Capitalist France has long sought to seize the Annam Kingdom (Vietnam), which was nominally dependent on China. In the 1950s and 1960s, having seized the southern region of Indochina - Cochinchina, as well as Cambodia, France began to implement its plans for the northern part of Indochina. However, here France ran into serious resistance from the Vietnamese and Chinese troops. Then the French government resorted to pressure on China.
In May 1884, French diplomacy forced Li Hong-chang to sign an agreement on the liquidation of Annam's vassal relations with China. However, the Chinese government refused to ratify this treaty. Then the French colonialists began military operations against China.
The Franco-Chinese war unfolded on two fronts: at sea - in the Taiwan Strait and on land - in the northern part of the Indochinese Peninsula.
In August 1884, the French squadron, entering Chinese waters, sank the Chinese ships they encountered, bombarded the island of Taiwan and the southeast coast of China. In March 1885, the French army captured the Penghuledao Islands.
At the same time, hostilities unfolded in Indochina, in the northern part of Annam - Tonkin. Huge assistance to the peoples of Vietnam was provided by partisan peasant units of the "black flags", which were the remnants of the Taiping army. Detachments of "black flags", led by the talented people's commander Liu Yong-fu, inflicted a number of defeats on the French.
However, the Manchurian government was afraid of unleashing a people's war and hastened to sign on June 9, 1885 in the city of Tianjin, a capitulatory peace treaty.
The Tianjin Franco-Chinese Treaty was another unequal treaty for China. The Manchu dynasty recognized the protectorate of France over Annam and, in addition, allowed French merchants to trade freely in the Chinese province of Yunnan and granted the French a number of other privileges.
England, taking advantage of the weakness of China, aggravated by the defeat in the war with France, captured Burma in 1886, and later another vassal principality of China - Sikkim, turning them into their colonial possessions.
In 1885, the representative of Japan forced Li Hong-chang to sign an agreement that limited China's sovereignty over Korea. Under this agreement, the introduction of Chinese troops into Korea could only take place without agreement with Japan, which, in turn, received the right to send its troops into Korea on the same terms as China. This agreement was a significant step towards the enslavement of Korea by Japan.
So soon after the Franco-Chinese war, one after another, its vassal possessions were opened from China. The capitalist powers strengthened themselves on the borders of China and gradually approached its main territory.
In the second half of the 19th century, France carried out a successful expansion in Indochina, subjugating one after another more and more new areas of this subcontinent. Here, her interests were bound to collide with those of China.
In 1883-1884, France took possession of Tonkin (Northern Vietnam), coming close to the border with China. In Tonkin at that time, Chinese colonization was actively carried out, there were many immigrants who formed their own armed detachments (known as "black flags"). To protect them in the summer of 1883, regular Chinese troops arrived in northern Vietnam, who fought the French along with the "black flags" and the Vietnamese army.
FIRST ENCOUNTERS
Admiral Amadeus Courbet in December 1883 stormed the well-fortified point of Shontey. Here, for the first time, the French had to face the Chinese troops, who turned out to be quite a serious enemy. The French army suffered significant losses (400 dead with 2 thousand dead Chinese). The new commander of the French forces in Tonkin, General Charles Millau, acted more successfully. In March 1884, with a corps of 10,000, he defeated an 18,000-strong Chinese detachment, which occupied heavily fortified positions in Baknin. In fact, there was no battle: when the French went behind the lines of the Chinese, they fled, leaving their artillery behind. Thanks to this, the Chinese were forced out of the Red River Valley, the most important water artery that began in South China and connected the South Chinese provinces with the sea.
The defeat at Baknin caused a split in the ruling circles of China. The rulers of the northern provinces advocated a cessation of hostilities. On June 6, 1884, an agreement was signed under which China recognized the protectorate of France over all of Vietnam. However, the rulers of the southern provinces were ready to continue the struggle for Thin.
