Like linguistics, divided into general and particular, disciplines that study various linguistic aspects - vocabulary, grammar, sound system, etc. are subject to the same division.

From the foregoing, it is clear that the main tasks of phonetics include a comprehensive study of the sound component of the language, as well as the search and identification of patterns in its internal organization. The sound side of any language can be characterized as a complex, complex phenomenon that includes not only speech sounds and their sequences, but also word stress and phrasal intonation. However, sounding speech is not only an acoustic phenomenon, but also a complex of acoustic signals purposefully produced by the articulatory organs of a person and intended primarily for auditory perception.

At the moment, there are four aspects of sound speech:

• * physical,
• * articulatory,
• * perceptual;
• * functional.

Phonetics is a complex subject, therefore, several particular disciplines can be distinguished in it, for example:

• - articulatory phonetics,
• - acoustic phonetics,
• - perceptual phonetics,
• - functional phonetics (phonology).

The subject of the study of articulatory phonetics is the activity of the human speech apparatus, the result of which is the reproduction of sounds that play the role of elementary sound units of any language. This science deals with the description and systematization of the movements and positions of the speech organs necessary to reproduce the sounds of a given language.

Acoustic phonetics deals exclusively with the physical parameters and characteristics of speech sounds belonging to different languages.

Perceptual phonetics studies the features of human auditory perception of speech sounds.

The subject of study of functional phonetics is the function of sound elements. This is work with the meanings of sounds and sound chains, the search for differences in these values ​​depending on the sound, the study of sound chains as an intermediary in the transmission of linguistic information, the study of the phenomena of encoding and decoding speech messages.

Acoustic-physiological phonetics (anthropophonics) deals with the study of the human body and those of its general permanent features that are responsible for the phenomenon of sound speech. This science also considers the organic habits that enable our pronunciation to remain approximately the same over a certain period of years. According to the research of linguistic history, it can be concluded that these very habits are not something invariable, but rather undergo certain pronounced changes over a certain time period, usually quite significant. Being essentially the result of habits of pronunciation, sounds change depending on changes in these habits. The reasons for these changes are either the general conditions of the physical organization of a person and his speech apparatus (spontaneous speech changes), or the combination of some physiological habits with others during one period of time (such changes are called combinatorial). In some cases, sound changes appear, in others - no, it depends on the presence or absence of certain favorable conditions, but it is this mechanism that entails the appearance of sound alternations in related etymological forms (for example: leg // leg, legs: alternation g// Well, etc.). Such alternations may differ depending on the prescription of their origin and belong to different eras in the history of the development of the language, as well as in relation to the relevance of the causal relationship between the conditions that caused this sound change and its results (correlation and divergence relations).

Acoustic phonetics is an independent scientific discipline that has emerged as a result of the interaction of such sciences as linguistics, physics and bioacoustics. She studies the physical properties of speech signals.

In line with this discipline, there is a study of the acoustic characteristics of the sound means of language and the connection of articulation and its aerodynamic and acoustic properties. The acoustic section of phonetics is of particular importance for the development of applications that decode and analyze a speech signal using technical means, as well as for speech technologies. Acoustic phonetics is based on a number of basic concepts of physics related to the doctrine of vibrations.

Based on the general laws governing vibrations, acoustic phonetics was able to take shape as an independent scientific discipline (in the mid-1940s), which is one of the most developed sections of phonetic science. The main field for the study of acoustic phonetics is the acoustic theory of speech production, which studies the relationship between the organic aspect of articulation and the acoustic result of the articulation process.

In private phonetics, all the issues studied are considered in relation to any particular language. Thus, one can distinguish, for example, the phonetics of the modern Russian language, the historical phonetics of the Italian (Kazakh, German) language, etc.

Quite often, experimental phonetics is emphasized, which is based on the widespread use of special sound recording equipment. But in this case, it would be more correct to speak not about phonetics as a whole, but only about the experimental method in relation to this science (the method of palatograms, kymography, tape recording, fluoroscopy, spectroscopy, oscillography, etc.). In recent years, scientists have been able to develop a special technique for speech synthesis, with the help of which it became possible to create speech-like sounds artificially, without human intervention.

Perceptual phonetics deals with the study of the perception of speech by the listener and the establishment of the relationship between the sounds spoken and heard.

Perceptual phonetics (Latin perceptio - “perception”) is a branch of phonetics that studies the perception of speech sounds by human hearing organs. The main question to which he answers is what sound properties are essential for human speech perception (for example, for the recognition of a particular phoneme), taking into account the changing articulatory and acoustic characteristics of speech signals. That is, to put it simply, what are the perceptual correlates of the relevant (that is, essential) features of phonemes and prosodemes.

In addition, perceptual phonetics takes into account that in the process of perceiving sounding speech, people receive information not only from the acoustic properties of the utterance, but also from the linguistic context and communication situation, making a prediction of the general meaning of the perceived message.

Also, perceptual phonetics reveals universal and specific perceptual characteristics inherent in the sounds of the human language in general and the sound units of certain specific languages. This allows us to conclude that perception is based not only on the invariant properties of phonemes, but also on variant ones.

