The empirical method is based on sensory perception and measurements with complex instruments. Empirical methods are an important part of scientific research, along with theoretical ones. Without these techniques, not a single science, be it chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, could develop.

What does empirical method mean?

The empirical or sensory method is the scientific knowledge of the surrounding reality by experience, involving interaction with the subject under study through experiments and observations. Empirical research methods help to reveal the objective laws by which the development of certain phenomena takes place. These are complex and complex steps, and as a result of them new scientific discoveries occur.

Types of Empirical Methods

Empirical knowledge of any science, subject is based on standard methods that have proven themselves over time, the same for all disciplines, but in each specific area with its own specifics characteristic of science. Empirical methods, types:

• observation:
• experiment;
• measurement;
• conversation;
• questioning;
• poll;
• conversation.

Empirical methods - advantages and disadvantages

Methods of empirical knowledge, unlike theoretical ones, have a minimal possibility of errors, shortcomings, provided that the experiment was repeated many times and gave similar results. Any empirical method involves the human senses, which are a reliable tool for understanding the world around us - and this is the main advantage of this method.

Empirical level methods

Empirical methods of scientific knowledge are no less important for science than theoretical premises. Patterns are built empirically, hypotheses are confirmed or denied, therefore, the empirical method as a set of methods based on sensory perception and data obtained by measuring instruments helps to expand the horizons of science and obtain new results.

Empirical research methods in pedagogy

Empirical methods of pedagogical research are based on the same main components:

• pedagogical observation - a specific task is taken, a condition in which it is necessary to observe the students and register the results of the observation;
• surveys (questionnaires, conversations, interviews) - help to obtain information on a specific topic, personal characteristics of students;
• the study of students' works (graphic, written in various disciplines, creative) - provide information about the student's individuality, his inclination to a particular subject, success in mastering knowledge;
• the study of school documentation (diaries, class journals, personal files) - allows you to assess the success of the pedagogical process as a whole.

Empirical Methods in Psychology

Psychological science developed from philosophy, and the most basic tools for cognizing someone else's psychic reality were adopted methods with which you can visually see the manifestations of the psyche outside - these are experiments. Physiological psychology, thanks to which psychology as a whole advanced as a science, was founded by the psychologist, physiologist W. Wundt. His laboratory of experimental psychology was opened in 1832. The empirical methods of research in psychology used by Wundt are applied in classical experimental psychology:

1. Observation method. The study of behavioral reactions and actions of a person in natural conditions and in experimental conditions with given variables. Two types of observation: introspection (self-observation, looking inside) - a necessary element of self-knowledge and tracking changes in oneself, and objective observation - an observer (psychologist) monitors and registers reactions, emotions, actions of an observed person or group of people.
2. Experiment Method. In the laboratory (laboratory experiment) - special conditions are created that are necessary to confirm a psychological hypothesis or reject it. With the help of special equipment, sensors, various physiological parameters are recorded (pulse, respiration, brain activity, pupil reactions, changes in behavior). A natural (natural experiment) is carried out in conditions familiar to a person with the creation of the desired situation.
3. Poll The provision of information by a person by answering a series of questions.
4. Conversation- an empirical method based on verbal communication, during which the psychologist notes the psychological characteristics of the individual.
5. Tests- specially developed techniques, including a number of questions, unfinished sentences, work with images. Testing on specific topics helps psychologists to identify personality traits.

Empirical method in economics

The empirical or experimental method in economics involves the knowledge of the reality of the economic situation in the world, this is done with the help of tools:

1. economic observation- carried out by economists for the purposeful perception of economic (economic) facts, while there is no active influence on these facts, observation is important for building theoretical models of the economy.
2. economic experiment- here an active influence on the economic phenomenon is already included, different conditions are modeled within the framework of the experiment and the influence is studied.

If we take a separate segment of the economy - commodity circulation, then the empirical methods of commodity science will be as follows:

• measurements with the help of technical devices or sense organs (method-operations measuring, organoleptic;
• survey and monitoring of the market (methods-actions).

