays a very important role in it, since through correctly constructed speech, the interlocutors are able to understand each other's thoughts. Otherwise, any point of view can be misunderstood. It is necessary to adhere to the observance of syntactic norms, the correct linking of words, the use of suitable punctuation marks.
As an example, let's use the text of L. Panteleev. First of all, having read sentences 19-22, the reader sees how the dialogue is conducted by the two main characters. Their remarks are characterized by brevity and dynamism, used in oral speech. Sentences 41 and 43 contain the appeal “comrade sergeant” or “comrade major”, which help to determine the designations of the military ranks of the persons addressed by the speech. Despite the fact that the boy does not act as a real sentry, the commander
addresses him as a sentry, at the same time, expressing respect for the loyalty to his given word.
During the first conversation between the narrator and the boy, the reader encounters a variety of punctuation marks and the presence of syntactic constructions. The guy's story about the game contains all kinds of sentences, direct speech, introductory constructions and interjections. All these techniques tend to give the boy's words a liveliness that helps to distinguish between colloquial intonations.
We meet in the text uncommon sentences containing the pronoun “I”, which is used as a subject and predicate, expressed in the form of a noun in the nominative case. Such sentences usually do not need a dash, although in the case of a sentence with a special accent, a dash is always appropriate. It is with this construction that we encounter when we get acquainted with sentences 8, 39, 40. Thanks to this scheme, the reader can imagine what the boy feels, understand how important it is for the guy not to break the word he gave.
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What in the language allows it to fulfill its main role - the function of communication? This is syntax 1 .
1 Syntax - from Greek syntaxis-"composition". It is in the field of syntax that the moment of communication, communication, occurs.
What is communication? First of all, the one named is determined by the other. In this case, the name, as the first moment of the understood content of reality, receives an additional definition, i.e., a higher level of definition (not only through the “name”, but also through the “characteristic” and “evaluation”). But this primary moment of communication does not yet give its completeness.
The question arises, when will communication be “complete” and when “incomplete” and what does it depend on?
To do this, it is necessary to understand what can be members of a communicative relation and what this relation can be, expressed in different language means, that is, how a member of a given communicative relation can be expressed and how the relation itself can be expressed. This "seed of communication" - the first relation of two members - we will call the syntagma 1 .
1 From Greek, artificially constructed term syntagma- literally: "something connected." In Soviet linguistics, this term is used in different meanings. Some - following M. Grammon - understand a syntagma as a rhythmically united group of words with semantic completeness (L. V. Shcherba, V. V. Vinogradov, A. N. Gvozdev , A. V. Belsky and others, see the article: Vinogradov V. V. The concept of syntagma in the syntax of the Russian language // Questions of the syntax of the modern Russian language, 1950); others believe that it is not a phonetic, but a syntactic phenomenon. The syntagma can be broken rhythmically and linearly by inserting other words between its members that are not included in the syntagma, but the syntagma cannot be broken syntactically (see: Tomashevsky B.V. On the rhythm of prose // On verse, 1929; Kartsevsky S.O. Repetition course of the Russian language, 1928; Ball and Sh. General linguistics and questions of the French language / Russian translation, 1955. S. 114 et seq., as well as: Fortunatov F. F. Comparative linguistics, general course // Selected Works, 1956. T-1. S. 182-183, where the same phenomenon is designated as a phrase, but this term is wider than the term "syntagma". ). A syntagma is a combination of two members connected by one or another relationship with an unequal orientation of the members, where one member is defined, and the other is defining.
Syntagma members can be: 1) words, so the simplest definition of this phenomenon, which is included in school practice, is “two words, of which one determines the other” (white bread, I eat bread, I eat greedily, I eat), 2) morphological parts of words - morphemes and combinations of morphemes (water-cart, house-ik, carrier-chik, mo-roz-it), 3) phrases acting as one member (I saw “Woe from Wit”; Works slipshod; Vanya and Petya went for a walk; It was a tramp who stole a horse; “I am the one you listened to in the midnight silence”) and more complex "blocks". Let us consider what types of syntagmas exist depending on the nature of their members. I. Varieties of members of the syntagma 1) The simplest type of syntagma is a derivative word: house - house, where house- – defined, and -ik – defining; this is an "internal syntagma", which is of no interest for syntax, since in syntax the type of the sentence does not change whether it is said: the house is standing or house is worth it.