Phonology can be divided into phonemics and prosody. Phonemics is the doctrine of the theory and description of phonemes, which reveals the structural and functional originality of phonological units of the segment (linear) level of the language. Prosody is a branch of phonology that studies the structure and function of intonation and stress as super-segmental (non-linear) means of organizing phonetic units that exceed phonemes in length (phrases, speech beats, syllables).

Phonology got another name for a reason: functional phonetics. It evaluates all information about the sound material from the position of evaluating the functions that are performed by the sound system of the language in the course of its action. The main functions can be called distinctive (distinctive) and identifying (identifying). Based on these functions, phonology constructs a definition of the phoneme as the minimum unit of the sound structure of a language, which serves to identify and distinguish between sign (two-sided) linguistic units - morphemes and words in their forms.

Phonology (from the Greek tsnyu - “sound” and lgpt - “teaching”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure and composition of the sound system of a language, as well as the functioning of sounds in a language system. The phoneme is the main unit of phonology, while the main object of study is the oppositions (oppositions) of phonemes, which together form the phonological system of the language.

Most specialists consider phonology (as the study of the functional side of speech sounds) only as a part of phonetics (namely, the study of speech sounds); but some specialists, and among them, it is noteworthy, such prominent phonologists as N. S. Trubetskoy and S. K. Shaumyan, consider these disciplines as, in principle, non-overlapping sections of linguistics.

What is the difference between phonetics and phonology? This difference can be traced in the definitions of these sections, and it consists in the fact that the subject of phonetics is not limited to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but it also covers its substantial aspect, which can be divided into physical and biological (or physiological) aspects: articulation , acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener (the subject of perceptual phonetics).

In the arsenal of modern phonology there is a good method for studying the sound structure of a language, both in its analytical and dynamic aspects. For this, rules were developed for identifying phonemes and determining the range of their variations depending on the specifics of the positional structure of the sound level in certain specific languages. Phonemes undergo various modifications, falling into different positional conditions in the process of language functioning. This also includes cases of neutralization - positional removal of the opposition of elements of the linguistic structure. Depending on the possibility or impossibility of subsuming sounds in a weak position under strong ones, two types of neutralization can be distinguished: solvable and insoluble. In the first case, the sounds of weak positions act as variants of the corresponding phonemes ([^] is a variant of the phoneme<О>in the presence of a living positional alternation in the allomorphs of the root<вод>a: [vLdb] // [woods]); in the second case ([sLbbka]), if it is impossible to check with a strong position, the sound [L] must be qualified as a representative of a hyperphoneme<оа>.

Those phonological phenomena that are extended to segments of speech exceeding phonemes and syllables in length, as minimal non-sign units, are brought up by the subject of prosodic study. Being a section of phonology, prosody covers the area of ​​supersegment overlays of two varieties: intonational and accentological in their relationship. This means the study of the patterns of functioning of sound objects at the level of phonetic phrases and speech beats.

phonetics of the Russian language, phonetics in Kazakh
Phonetics(from Greek φωνή - “sound”, φωνηεντικός - “sound”) - a branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of speech and the sound structure of the language (syllables, sound combinations, patterns of connecting sounds in a speech chain).

Sound science studies the influence of sounds on subjects and objects.

• 1 Subject of phonetics
• 2 Four aspects of phonetic studies
• 3 History of phonetics as a science
• 4 Methods of phonetic research
• 5 Basic phonetic units and means
• 6 Sections of phonetics
• 7 Articulatory phonetics
• 8 Perceptual phonetics
• 9 Classification of speech sounds
  • 9.1 Acoustic signs
  • 9.2 Articulatory features
  • 9.3 Consonants
    • 9.3.1 Noisy
    • 9.3.2 Sonorants
    • 9.3.3 Place of formation
  • 9.4 Vowels
• 10 Phonetics of the Russian language
  • 10.1 Alternations
• 11 See also
• 12 Notes

The subject of phonetics

The subject of phonetics is the close relationship between oral, internal and written speech. unlike other linguistic disciplines, phonetics explores not only the language function, but also the material side of its object: the work of the pronunciation apparatus, as well as the acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena and their perception by native speakers. Unlike non-linguistic disciplines, phonetics considers sound phenomena as elements of a language system that serve to translate words and sentences into a material sound form, without which communication is impossible. in accordance with the fact that the sound side of the language can be considered in the acoustic-articulatory and functional-linguistic aspects, phonetics proper and phonology are distinguished in phonetics.

Four aspects of phonetic research

1) anatomical and physiological (articulatory) - explores the sound of speech from the point of view of its creation: What organs of speech are involved in its pronunciation; active or passive vocal cords; etc

2) acoustic (physical) - considers sound as an air vibration and captures its physical characteristics: frequency (height), strength (amplitude), duration.

3) functional aspect (phonological) - studies the functions of sounds in the language, operates with phonemes.

4) perceptual - studies the perception of speech by the listener, establishes the relationship between the sounds spoken and heard.