There are two levels of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level scientific knowledge is aimed at the study of phenomena (in other words, forms and ways of manifestation essence of objects, processes, relationships), it is formed using such methods of cognition as observation, measurement, experiment. The main forms of the existence of empirical knowledge are grouping, classification, description, systematization and generalization of the results of observation and experiment.

Empirical knowledge has a rather complex structure, which includes four levels.

Primary level - single empirical statements, the content of which is the fixation of the results of single observations; at the same time, the exact time, place and conditions of observation are recorded.

The second level of empirical knowledge is scientific facts, more precisely, the description of the facts of reality by means of the language of science. With the help of such means, the absence or presence of certain events, properties, relations in the subject area under study, as well as their intensity (quantitative certainty), is affirmed. Their symbolic representations are graphs, diagrams, tables, classifications, mathematical models.

The third level of empirical knowledge is empirical patterns various types (functional, causal, structural, dynamic, statistical, etc.).

The fourth level of empirical scientific knowledge is phenomenological theories as a logically interconnected set of relevant empirical laws and facts (phenomenological thermodynamics, celestial mechanics by I. Kepler, the periodic law of chemical elements in the formulation of D. I. Mendeleev, etc.). Empirical theories differ from theories in the true sense of the word in that they do not penetrate into the essence of the objects under study, but represent empirical generalization visually perceptible things and processes.

Theoretical level scientific knowledge is aimed at research entities objects, processes, relationships and is based on the results of empirical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge is the result of the activity of such a constructive part of consciousness as intelligence. The leading logical operation of theoretical thinking is idealization, the purpose and result of which is the construction of a special type of objects - "ideal objects" of scientific theory (material point and "absolutely black body" in physics, "ideal type" in sociology, etc.). An interconnected set of such objects forms its own basis of theoretical scientific knowledge.

This level of scientific knowledge includes the formulation of scientific problems; promotion and substantiation of scientific hypotheses and theories; revealing laws; derivation of logical consequences from laws; comparing various hypotheses and theories with each other, theoretical modeling, as well as procedures for explaining, understanding, predicting, generalizing.

In the structure of the theoretical level, a number of components are distinguished: laws, theories, models, concepts, teachings, principles, a set of methods. Let's briefly dwell on some of them.

AT laws of science displays objective, regular, repetitive, essential and necessary connections and relationships between phenomena or processes of the real world. From the point of view of the scope, all laws can be conditionally divided into the following types.

1. Universal and private (existential) the laws. Universal laws reflect the universal, necessary, strictly recurring and stable nature of the regular connection between the phenomena and processes of the objective world. An example is the law of thermal expansion of bodies: "All bodies expand when heated."

Private laws are connections, either derived from universal laws, or reflecting the regularity of events that characterize a certain private sphere of being. Thus, the law of thermal expansion of metals is secondary, or derivative, in relation to the universal law of thermal expansion of all physical bodies and characterizes the property of a particular group of chemical elements.

• 2. deterministic and stochastic (statistical) the laws. Deterministic laws give predictions that are quite reliable and accurate. In contrast, stochastic laws give only probabilistic predictions, they reflect a certain regularity that occurs as a result of the interaction of random massive or repetitive events.
• 3. empirical and theoretical laws. Empirical laws characterize the regularities found at the level of the phenomenon within the framework of empirical (experimental) knowledge. Theoretical laws reflect the recurring connections that operate at the level of essence. Among these laws, the most common are causal (causal) laws, which characterize the necessary relationship between two directly related phenomena.

At its core scientific theory is a single, integral system of knowledge, the elements of which: concepts, generalizations, axioms and laws - are connected by certain logical and meaningful relationships. Reflecting and expressing the essence of the objects under study, theory acts as the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge.

In the structure of scientific theory, there are: a) initial fundamental principles; b) basic system-forming concepts; c) language thesaurus, i.e. norms for constructing correct language expressions characteristic of a given theory; d) an interpretive base that allows one to move from fundamental statements to a wide field of facts and observations.

In modern science, types of scientific theories are distinguished, which are classified according to various grounds.