On June 23, a small French column moving along the so-called. The Mandarin Road, which connected Hanoi with the border with China, collided with a 4,000-strong Chinese detachment near Bakle. The Chinese attacked the French, forcing them to retreat. The French lost about 100 men killed. On July 12, 1884, French Prime Minister Jules Ferry issued an ultimatum to the Chinese government, demanding the withdrawal of Chinese troops from Vietnam and the payment of an indemnity of 250 million francs. The Chinese authorities agreed to the withdrawal of troops, but refused to pay an indemnity - they only announced their readiness to pay 3.5 million francs as compensation to the families of those who died at Bakle. After the ultimatum expired, Ferry ordered hostilities to begin. The French government was going to destroy the shipyards near Fuzhou, and as an indemnity - to take coal mines near Jilong (Taiwan Island).
WAR AT SEA
According to the views of the French military-political leadership, the fleet, and specifically the Far Eastern Squadron, was to play the leading role in the war with China. This formation, under the command of Admiral Amédée Courbet, included four armored cruisers, five large and seven small unarmored cruisers, and five gunboats. The moment for the start of hostilities was right: a pair of powerful battleships ordered by China, at the request of France, was detained in Germany. Other modern ships of the Chinese fleet were concentrated to the north, in the Zhili Gulf and Shanghai. In the southern ports of Fuzhou and Guangzhou, there were only obsolete and poorly armed ships. On the other hand, the Chinese had quite powerful coastal batteries.
Despite the superiority at sea, the French had to act with an eye on the position of Great Britain, which might not approve attacks on the main Chinese ports. Therefore, Courbet was ordered to act against peripheral objects - Fuzhou and Taiwan. On August 5, 1884, part of the French squadron fired from the sea on Kilung in northern Taiwan and tried to land an assault force, which was repulsed. However, the Chinese authorities did not take this incident as the start of hostilities. In particular, the Chinese did not prevent the French from concentrating their warships off Fuzhou. On August 23, Admiral Courbet attacked the Chinese squadron. Thanks to the surprise factor, as well as the superiority of their ships in armament, the French were able to quickly sink most of the nine enemy ships that were in Fuzhou. Having defeated the Chinese squadron, Admiral Courbet fired at the shipyards of Fuzhou, and then destroyed the coastal batteries with a strike from the rear. After the attack on Fuzhou on August 27, 1884, the Chinese government issued a decree declaring war on France. In France, war was never formally declared, as it required the approval of the French Parliament, where Ferry had weak support.
In early September, Courbet concentrated his efforts against Taiwan, systematically bombarding the Jilong. In October, the French landed a landing force of 2,000 men, which occupied the forts of Jilong, but they could not build on their success.
On October 20, 1884, Admiral Courbet announced the establishment of a naval blockade of Taiwan. In order to alleviate the position of its ground forces in Taiwan, the Chinese fleet at the beginning of 1885 conducted its first and last military campaign in this war. Admiral W. Ankang's squadron of four large cruisers and a messenger ship set off south from Shanghai. By the beginning of February, the squadron reached the Taiwan Strait, but turned back. Courbet, having received information about the entry into the sea of the Chinese fleet, with three large cruisers (two of them armored) went to Shanghai, and then moved towards the enemy. The meeting of the Chinese and French squadrons took place on February 13, 1885 near Chusan Island off the coast of the province. Not accepting the battle, Wu Ankang broke away from the French with three new cruisers and went to Zhenhai. The old slow cruiser and messenger ship took refuge in the nearby harbor of Shipu, where they were sunk the next night by French destroyers. Courbet blocked the Chinese ships in Zhenhai from the sea, but did not dare to attack the heavily fortified harbor.
Escalation and Decoupling
On February 20, 1885, France declared a rice blockade. Now the French began to stop ships loaded with rice and send them back.
FIGHTING IN NORTH VIETNAM
If the Chinese fleet was rather passive, then the ground forces in North Vietnam, on the contrary, launched active operations. Two Chinese armies formed in the border provinces of Guangxi and Yunnan simultaneously invaded Tonki from the northwest and northeast. Both armies were to link up in the Red River Delta and throw the French forces into the sea. With the concentration of forces in the border provinces, the number of both Chinese armies reached 40-50 thousand people. The Chinese troops had modern weapons (Mauser rifles and Krupp guns), but were poorly trained and showed themselves best in defense in fortified positions. There was practically no light field artillery. Their offensive operations were slow progress with continuous building of fortifications. Initially, the Chinese troops enjoyed the support of the local population, but later, due to military requisitions, the Vietnamese changed their attitude towards the Chinese.