History of phonetics as a science

The beginning of the study of the mechanism of formation of speech sounds dates back to the 17th century; it was caused by the needs of teaching the deaf and dumb (works by H. P. Bonet, J. Wallis, I. K. Amman). At the end of the 18th century, X. Kratzenstein laid the foundation for the acoustic theory of vowels, which was developed in the middle of the 19th century by G. L. F. Helmholtz. By the middle of the 19th century, research in the field of anatomy and physiology of sound production was summarized in the works of Ernst von Brücke. From a linguistic point of view, the doctrine of the sound side of the language in all its sections was first presented in the work of E. Sievers and J. Schmidt "Grundzüge der Lautphysiologie (German)" (1872).

A great contribution to phonetics was made by such scientists as Panini, R. Rusk, J. Grimm, A. Schleicher, J. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, J. P. Rousseau, P. Passy, ​​J. Gillieron, E. Sievers, M Grammon, D. Jones, V. A. Bogoroditsky, L. V. Shcherba, N. S. Trubetskoy, R. O. Yakobson, E. D. Polivanov, G. Fant, M. Halle, L. R. Zinder , R. I. Avanesov, M. V. Panov, L. L. Kasatkin, L. V. Bondarko, L. A. Verbitskaya, S. V. Kodzasov, O. F. Krivnova.

Methods of phonetic research

• Articulating aspect:
  • self-observation (introspection)
  • palatography
  • linguography
  • odontography
  • photographing
  • filming
  • X-ray photography.
• Acoustic aspect:
  • oscillography
  • spectrography
  • intonation.

Basic phonetic units and means

All units of phonetics are divided into segmental and supersegment.

Segmental units - units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beat), phonetic phrases (syntagms).

• A phonetic phrase is a segment of speech, which is an intonation-semantic unity, highlighted on both sides by pauses.
• Syntagma (speech beat) - a segment of a phonetic phrase, characterized by a special intonation and clock stress. Pauses between bars are optional (or short), the bar stress is not very intense.
• A phonetic word (rhythmic structure) is a part of a phrase united by one verbal stress.
• A syllable is the smallest unit of a speech chain.
• Sound is the smallest phonetic unit.

Supersegmental units (intonational means) are units that are superimposed on segmental ones: melodic units (tone), dynamic (stress) and temporal (tempo or duration).

• Stress is the allocation in speech of a certain unit in a series of homogeneous units using the intensity (energy) of sound.
• Tone - a rhythmic-melodic pattern of speech, determined by a change in the frequency of the sound signal.
• The pace is the speed of speech, which is determined by the number of segment units spoken per unit of time.
• Duration - the duration of the speech segment.

Sections of phonetics

Phonetics is divided into general, comparative, historical and descriptive.

• General phonetics considers patterns that are characteristic of the sound structure of all world languages. General phonetics explores the structure of the human speech apparatus and its use in different languages ​​in the formation of speech sounds, considers the patterns of changes in sounds in the speech stream, establishes the classification of sounds, the ratio of sounds and abstract phonetic units - phonemes, establishes the general principles for dividing the sound stream into sounds, syllables and larger units.
• Comparative phonetics compares the sound structure of a language with other languages. Comparison of foreign and native languages ​​is primarily necessary in order to see and assimilate the features of a foreign language. But such a comparison sheds light on the laws of the native language. Sometimes a comparison of related languages ​​helps to penetrate deep into their history.
• Historical phonetics traces the development of a language over a rather long period of time (sometimes since the appearance of one particular language - its separation from the parent language).
• Descriptive phonetics considers the sound structure of a particular language at a certain stage (most often the phonetic structure of a modern language).

Articulatory phonetics

Place of articulation of sounds

Articulatory phonetics examines the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation (vocal apparatus) and the mechanisms of speech production.

Perceptual phonetics

Perceptual phonetics considers the features of the perception of speech sounds by the human organ of hearing.

It is designed to answer questions about what sound properties are essential for human speech perception (for example, for the recognition of a given phoneme), taking into account the changing acoustic and articulatory characteristics of speech signals, that is, what are the perceptual correlates of the relevant (essential) features of phonemes and prosodemes.

It also takes into account the fact that people in the process of perceiving sounding speech extract information not only from the acoustic properties of the utterance, but also from the linguistic context and the situation of communication, predicting the general meaning of the perceived message.

Perceptual phonetics reveals the universal and specific perceptual characteristics inherent in the sounds of the human language in general and the sound units of specific languages. She comes to the conclusion that perception is based not only on the invariant properties of phonemes, but also on their variant ones.

Classification of speech sounds

The work of the organs of speech, aimed at the production of speech sounds, is called articulation, which consists of 3 parts: an attack, or excursion, when the organs are preparing for the pronunciation of a sound, a middle part, or exposure, when the organs are set to their working position, and an indent, or recursion, when the organs return to their non-working position. Sounds with instantaneous exposure - instantaneous sounds (for example, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?), they can not be stretched or not at all (such as ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?), or when stretched they give a different auditory impression: ? → ?, ? →?. Sounds with more or less long exposure are long sounds. Although their duration may not always appear, they can be extended if desired (such are the vowels, as well as the sounds ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?; in Russian it is always long ?). However, due to the fact that instead of shutter speed, you can make a delay in opening, you get long ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ? cases, like bb it, oh tt wow, by dd al, fell tss oh ta to to ak, etc.).

All speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants - this division comes from acoustic and articulatory features. However, far from all linguists adhere to the opinion on the possibility of separating vowels and consonants. So, Ferdinand de Saussure and Maurice Grammont distribute all speech sounds into 7 (or 9) "solutions", where the boundary between vowels and consonants is erased (although Saussure has the appropriate reservations); Lev Shcherba and his students do not find a sharp boundary between vowels and consonants, opposing only vowels and noisy consonants (according to the absence and presence of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, according to the nature of the tension of the speech organs and the strength of the air stream). The nature of sonorant consonants is not clear enough from this theory.

Acoustic features

Acoustically, speech sounds are divided into sonorous (sonorous) and noisy. Sonorants are determined by resonator tones, noise in them is either not present at all (vowels), or participate minimally (for example, in? different types); in noisy (and these are only consonants) the timbre is determined by the nature of this noise. The loudest sound: ?, the noisiest: ?.

Within the noisy allocate:

• Voiced noisy long (ex: ?, ?, ?)
• Voiced noisy instantaneous (ex: ?, ?, ?)
• Deaf noisy long (ex: ?, ?, ?, ?)
• Deaf noisy instantaneous (ex: ?, ?, ?)

Articulatory signs

According to articulatory features, sounds are divided into mouth-closers (consonants) and mouth-openers (vowels). The so-called semi-vowels (? and?), located between vowels and consonants, in fact always turn out to be either one or the other; the border of vowels and consonants just passes between the articulations of vowels ?, ? and corresponding consonants? and?.

The strength of exhalation (expiration) is not the same for different kinds of sounds: it is strongest in deaf consonants (why they are called fortes - strong), weaker in voiced consonants (lenes - weak), even weaker in sonorants and, finally, the weakest in vowels. The “weaknesses” of vowels and most sonorant consonants are easily seen if they are pronounced without a voice.

Consonants

The passage in the mouth through which the air flows from the lungs can be:

1. free when there is no obstacle and the air passes without friction against the walls; sounds of free passage are vowels;
2. constricted when certain organs in the mouth, approaching, form a gap in which the air stream produces friction against the walls of the passage; the sounds of the narrowed passage are fricative consonants (otherwise spirants, fricative, fricative, flow, inflated): fricative consonants include, ?, ?, ?, as well as guttural aspirated;
3. closed when the adjoining organs erect a complete barrier on the path of the air stream - a bow, which either must be directly overcome, or the air stream should seek to bypass the bow; these are stop consonants, subdivided into a number of subspecies depending on how the stop is overcome.

The occlusives are subdivided into:

• explosive, when the bow explodes under the pressure of a jet of air and the jet of air passes directly from the oral cavity to the outside; is this ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, as well as a laryngeal explosion;

• affricates (stop-fricatives), when the bow itself opens for the passage of a jet of air into the gap and the air passes through this gap with friction, but unlike fricatives, not for a long time, but instantly; This, ?, ?, ;

• nasal (or nasal), when the bow remains intact, and the air passes bypass through the nose (for which you need to lower the soft palate and move the small tongue forward without opening the bow in the mouth, which prevents air from escaping through the mouth; the difference between the nasals from each other is explained by the difference oral resonance, depending on where the closure is formed); This?, ? and other n (gn French, ng German and English);

• lateral (or lateral), when the bow remains intact, but the side of the tongue is lowered down, and a lateral bypass is formed between it and the cheek, along which air escapes; this method is possible only when the tip of the tongue is closed with teeth or alveoli, as well as the middle part of the tongue with a hard palate; is it a different type?

• trembling (or vibrant), when the bow sequentially and periodically opens until a free passage and closes again, that is, the organs of speech produce a tremor, or vibration, as a result of which the air stream comes out intermittently only at the moments of opening; this is a different kind of r; burry reed, when the small tongue trembles as it touches the back of the large tongue; lingual, when the tip of the tongue trembles, in contact with the hard palate (is that Russian?), and, finally, labial, when the lips tremble (for example, in the word whoops!).

Noisy

Consonants, a characteristic feature of which is the noise from the convergence of the organs of pronunciation, which either makes up the entire content of the sound (deaf noisy consonants), or prevails over the voice (voiced noisy consonants). The voice during the pronunciation of noisy consonants is either absent or plays a secondary role. Russian noisy consonants include: a) deaf noisy consonants ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ? and b) voiced noisy consonants ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?. However, consonants? and? occupy an intermediate position between voiced noisy consonants and sonorants.

Sonorant

In Russian, sonorant consonants include ?, ?, ?, ?, ? (?, ?, ?, ?). For example, in the phrase "lemon paradise" all consonants are sonorous.

Place of education

Main article: Place of education

Vowels

Vowel sounds and their classification

Vowel sounds differ from consonants in the presence of a voice - a musical tone and the absence of noise.

The existing classification of vowels takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels: 1) the degree of elevation of the tongue, 2) the place of elevation of the tongue, and 3) the participation or non-participation of the lips. The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, on the state of which the quality of the vowel depends.