First, according to the adequacy of the display of the studied area of ​​phenomena, there are phenomenological and analytical theories. Theories of the first kind describe reality at the level of phenomena, or phenomena, without revealing their essence. Thus, geometric optics studied the phenomena of propagation, reflection, and refraction of light without revealing the nature of light itself. In turn, analytical theories reveal the essence of the studied phenomena. For example, the theory of the electromagnetic field reveals the essence of optical phenomena.

Secondly, according to the degree of accuracy of predictions, scientific theories, like laws, are divided into deterministic and stochastic. Deterministic theories give accurate and reliable predictions, but due to the complexity of many phenomena and processes, the presence of a significant amount of uncertainty and randomness in the world, such theories are rarely used. Stochastic theories give probabilistic predictions based on the study of the laws of chance. Such theories are used not only in physics or biology, but also in the social sciences and humanities, when predictions or forecasts are made about processes in which uncertainty plays a significant role, a combination of circumstances associated with the manifestation of randomness of mass events.

An important place in scientific knowledge at the theoretical level is occupied by a set of methods, among which are axiomatic, hypothetical-deductive, formalization method, idealization method, systematic approach, etc.

Scientific knowledge has 2 levels: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level cognition is associated with the subject of scientific research, includes 2 components - sensory experience (sensation, perception, representation) and their primary theoretical understanding.

Empirical cognition is characterized by fact-fixing activity.

Theoretical level consists in further processing of the empirical material. Theoretical knowledge is essential knowledge carried out at the level of abstractions of high orders.

Positions of empiricism: on the 1st plane - the role of sensation, direct observations in cognition and the denial of the role of theoretical thinking. The position of rationalism: on the 1st plane - the activity of the mind, ascribes to it the role of the unity of the power of cognition and ignoring the significance of sensory cognition.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by direct study of really existing, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the actual data obtained in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. is also carried out. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge - as a result of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) level of knowledge. At this level, the scientist operates only with theoretical (ideal, iconic) objects. Also at this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects and phenomena are revealed. Theoretical level - a higher level in scientific knowledge

Considering theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones are: problem, hypothesis and theory.

A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is that which is not yet known by man, but which needs to be known. In other words, this is knowledge about ignorance, a question that has arisen in the course of cognition and requires an answer. solutions.

Scientific problems should be distinguished from non-scientific (pseudo-problems), for example, the problem of creating a perpetual motion machine. The solution of any specific problem is an essential moment in the development of knowledge, during which new problems arise, and new problems are put forward, certain conceptual ideas, including hypotheses.

Hypothesis - a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and needs to be proven. Hypothetical knowledge is probable, not reliable, and requires verification, justification. In the course of proving the hypotheses put forward, some of them become a true theory, others are modified, refined and concretized, turn into errors if the test gives a negative result.

The decisive test of the validity of the hypothesis is practice (the logical criterion of truth plays an auxiliary role in this). A tested and proven hypothesis passes into the category of reliable truths, becomes a scientific theory.

Theory - the most developed form of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic display of the regular and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality. Examples of this form of knowledge are Newton's classical mechanics, Darwin's evolutionary theory, Einstein's theory of relativity, the theory of self-organizing integral systems (synergetics), etc.

In practice, scientific knowledge is successfully implemented only when people are convinced of its truth. Without turning an idea into a personal conviction, a person's faith, successful practical implementation of theoretical ideas is impossible.

The general methods of cognition of reality include: induction, deduction, analogy, comparison, generalization, abstraction, etc.

The specific methods of theoretical knowledge in science include: idealization, interpretation, thought experiment, computer computational experiment, axiomatic method and genetic method of constructing a theory, etc.

In scientific knowledge, abstractions of identification and isolating abstractions are widely used, for example. The abstraction of identification is a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects (at the same time, they are abstracted from a number of individual properties, features of these objects) and combining them into a special group. An example is the grouping of the entire multitude of plants and animals living on our planet into special species, genera, orders, etc. Isolating abstraction is obtained by separating certain properties, relationships that are inextricably linked with objects of the material world, into independent entities (“stability ”, “solubility”, “electrical conductivity”, etc.).