The number of French troops in Tonkin was about 15 thousand people. They included ordinary army units, marines, Algerians, as well as local colonial detachments - Annam (South Vietnamese) and Tonkin (North Vietnamese). The great advantage of the French was the presence of a river flotilla, which made it possible to quickly concentrate forces in key areas and make detour maneuvers along river systems. On the other hand, French troops suffered significant losses from tropical diseases.
OFFENSIVE
Chinese troops, even before the full concentration of all forces, began in September 1884 a slow advance from their borders into the depths of Vietnam. The forward units of the Guangxi Army moved from Lang Son along the Mandarin Road, and the Yunnan Army from Laokai down the Red River Valley. In October, the French halted the offensive of the Guangxi army, separately defeating several advanced Chinese detachments and capturing strategically important points. The Chinese suffered heavy losses in the process.
In early February 1885, the French attacked Langshon, which ended in its capture. The Guangxi army was unable to counteract the rapid detour marches of the French and retreated, fighting only rearguard battles, sometimes stubborn. The French commander Brière de Lisle, believing that the Guangxi army was finished, turned against the Yunnan army. The French troops returned along the Mandarin Road to Hanoi, after which they began to ascend the Red River on the ships of the river flotilla.
In January-February 1885, the Tuenkuang garrison, where a small French detachment was defending, repulsed seven Chinese assaults, but its forces were coming to an end. In early March, Brière de Lille broke through the front of the Yunnan army with a blow from the south and freed Tuenkuang from the siege.
2.5 thousand French troops led by General Francois de Negrier, left at Langshon, at that time continued to pursue parts of the Guangxi army to the border of China and even defiantly crossed it for a short time. However, the Guangxi army was not defeated. After the retreat from Tonkin to their territory, the Chinese troops were reorganized and reinforced. Their number has grown to 30 thousand people. Despite this, Negrie was ordered to strike again on the border in order to persuade the Chinese to accept the terms of peace.
On March 23, 1885, Negrie attacked the fortified Chinese positions near the town of Banbo, but was driven back with heavy losses. Having lost 300 people. killed, Negrie gave the order to retreat to Langshon to wait for reinforcements there. On March 28, the Chinese troops advancing behind attacked the French at Lang Son. In the ensuing battle, Negrie was seriously wounded. Having lost their commander, the French troops lost their stamina and turned into a disorderly retreat, abandoning artillery and carts.
DENOUNCING
Failures in Vietnam led France to a government crisis. The French government was accused of that it hides the true state of things. Ferry's office fell. The new Brisson government was nevertheless determined to end the war with China with a victory "in order to preserve the honor of France." It was decided to send new troops to Tonky, but in April China agreed to peace talks.
On April 4, 1885, France and China signed a provisional armistice agreement. The French fleet lifted the blockade from the commercial ports of China, but continued to block the Chinese military squadron in Zhenhai. French landing troops continued to be in Taiwan and the Pescadores, while Chinese troops began to withdraw from North Vietnam. On June 9, 1885, the final Franco-Chinese peace treaty was signed in Tianjin. Under this treaty, China recognized that the whole of Vietnam was controlled by France, and all Chinese troops were withdrawn from Vietnamese territory. For its part, France withdrew its troops and navy from Taiwan and the Pescadores and refused to demand indemnity. France was granted a number of trade privileges in the provinces bordering Vietnam.
| Franco-Chinese War | |
| 中法战争 | |
| the date | |
| theater of war | Southeast China, Taiwan, northern Vietnam |
| Cause | Fight for northern Vietnam |
| Outcome | French victory, Treaty of Tientsin |
| Changes | France acquired North Vietnam (Tonkin) |
| Opponents | |
| France | Qing Empire |
| Commanders | |
|
|
| Side forces | |
| 15-20 thousand people | 25-35 thousand people (troops of the southeastern provinces) |
| Losses | |
| 2,100 dead and wounded | 10,000 dead and wounded |
|
|
The Franco-Chinese War (中法战争, Zhōng fǎ Zhànzhēng, also known as the Tonkin War, August 1884 - June 1885) was a war fought between France and Qing China for possession of North Vietnam. Since France has achieved its goal, and captured North Vietnam, it is considered the winner. However, China performed much better than in other colonial wars of the 19th century, with the result that the French were defeated in separate battles. And in Taiwan and Guangxi, the Chinese won a landslide victory.