According to the degree of vertical rise of the tongue, vowels of three degrees of rise are distinguished: vowels of the upper rise ?, ?, ?; mid-rise vowels eh?, ?; low vowel?.

The movement of the tongue horizontally leads to the formation of three rows of vowels: front vowels ?, e?; middle vowels ?, ? and back vowels ?, ?.

The participation or non-participation of lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized (rounded) ?, ? and non-labialized (non-rounded) ?, eh?, ?, ?.

Phonetics of the Russian language

Main article: Russian phonetics

In the sound structure of the Russian language, there are 43 phonemes: 6 vowel phonemes - ? ? ? ? ? ?; 37 consonants - ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?1, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?².

1 phonemes??? - always firm phoneme? - always soft
² some authors do not recognize the independence of phonemes? and a couple to her? (found in the words “reins”, “drive”), considering them options? and? (opinion of the Moscow phonological school)

Each phoneme in speech is represented by its variants (allophones). A phoneme is a kind of abstract phenomenon that combines its allophones; it never occurs in speech in its pure form. The phoneme has the main variant - a sound that is in a strong position: for vowels - this is a position under stress, for consonants - a position before a vowel or sonorant.

Why are phonemes not found in speech in their pure form? When we speak, we do not separate sounds from each other, but pronounce them together (and sometimes sounds overlap or even drop out, cf. say - ?. In the flow of speech, sounds are modified under the influence of neighboring phonemes. Cf. c-? ?: voiceless phonemes are voiced before voiced ones, voiced ones are stunned before voiceless ones.In addition, only voiceless consonants can occur at the end of words (the end of a word is considered a weak position), cf. treasure - ?, but treasures - ?.

O is considered the most variable phoneme. As such, it occurs only in a strong position (under stress). In all other cases, it is reduced (according to another point of view: the phonemes /o/ and /a/ alternate).

Reduction - modification of sound, loss of articulatory clarity by them. Reduction is both quantitative and qualitative. The phoneme O undergoes both quantitative and qualitative reduction, cf. guarded - ?, where ə is a reduced sound, practically unrecognizable as O.

alternations

As mentioned above, in the process of speech, sounds alternate, replace each other. Sometimes these alternations take the form of rather bizarre combinations, cf. yellow - turn yellow - ? - ?. O alternates with Y. The alternation O//S is called the minimal phonemic sequence. There are several different phonemic series, here are the most common ones:

• O//A: talk - talk
• E//I: holds - hold
• A//H: hour - hours
• A//S: sorry - sorry, etc.

There are two types of alternations: phonetic and historical. Phonetic, in turn, are divided into combinatorial and positional. Combinatorial ones are due to the proximity of a sound to others, and positional ones are due to the position of a sound in a word, morpheme.

We cannot explain historical alternations from a phonetic point of view. They are usually a variant of a word (or morpheme) that was widely used in the past, such as run - run, where run alternates with bezh (there used to be two different verbs); hand - manual, etc.

see also

Wiktionary has an article "phonetics"

• Phonology
• sound science
• Phonetic analysis of the word

Notes

1. ISBN 5-7567-0046-3

Phonetics and phonology
Basic concepts	Phonetics Speech sound Speech flow Segmentation Articulatory apparatus Phonation Articulation Place of formation of consonants Formant Vowels Consonants Stress Tone Intonation Syllable Mora IPA RLA Phonetic transcription Universal phonetic classifications Phonology Phoneme Opposition Position Neutralization Differential feature Minimal pair Phonologisation Allophone Phoneme variant Phoneme variation Archiphoneme Hyperphoneme Alternation Phonemic transcription
Personalities	I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay N. S. Trubetskoy L. V. Shcherba L. R. Zinder M. I. Matusevich L. V. Bondarko V. B. Kasevich R. I. Avanesov V. N. Sidorov A. A Reformatsky M. V. Panov R. O. Jacobson N. Chomsky M. Halle G. Fant
Phonological concepts	Kazan linguistic school Phonological concept of N. S. Trubetskoy Leningrad phonological school Moscow phonological school Phonological concept of R. I. Avanesov Phonological concept of M. V. Panov Generative phonology
Sections and disciplines	Articulatory phonetics Acoustic phonetics Perceptual phonetics Prosody Accentology Orthoepy Extranormal phonetics
Morphology Morphology Syntax Portal:Linguistics

Consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet

Consonants(List, More complete table) See also: IPA alphabet, Vowels Pulmonary labial labiodental dental Alv. Postalv. Retr. Chambers. Vel. Uvul. Faring. Epigle. Glott. Non-pulmonary and others nasal m ɱ n̪ n ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ Clicking ʘ ǀ ǃ ǂ ǁ explosive p b p̪ b̪ t̪ d̪ t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʡ ʔ Implosive ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ fricatives ɸ β f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ ʜ ʢ h ɦ Abruptives pʼ tʼ kʼ qʼ sʼ Approximants ʋ ɹ ɻ j ɰ Other lateral ɺ ɫ Trembling ʙ r ʀ ᴙ Co-articulated approximants ʍ w ɥ single beat ⱱ̟ ⱱ ɾ ɽ ɢ̆ ʡ̯ Co-articulated slotted ɕ ʑ ɧ Later. fricate. ɬ ɮ ꞎ affricates ʦ ʣ ʧ ʤ Later. sonants l ɭ ʎ ʟ Bifocal labiovelar k͡p ɡ͡b ŋ͡m This page contains phonetic IPA alphabet characters, which may not display correctly in some browsers. If the characters form a pair, a voiced consonant is placed on the right. Shading indicates that this articulation is considered impossible.