The formation of scientific abstractions, general theoretical provisions is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but is only a means of deeper, more versatile knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, further movement (ascent) of knowledge from the achieved abstract back to the concrete is necessary. The knowledge about the concrete obtained at this stage of the study will be qualitatively different in comparison with that which was available at the stage of sensory cognition. In other words, the concrete at the beginning of the process of cognition (sensory-concrete, which is its starting point) and the concrete, comprehended at the end of the cognitive process (it is called logical-concrete, emphasizing the role of abstract thinking in its comprehension), are fundamentally different from each other.

Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

Cognition - this is a specific type of human activity aimed at comprehending the world around and oneself in this world. “Cognition is, primarily due to socio-historical practice, the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion, and improvement

A person comprehends the world around him, masters it in various ways, among which two main ones can be distinguished. The first (genetically initial) - material and technical - the production of means of subsistence, labor, practice. The second is spiritual (ideal), within which the cognitive relations of subject and object are only one of many others. In turn, the process of cognition and the knowledge obtained in it in the course of the historical development of practice and cognition itself is increasingly differentiated and embodied in its various forms. Every form of social consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. correspond to specific forms of knowledge. Usually, the following ones are distinguished: everyday, playful, mythological, artistic-figurative, philosophical, religious, personal, scientific. Although the latter are related, they are not identical to each other, each of them has its own specifics. We will not dwell on the consideration of each of the forms of knowledge. The subject of our research is scientific knowledge. In this regard, it is advisable to consider the features of only the latter.

Analysis - mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis - combining the elements learned as a result of the analysis into a single whole.

Generalization - the process of mental transition from the singular to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment "this metal conducts electricity" to the judgment "all metals conduct electricity", from the judgment: "the mechanical form of energy turns into heat" to to the proposition “every form of energy is converted into thermal energy”.

abstraction (idealization) - the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties, features of objects that are not essential for this study may be excluded from consideration. An example of such an idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point that has mass but no dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction - the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves the conclusion about all the objects of the set based on the knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction based on experimental research and including theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict formulation of the experiment, logical sequence and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction - the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general propositions are an established scientific truth, then the true conclusion will always be obtained by deduction. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and build their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving particular, specific problems.

In the history of natural science there have been attempts to absolutize the significance of the inductive method (F. Bacon) or the deductive method (R. Descartes) in science, to give them a universal significance. However, these methods cannot be used as separate, isolated from each other. each of them is used at a certain stage of the cognition process.

Analogy - a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in any feature, based on their established similarity in other features. The analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. So, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling - reproduction of the properties of the object of knowledge on its specially arranged analogue - the model. Models can be real (material), for example, aircraft models, models of buildings. photographs, prostheses, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) ones created by means of a language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually, this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system under study.

Classification - the distribution of certain objects by classes (departments, categories) depending on their common features, fixing regular connections between classes of objects in a single system of a particular branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the studied objects, phenomena.

One of the first classifications in natural science was the classification of flora and fauna by the prominent Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). For representatives of wildlife, he established a certain gradation: class, detachment, genus, species, variation.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge:

empirical level;

theoretical level.

For the knowledge gained on empirical level , it is characteristic that they are the result of direct contact with reality in observation or experiment.

Theoretical level represents, as it were, a section of the object under study from a certain angle of view, given by the worldview of the researcher. It is built with a clear focus on explaining objective reality, and its main task is to describe, systematize and explain the entire set of empirical data.

The empirical and theoretical levels have a certain autonomy, but they cannot be torn off (separated) from one another.

The theoretical level differs from the empirical one in that it provides a scientific explanation of the facts obtained at the empirical level. At this level, specific scientific theories are formed, and it is characterized by the fact that it operates with an intellectually controlled object of knowledge, while at the empirical level - with a real object. Its significance lies in the fact that it can develop, as it were, on its own, without direct contact with reality.