2) The same applies to another type of "internal syntagmas" - compound words, where usually one half determines the other: locomotive, agriculture, collective farm, destroyer, trade union.
3) Another type are cases like Freezes. Freezing. These are no longer members of a sentence, but sentences. And if so, then in each of these "separate words" there is not only a word, but also a syntagma.
AT Freezes: is defined, expressed by the basis freezing-, and defining, expressed by inflection -um, showing time and inclination, which is necessary for complete communication; moreover, a statement (not a word) Freezes, accompanies the desired intonation, showing the affirmative (or other) modality.
It would seem more difficult to understand the case Freezing,(as an answer to someone's question: "Well, how's the frost?" - "Freezing".). However, everything is clear here too: the absence of a link was, will be shows the present tense, and the reciprocal-affirmative intonation - modality and "inclination" (which, of course, cannot be when using one noun).
These are hidden s and ntagms. And they are of great interest for syntax, because they form a special type of one-part sentence (see below, § 63).
4) The most common type of syntagmas are “pairs of words, of which one determines the other”, i.e. dog eats, eats meat, red dog, fresh meat, eats greedily etc., which is already firmly established in the school practice of "parsing". These are external syntagmas.
5) There are also such cases when whole phrases act as members of the syntagma:
a) when a significant word is accompanied by a service word: evening on the road-one syntagma, although there is a third word, a preposition on the; Father was going to bed one syntagma, as it was intends to go to sleep one member;
B) when the sentence includes lexicalized combinations, for example Works through the sleeves where there is one syntagma, the same is true in such cases as I saw "Woe from Wit" and with the participation of service words: Went to "Do not sit in your sleigh";
C) when the sentence contains common isolated phrases (see below, § 62);
D) such cases when whole sentences act as a member of the syntagma (see below on a complex sentence, § 64). II. Types of relations between members of the syntagma There can be different relations between members of syntagmas (from morphemes, words, phrases).
1) Of these relations, the main one is predicative 1.
1 Predicative - from latin praedicativus from praedicatu-“predicate.” This relationship expresses the dependence of two members with the obligatory connection of time and mood.
Time in grammar is not just "objectively" real time, but the result of the ratio of two "times": the time of the event to the time of speech: if the event occurs simultaneously with speech - I write(or this event is not limited by a time frame, for example: The Earth revolves around the Sun, the Volga flows into the Caspian Sea. Birds incubate chicks from eggs etc.) is the present tense; if the time of the event precedes the time of speech - I wrote - this is the past tense; if the time of the event should follow the time of the speech - I will write, I will write this is the future tense 1 . Therefore, the temporal relationship can only be established during the speech itself.
1 All other tenses either show the relation of one tense to another, as a pluperfect - the past, preceding another past, or they attach a relation of the aspect to the relation of time (as an imperfect, perfect, etc.). Mood in grammar refers to modal categories that show the target the setting of speech in which the statement is presented in speech: in the form of an affirmation, denial, command, wish, assumption, etc. Since speech itself is always real and necessarily purposeful, the target setting of speech is also real.
1 Some grammarians include in predication a third obligatory attribute, the category of a person; however, this may be included in the predication, but not necessarily (for example, without facial expression: It is nice here; Life has become better etc.). Predicative can be both external syntagmas (The sun is shining; Sister came; Father was going to bed etc.), and hidden (Frost; Freezes), but there cannot be internal syntagmas (house, water carrier, crank, couch potato etc.) and syntagmas, where the members are whole sentences (having their own predication within themselves).