phonetics, English phonetics, Degen phonetics, phonetics and phonology, Kazakh phonetics, Kazakh phonetics, Kazakh phonetics, Russian phonetics, Ukrainian phonetics, Taldau phonetics

The study of speech from the perspective of the listener. The subject of perceptual phonetics is the perception of speech by the listener, the establishment of a relationship between the spoken sounds and the heard ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

Acoustic phonetics is an independent scientific discipline that arose at the intersection of linguistics, physics and bioacoustics, which studies the physical properties of a speech signal. Within the framework of this discipline, the acoustic characteristics of sound ... ... Wikipedia

- (Latin extra “over”, “outside”) a section of phonetics that studies special sound formations that are not characteristic of normal speech aimed at transmitting a language message: sounds that do not correspond to one or another phoneme in the language; ... ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Articulation. Ways of consonant formation Noisy Stopping Explosive Affricates Fricative Sibilants Sonorant ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Background. Background, background in phonetics, a unit of the sound level of a language, distinguished in a speech stream, regardless of its phonemic affiliation (that is, without attributing it to a particular phoneme) or ... ... Wikipedia

- ... Wikipedia

Linguistics ... Wikipedia

It is proposed to rename this page to the Shcherbov School or the Leningrad Phonological School. Explanation of reasons and discussion on the Wikipedia page: To rename / January 6, 2012. Perhaps its current name does not match ... ... Wikipedia

- (MFS) is one of the trends in modern phonology that emerged on the basis of the teachings of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay on the phoneme (along with the Leningrad Phonological School (LPS), founded by L. V. Shcherba). The emergence of the school ... ... Wikipedia

Books

• Workshop on the course "Modern Russian literary language". Issue 2: Acoustic and perceptual phonetics. Workbook, Knyazev Sergey Vladimirovich. The textbook corresponds to the program of the Department of the Russian Language of the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University named after M. V. Lomonosov and reflects many years of experience in teaching this course by the authors of the educational ...
• Workshop on the course "Modern Russian literary language". Issue 2. Acoustic and perceptual phonetics. Workbook, Knyazev S.V., Moiseeva E.V.. The textbook corresponds to the program of the Department of the Russian Language of the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov and reflects many years of experience in teaching this course by the authors of the educational ...

Perceptual phonetics. Stages of perception of sounding speech

Perceptual phonetics

Perceptual phonetics- a branch of phonetics that considers the perception of speech sounds by human hearing organs. It answers the question of what sound properties are essential for human speech perception (for example, for the recognition of a certain phoneme), taking into account the changing acoustic and articulatory characteristics of speech signals, that is, what are the perceptual correlates of the relevant (essential) features of phonemes and prosodemes.

In addition, perceptual phonetics takes into account that people in the process of perceiving sounding speech extract information not only from the acoustic properties of the utterance, but also from the linguistic context and the situation of communication, predicting the general meaning of the perceived message.

Perceptual phonetics also reveals the universal and specific perceptual characteristics inherent in the sounds of the human language in general and the sound units of specific languages, which allows us to conclude that perception is based not only on the invariant properties of phonemes, but also on variant ones.

It also takes into account the fact that people in the process of perceiving sounding speech extract information not only from the acoustic properties of the utterance, but also from the linguistic context and the situation of communication, predicting the general meaning of the perceived message.

Perceptual phonetics reveals the universal and specific perceptual characteristics inherent in the sounds of the human language in general and the sound units of specific languages. She comes to the conclusion that perception is based not only on the invariant properties of phonemes, but also on their variant properties.

Stages of speech perception:

• acoustic signal reception
• primary auditory analysis;
• selection of acoustic events and features;
• linguistic interpretation of the sound side of a speech message.

When studying the perception of sounding speech, it is necessary to distinguish between the psychoacoustic aspect and perceptual phonetics proper.

levels of sound perception.

The perception of sounds is provided by the functioning of the auditory system. It consists of three main sections: the peripheral, central auditory pathway and the auditory cortex. Peripheral: outer, middle and inner ear. It converts air vibrations that transmit sound into nerve impulses. The central auditory pathway transmits these impulses to the auditory zone of the cerebral cortex, and certain transformations of the impulses occur. The auditory area of ​​the cerebral cortex performs the final processing of the incoming nerve impulses and, based on their properties, "makes decisions" about the phonetic properties of the perceived sound or sound chain. It is assumed that the phonetic classification of sounds occurs in the left hemisphere of the brain, and the assessment of temporal and melodic characteristics - in the right.

Perceptual phonetics as a branch of the science of the sounds of the human language is designed to study the perception of those sound units that are used by a person in his linguistic communication.

One of the most general tasks of perceptual phonetics is to determine what sound characteristics are essential for a person who perceives speech.