The empirical and theoretical levels are organically linked. The theoretical level does not exist on its own, but is based on data from the empirical level.

Despite the theoretical workload, the empirical level is more stable than theory, due to the fact that the theories with which the interpretation of empirical data is associated are theories of a different level. Therefore, empiricism (practice) is a criterion for the truth of a theory.

The empirical level of cognition is characterized by the use of the following methods for studying objects.

Surveillance - a system for fixing and registering the properties and relationships of the object under study. The functions of this method are: fixing the registration of information and preliminary classification of factors.

Experiment- this is a system of cognitive operations that is carried out in relation to objects placed in such conditions (specially created) that should contribute to the discovery, comparison, measurement of objective properties, connections, relationships.

Measurement as a method, it is a system for fixing and registering the quantitative characteristics of the measured object. For economic and social systems, measurement procedures are associated with indicators: statistical, reporting, planned;

Essence descriptions, as a specific method of obtaining empirical knowledge, consists in systematizing data obtained as a result of observation, experiment, measurement. Data are expressed in the language of a certain science in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs and other notations. Thanks to the systematization of facts that generalize certain aspects of phenomena, the object under study is reflected as a whole.

The theoretical level is the highest level of scientific knowledge.

scheme theoretical level of knowledge can be represented as follows:

Mental experiment and idealization based on the mechanism of transferring the results of practical actions fixed in the object;

Development of knowledge in logical forms: concepts, judgments, conclusions, laws, scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories;

Logical verification of the validity of theoretical constructions;

Application of theoretical knowledge in practice, in social activities.

It is possible to identify the main characteristics of theoretical knowledge:

The object of knowledge is determined purposefully under the influence of the internal logic of the development of science or the urgent requirements of practice;

The subject of knowledge is idealized on the basis of a thought experiment and design;

Cognition is carried out in logical forms, which is understood as a way of connecting the elements that make up the content of thought about the objective world.

There are the following types of forms of scientific knowledge:

General logical: concepts, judgments, conclusions;

Local-logical: scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories, laws.

concept- this is a thought that reflects the property and necessary features of an object or phenomenon. Concepts are: general, singular, concrete, abstract, relative, absolute, etc. etc. General concepts are associated with a certain set of objects or phenomena, single ones refer only to one, specific ones - to specific objects or phenomena, abstract to their individual features, relative concepts are always presented in pairs, and absolute ones do not contain paired relations.

Judgment- this is a thought that contains the affirmation or denial of something through the connection of concepts. Judgments are affirmative and negative, general and particular, conditional and disjunctive, etc.

inference is a process of thinking that connects a sequence of two or more propositions, resulting in a new proposition. In essence, a conclusion is a conclusion that makes it possible to move from thinking to practical actions. Inferences are of two types: direct; indirect.

In direct inferences, one proceeds from one judgment to another, while in indirect inferences, the transition from one judgment to another is carried out by means of a third one.

The process of cognition goes from a scientific idea to a hypothesis, subsequently turning into a law or theory.

Consider the main elements of the theoretical level of knowledge.

Idea- an intuitive explanation of the phenomenon without intermediate argumentation and awareness of the totality of connections. The idea reveals previously unnoticed regularities of the phenomenon, based on the knowledge already available about it.

Hypothesis- an assumption about the cause that causes this effect. A hypothesis is always based on an assumption, the reliability of which at a certain level of science and technology cannot be confirmed.

If the hypothesis is consistent with the observed facts, then it is called a law or theory.

Law- necessary, stable, recurring relationships between phenomena in nature and society. Laws are specific, general and universal.

The law reflects the general connections and relations inherent in all phenomena of a given kind, class.

Theory- a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic view of the patterns and essential connections of reality. It arises as a result of the generalization of cognitive activity and practice and is a mental reflection and reproduction of reality. The theory has a number of structural elements:

Facts- knowledge about an object or phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven.

Axioms- Propositions accepted without logical proof.

Postulates- statements accepted within the framework of any scientific theory as true, playing the role of an axiom.

Principles- the main starting points of any theory, doctrine, science or worldview.