2) According to the nature of the relationship expressed in them, non-predicative syntagmas can be:
A) attributive, the defining member of which is an attribute 1, i.e., it names some sign of time and mood defined outside the categories: black negro, green grass, beautiful girl, thieves' grip, Petya's toys etc.; here the nominal word acts as a defined one;
1 Attribute - from latin attributes -"attached". b) objective, the defining member of which is an object 1, that is, it names something not contained in the defined itself, but connected with this defined object relation: eats soup, drank tea, shaking hands, loving father, the key to success, the happiness of the old man etc.; in these cases, the word being defined is more often verbal, less often nominal;
1 An object - from latin objectim -"object". runs fast, sang beautifully, singing out of tune, worked in the spring, walked in the fields and etc.; here the verb word acts as a defined member.
1 Relative - from latin relativus-“relative.” Relations between members of a syntagma are always expressed in some way, which is easiest to establish on syntagmas as part of a simple sentence; see below for ways to express relationships in a complex sentence.
The expression of the relationship of members to each other for a simple sentence can be indicated by three possibilities: agreement, control, contiguity.
A) Agreement is that type of connection between the definitive and the definitive, when the grammatical meanings of the definitive are repeated in the definitive, even if the forms are different; For example, white bread - masculine agreement in the dative and singular in two different members is shown differently: in bread the dative case and the number are shown by inflection -u, and in white another flexion - th. There may be an agreement limited to a certain category, so, in she plays eat agreement only in number and person, but in she played - agreement in number and gender; in both these cases there is no complete agreement. In the first case, agreement is only in person and number, but not in gender; in the second case, in number and gender, but not in person.
However, this is grammatically sufficient to understand the desired context.
In the case of English she loves- "she loves" it -s shows only the 3rd person and indirectly - the number, since in the plural they love-"they like". But in each such case, the necessary categories of grammar are revealed with sufficient completeness.
B) Management is that kind of connection between the defined and the defining, when some grammatical meanings of the defined cause in the defining other, but quite definite grammatical meanings. Thus, transitivity is a grammatical meaning inherent in the verb-predicate; it causes the accusative case in the direct object-noun, which cannot be a grammatical property of the verb. Management can be direct (I see a dog, I admire a dog, I gave it to a dog etc.) and indirect, prepositional (I look at the dog, I go with the dog, I went to the dog etc.).
C) Adjacency is a type of connection between the defined and the defining, when there is neither agreement nor control, but the relationship is expressed either positionally through word order, or intonation, by repeating a melodic tone or by pausing.
With normal intonation in a sentence Strongly black chimney sweep shakes the ladder adverb strongly, which cannot agree with or be controlled by its defined, is nevertheless understood as a defining member in the syntagma strongly black in word order (cf. deaf scientists and scientists are deaf).
But if we raise the melodic tone by strongly and on staggers, then, despite the "range of distance", the syntagma is associated wobbles a lot.
Pausing can also play an equally important role for intonational adjacency: I couldn't walk for a long time and I couldn't walk for a long time pause before for a long time and after for a long time regards it as defining walk, then to could not.
In a sentence Boys and girls walking there may be a pause before walked then boys with girls compound subject and a non-extended sentence without an addition, if a pause after boys, then with girls addition to walked and thus a common sentence (see below, § 62).
Language is the most ancient and main property of a person as a biological species, which distinguishes him from other living beings. In linguistics, the science of language, the following definition is used: language is a sign system, created naturally or artificially, with the help of which people communicate and design their mental activity.
Language origin
The education and formation of the language, along with labor activity, played a key role in the development of man as a rational being. One of the most important problems in the question of the origin of language is its ability to reflect reality. Words, as signs of a language, bear no resemblance to the subject they designate. Nevertheless, a distinct image of an object arises in the mind of a person when he hears or sees the word that designates it.