The main methods of studying perception: segmentation, transplantation, synthesis, imitation. Segmentation is the selection from the sound of a speech segment of those sounds, the perception of which interests us. Transplantation is a manipulation with a sound signal, which allows the sound extracted from one word to be placed in another context. Synthesis of speech-like sounds of signals - the creation of sounds, syllables, words, phrases and entire texts using special devices - speech synthesizers.

Sounding speech is studied from two different points of view: from the position of the speaker and from the position of the listener. Articulatory phonetics deals with the study of speech from the position of the speaker, and acoustic and perceptual phonetics from the position of the listener.

Acoustic phonetics describes sounding speech as a physical phenomenon that has a certain frequency, strength, duration and spectrum at each of its points. These parameters are quite accurately fixed by modern devices. But there is another aspect of studying sounding speech - how it is perceived not by acoustic devices, but by other people. Perceptual phonetics deals with this (from Latin perceptio - ‘perception’). The subject of perceptual phonetics is the perception of speech by the listeners, the establishment of a relationship between the spoken sounds and the heard ones.

FACTORS AFFECTING SPEECH PERCEPTION

The resolving abilities of human hearing are limited, we can perceive and distinguish far from all sounds. So, it was already mentioned above that a person is able to perceive sounds that are different in height, in the range from 16 to 20,000 Hz. We do not hear lower and higher sounds. The human ear is usually able to distinguish one sound from another if the difference between them is not less than a semitone - one of the twelve sounds of the musical octave (the frequencies of the extreme ones are related as 1:2). But musically gifted people also distinguish sounds that are closer in frequency.

The difference in duration between sounds of less than 10 ms is completely imperceptible to speakers. The value of 30 ms is quite sufficient to determine the quality of an individual sound. There is also a limit to the speaking speed at which speech remains intelligible: the duration of sounds, excluding individual sounds in the speech stream, should not be less than 50 ms.

The strength, intensity of sound is its physical value, the volume of sound is its perception by a person. The loudness of a sound is related not only to its intensity, but also to its pitch. At the same intensity, sounds of different pitches are perceived as different in volume: an increase in pitch to 5000 Hz is perceived as a decrease in its volume, and from 5000 to 9000 Hz - as an increase in volume.

What a person hears and perceives depends not only on the nature of the sound, but also on a number of other reasons. One of them is the listener's language experience. The sounds of the native language are recognized quite well. If these are the sounds of a foreign language or even another dialect of their language, which differ from the usual sounds, they can be identified with difficulty. Often, misunderstanding is not associated with ignorance of the word, but with its unusual sound from the listener's point of view.

The degree of speech intelligibility is affected by the conditions of communication, which can occur in the presence of extraneous sounds that interfere with understanding: traffic noise, music, sound interference during a telephone conversation, simultaneous conversation of several interlocutors, a large distance between speakers, for example, located in different rooms. As a result of such interference, there may be about - heard and - misperceived words; For example:

you read you think

Tanya was she was not

slightly fat with thick legs

their house is taller their house has mice

I will close the water, I will close my mouth

The analysis of hearsay helps to reveal some aspects of the phonetic system of the language. So, “key” sounds are distinguished, which are rarely replaced by other sounds, and sounds that easily replace each other. The basis for recognizing a fragment of speech is also its rhythmic scheme - the distribution of vowels of different strengths. Thus, in the Russian literary language, whistling and hissing consonants often replace each other during misheard and are less often replaced by other consonants, in the same way, sonorous consonants replace each other more easily than are replaced by noisy consonants. The vowels of unstressed syllables, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, are very short, therefore, when heard, they can replace each other or not be perceived at all. The vowel of the first pre-stressed syllable can be equal in strength and duration to the stressed vowel, and this also manifests itself in hearsay: it can be perceived as stressed.

The perception of speech is influenced by the semantic context, it can cause the expectation of the appearance of a certain word. And if this word is pronounced indistinctly, with missing sounds or even other similar sounds, it will still be recognized. So, in one experiment on the recognition of words artificially produced by a synthesizer - a device for translating a written text into a sounding one, the word was well recognized quite correctly, although the sound [r] was not synthesized in it, but was replaced by a break in the sound of vowels. For a person who knows Russian, [r] in this word was predicted by the rest of the sounds. In a spoken language, words may not pronounce both individual sounds and entire sound blocks, but understanding is preserved: in [a] general - in general, p[i] syat - fifty, -

thousand, hello [s’] those - hello, Pal Yvanch, San Sanch.

PERCEPTIVE STANDARDS

In human memory, there is a limited number of language sounds in the form of certain standards of these sounds. These standards have a zone nature. This means that each standard corresponds not to one specific sound, but to many

a set of closely related but distinct sounds. If we measure the acoustic parameters of each sound of the same word uttered by different people, it turns out that these sounds will differ in strength, duration, pitch, and timbre. But these differences are insignificant for the listeners, who always distinguish and identify the same sounds in this word. A series of experiments helps to determine the boundaries of such dispersion zones, within which different specific sounds are recognized by the listeners as the same sound.

Such units as stress and intonation also have a zone nature.