Concepts- thoughts in which objects of a certain class are generalized and distinguished according to certain general (specific) features.

Regulations- formulated thoughts expressed in the form of a scientific statement.

Judgments- thoughts expressed as a declarative sentence, which can be true or false.

An important condition for the effectiveness of cognitive activity is the method (or set of methods) of cognition.

concept "method" usually denote a way of organizing one or another (in this case, cognitive) activity. Some researchers believe that the method is a specific way of moving the subject of cognition and transforming reality towards the goal based on the use of the available elements activities, including personal ones.

method(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is the rule, method, method of knowledge. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allows you to explore an object. F. Bacon called the method "a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark."

In the broadest sense, the method is defined as a set of techniques and operations for the theoretical and practical development of reality or as a law-like sequence of interdependent and coordinated cognitive operations and actions that society has developed and that allow the subject to achieve the goal when moving towards it from a certain personal cultural potential.

According to the tradition originating in the philosophy of the New Age, the whole variety of methods of scientific knowledge is divided into two large groups:

• sensationalism (empirical methods of cognition);
• rationalism (theoretical methods of knowledge).

Supporters of the empirical method considered it more reasonable to study the world on the basis of sensations (hence the representatives of this direction were called sensationalists, and the doctrine - sensationalism). The verification of the adequacy of the reflection by the sense organs of the real laws of being is carried out experimentally, i.e. during a series of experiments (usually numerous). If, under similar conditions, as a result of a series of experiments, the same (the same, fundamentally not different from the results of all other similar experiments) result arose, then it was possible to conclude that the reflection of this property, the regularities that make up the manifestation of the external world, was correct. Thus, the empirical method involved inductive inference; knowledge unfolded from experiments (particulars) to generalizing conclusions (to the general).

In its turn, rationalists used primarily deduction. The main difference in their understanding of the cognitive process was that they did not trust the sensations. They believed that the sense organs, which sometimes "deceive" the human mind, can lead the researcher to significant errors. Indeed, even depending on how a particular person feels, there may be different visual, auditory and other sensations from the same objects; for the same reason, when observing one object (phenomenon, process), the impressions of different people at the same moment may turn out to be different. Therefore, one can really rely only on the logical consistency of the conclusions of rational thinking.

As a result, since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other hand, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical methods of cognition) and theoretical (logical procedures). ).

Empirical methods of knowledge

basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrumental data. These methods include:

• observation- purposeful perception of phenomena without interference in them;
• experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
• measurement- determination of the ratio of the measured value to the standard (for example, a meter);
• comparison- identifying the similarities or differences of objects or their features.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even simple observation requires preliminary theoretical foundations - the choice of an object for observation, the formulation of a hypothesis, etc.

Problem, hypothesis, theory

Everything is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first stage of the cognitive process is the definition of what we do not know. It is important to clearly and rigorously define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. problem(from the Greek. problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that needs to be resolved.

The second step in is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis - this is a scientifically based assumption that needs to be tested.

If a hypothesis is proved by a large number of facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such, for example, are evolutionary theory, the theory of relativity, quantum theory, etc.

When choosing the best theory, the degree of its testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor. Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of moving from hypothesis to theory.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods based on rational knowledge (concept, judgment, conclusion) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

• analysis- the process of mental or real dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
• synthesis- connection of the sides of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
• - combining various objects into groups based on common features (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
• abstraction- distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of the object with the aim of in-depth study of one specific side of it (the result of abstraction - abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
• formalization- display of knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
• analogy- a conclusion about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects;
• modeling— creation and study of a substitute (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);
• idealization- creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it (geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
• deduction- moving from the general to the particular;
• induction- the movement from the particular (facts) to the general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, and therefore is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other.

All the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Methods-approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, hermeneutic, etc. The most common methods-approaches are philosophical methods:

• metaphysical- consideration of the object in mowing, static, out of connection with other objects;
• dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interconnection, internal inconsistency and unity.

Absoluteization of one method as the only true one is called dogma(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical piling up of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.