To understand how a language appeared, the sound complex of which itself does not reflect anything, scientists are developing various onomatopoeic theories that consider the origin of the first words as a reproduction of the sounds and noises of nature. However, it cannot explain the presence of different sound shells for the same phenomenon in different languages. According to the interjection theory, the basis of the original word is an emotional exclamation or cry denoting a person's state. This theory, in turn, does not explain the diversity of the language, which could not have come from interjections alone.
Some scientists suggest that the first words were nouns, a person initially sought to reflect the objects and phenomena of reality. Others believe that verbal forms are primary, a person first of all performed an action and already built a picture of the world on its basis.
Thus, each theory of the origin of language depends on the function that is assigned to it.
Language features
The essence of the language, its main characteristics are manifested in its functions. Among the large number of language functions, the most significant are distinguished.
- communicative function. According to the definition, language is the main means of human communication.
- Thinking or cognitive function. Language serves as the main means of formation and expression of mental activity.
- cognitive function. Language allows you to create new words and concepts, and also acts as a means of storing and transmitting information.
- Other functions (phatic, emotive, appellative, aesthetic, etc.).
Language and speech
The term language cannot be equated with the concept of speech. First of all, language is a means of communication, and speech is its embodiment. The main characteristic of language is its abstractness and formality, while speech is characterized by materiality, because it consists of articulated sounds that are perceived by the ear.
Unlike a stable and static language, speech is an active and dynamic phenomenon. It is worth noting that the language is a public property and reflects the picture of the world of the people who speak it, and speech, in turn, is purely individual and reflects the experience of a particular person. Language, as a complex sign system, has a level organization, while speech is characterized by a linear organization. And finally, the language does not depend on the specific situation and environment, while speech is conditioned contextually and situationally. Thus, we can say that language is related to speech as the general is to the particular.
Units and levels of the language
The main ones are phoneme, morpheme, word and sentence. In accordance with each unit, a separate language level is formed. So the lowest level is phonetic, which consists of the simplest language units - phonemes. The phoneme itself has no meaning and acquires a meaningful function only as part of the morpheme. A morpheme (morpheme level), in turn, is the shortest meaningful unit of a language. There are derivational (form words) and grammatical (form word forms) morphemes.
The word (lexico-semantic level) is the main meaningful unit of the language, which may have syntactic independence. It serves to designate objects, phenomena, processes and properties. Words are divided into certain groups: a system of parts of speech (based on grammatical features), a system of synonyms and antonyms (based on semantic relations), groups of archaisms, historicisms and neologisms (in a historical perspective), etc.
A sentence (syntactic level) is a combination of words that expresses a certain thought. The sentence is characterized by semantic and intonational completeness and structure. Distinguish between simple and complex sentences. It should be noted that the unit of each level of the language is an element in the construction of the unit of the next level.
Languages of the world
According to various estimates, there are about 7,000 languages in the world. All of them are divided into the following groups:
- common and non-common;
- written and unwritten;
- "live" and "dead";
- artificial and natural.
On the basis of linguistic kinship, a genetic one was created according to it, there is one more definition of language. This is, first of all, the attitude to a certain language-ancestor. As a rule, the Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan and Ural-Altaic families of languages are distinguished. All the languages of one family are based on one parent language.
Russian language
The Russian language is one of the Indo-European language families and is a language of world significance. Russian is the national language of the Russian people. The Russian language uses writing, which is based on the Russian alphabet, which goes back to the Cyrillic alphabet. At the same time, in Russian, not all, but only the main sounds of speech are indicated by letters. So the number of letters in the alphabet is 33, and the sound system contains 43 sounds, of which 6 are vowels and 37 are consonants. The classification of the sounds of the Russian language is made on the basis of articulatory properties. In this case, the sounds are distinguished by the way they are pronounced and by the parts of the speech apparatus involved in their pronunciation.
There is also a classification of the sounds of the Russian language according to acoustic features. This takes into account the participation of voice and noise in the formation of sound. Russian is one of the most difficult languages in the world to learn.
Thus, the following definition can be given: "Language is a complex multi-valued concept, in which it is considered primarily as a multi-level sign system, which is in organic unity with human thinking."