Between the zones of dispersion of individual sounds, there are gaps - safety zones. While speaking, speakers should avoid making sounds in the safety zones, but may sometimes make specific sounds in that zone as well. In this case, difficulties arise for the listeners, who, in the process of perception, must attribute the spoken sound to one of the neighboring reference dispersion zones. This situation is one of the sources of misinformation.

The standards of sounds in each language are different, the zones of dispersion of sounds may not coincide in different languages, which depends on the peculiarities of the phonetic systems of these languages. So, for the Russian language, the hardness and softness of a consonant are essential features; consonants that differ in these features have their own dispersion zones, listeners define hard and soft consonants as different sounds. But there are also such languages, for example, English, German, French, in which the hardness / non-hardness of a consonant is an insignificant sign, the speakers of these languages ​​attribute solid and non-solid consonants to the same dispersion zone, i.e., consider them one and the same sound.

PERCEPTIVE RESEARCH METHODS

The main task of perceptual phonetics is to establish a relationship between sounds pronounced without any interference and sounds perceived. Therefore, experiments on the perception of sounds are carried out in special soundproof rooms. To eliminate the influence of semantics, subjects, or, as they are called, auditors, are often offered words unknown to auditors, or logotoms - artificial words that have no meaning in a given language.

Words or phrases read on a tape recorder by specially selected speakers or artificially synthesized are used as presented to auditors for identification of sound segments. These words or phrases can be presented as a whole, or separate parts can be cut out of them: syllables or sounds, which are presented to auditors. At the same time, tasks can be in the form of a requirement to determine what sound, syllable or word it is, where the stress is, what is the tone movement in the phrase. Another type of task is when pairs of sounding segments (sound stimuli) are presented to the auditors and the task is given to determine whether they are the same or different, which pairs are closer to each other and which are further. Thus, the main types of perceptual tasks are the recognition, discrimination, and comparison of presented sound stimuli.

When preparing sound stimuli for listening, the researcher can transplant segments into another sound context, for example, in the words honey and mot recorded on a tape. cut out the vowels, swap them and present the received words to the auditors. Another way to determine the character of a sound is to listen to it in reverse: from the end to the beginning.

During the experiment, some sound parameters can be changed using special computer programs. So, for example, the threshold is investigated, up to which the sound is perceived as short and above which it begins to be perceived as long, the tone level at which the declarative sentence begins to be perceived as interrogative is determined.

Evaluation of sound stimuli can be of a probabilistic nature when several auditors participate in the experiment and their estimates do not always coincide.

SOUND symbolism

M. V. Lomonosov wrote: “In the Russian language, as it seems, the frequent repetition of writing a can contribute to the image of magnificence, great space, depth and height, as well as sudden fear; increased frequency of writing e, and, u - to the image of tenderness, caress, deplorable or small things; through I you can show pleasantness, amusement, tenderness and inclination, through oh, u, s - terrible and strong things: anger, envy, fear and sadness. In one experiment, young children were shown two matryoshka dolls that differ in size: one is large, the other is very small.

They said: “Here are two sisters, one is called A, the other is I. Guess which one is I.” And most of the children pointed to a small matryoshka.

Many people associate sounds, most commonly vowels, with a particular color. So, the sound [a] usually corresponds to red, [O] - light yellow, [i] - blue, [e] - yellow-green, [y] - blue-violet, [s] - dark brown. The opposition of consonants is often based on other signs: light - dark, small - big, good - bad, etc.

All sounds are opposed to each other in tone: there are sounds high and low. Low sounds are formed in a larger and less dissected oral cavity, high sounds are formed in a smaller and more dissected one. So, the vowels [i], [e], formed in the front of the oral cavity, are high, and the non-front vowels [a], [o], [y] are low; consonants, peripheral at the place of formation, i.e. labial and posterior lingual, low, and central consonants, i.e. anterior and middle lingual, high (an exception is low [l]). Ideas about light, high, light, thin, smooth, hot are associated with high sounds, and ideas about dark, deep, heavy, thick, rough, cold are associated with low sounds.

In various experiments, auditors were asked to use these features to describe logotomes composed of high sounds (for example, wilde, nezich, terilya, dec, tin) and low sounds (for example, bukof, movuk, pum, wump, buf). Most auditors described the words of the first type with the help of features from the first group, and the words of the second type were described with the help of features from the second group.

This feature of sounds is well felt and used by poets in their poems. Here is the beginning of A. S. Pushkin's poem "Winter Morning":

Frost and sun; wonderful day!

You are still dozing, my lovely friend, -

It's time, beauty, wake up:

Open eyes closed by bliss Towards the northern Aurora,

Be the star of the north!

A serene, joyful, bright mood is also conveyed by the predominance of high sounds over low ones: their ratio is 61:39%. A completely different emotional tone in the poem "Winter Evening":

A storm covers the sky with mist,

Whirlwinds of snow twisting;

Like a beast, she will howl

It will cry like a child

That on the roof of the dilapidated Suddenly the straw will rustle,

Like a belated traveler

There will be a knock on our window.

Here, there is another ratio of high and low sounds - 44:56%, low sounds prevail.