Prelude
France had interests in Indochina since the 18th century, in 1858 it launched a colonial campaign and by 1862 had taken possession of several southern provinces of Vietnam and established the colony of Cochin China there. The French looked with interest at North Vietnam (Tonkin), capturing which, they would have received an overland trade route with China, bypassing the treaty ports. The main obstacle was the armies of the Black Banners, Chinese settlers under the command of Liu Yongfu, who levied tolls on trade along the Hongha River.
Henry Riviera Expedition to Tonkin
The French intervention in Tonkin was the initiative of Commandant Henry Riviere, who at the end of 1881 was sent at the head of a small military detachment to Hanoi to investigate the activities of the Vietnamese against French merchants. Contrary to the instructions of the authorities, on April 25, 1882, the Rivière stormed the citadel of Hanoi. Although Rivière later returned the citadel to the Vietnamese authorities, the French use of force was greeted with dismay in both Vietnam and China.
The Vietnamese government, unable to resist the Riviera with its outdated army, turned to Liu Yongfu for help, whose well-trained "black banner" troops had already defeated the French in 1873, when Lieutenant Francis Garnier, also exceeding his authority, was defeated under the walls of Hanoi . The Vietnamese also counted on the help of China, whose vassal they had long been. China agreed to arm and supply the Black Banners, and secretly opposed the French occupation of Tonkin. In the summer of 1882, Chinese troops from the provinces of Yunnan and Guangxi crossed the Vietnamese border and occupied the cities of Lang Son, Bac Ninh and Hung Hoa, making it clear to the French that they would not allow the occupation of Tonkin. The French envoy to China, Frederic Burey, wishing to avoid war with China, in November-December 1882 concluded an agreement with Li Hongzhang on the division of spheres of influence in Tonkin. The Vietnamese were not invited to these talks.
Riviera did not like Bureya's decision, and he decided to force things. Having received reinforcements from France in the form of an infantry battalion, on March 27, 1883, with 520 infantry soldiers, he captured the Nam Din fortress, which controlled the route from Hanoi to the sea. On March 28, battalion commander Berte de Villers repelled a counterattack by the Vietnamese and the Black Banners. At this time, the government of Prime Minister Jules Farry came to power in France, which encouraged colonial expansion. The new foreign minister recalled Bureya and denounced the Franco-Chinese treaty on the division of Tonkin. And Riviere not only was not fired for violating the order, but also became the hero of the day. Chinese General Tang Jingsun, realizing that the Vietnamese alone could not cope with the French, in April convinced Liu Yongfu to go into action.
On May 10, Liu Yongfu posted posters on the walls of Hanoi challenging the French to fight. On May 19, 1883, the Riviera detachment (about 450 soldiers) fought the Black Banners at the Paper Bridge, a few miles west of Hanoi. After some initial success, the French were outflanked and routed. Only with difficulty did they manage to regroup and withdraw to Hanoi. In the battle, Riviere himself, Berte de Villers and a number of senior officers were killed.
French intervention in Tonkin
The news of Rivière's death caused a strong reaction in France. Reinforcements were sent to Tonkin, the threat of a Black Banner attack on Hanoi was averted, and the situation stabilized. On August 20, 1883, Admiral Amédée Courbet, who was appointed commander of the created naval division of the Tonkin coast, attacked the forts guarding the approaches to the Vietnamese capital Hue in the battle for Thuan An, and forced the Vietnamese government to sign the Treaty of Hue, establishing a French protectorate over Tonkin.
Meanwhile, the new commander of the expeditionary army in Tonkin, General Bue, attacked the positions of the Black Banners on the Day River. Although the French won the battles of Fuhoai (August 15) and Palai (September 1), they were unable to capture all of Liu Yongfu's positions, which was viewed as a defeat in the public eye. In September 1883, Bue retired, and Liu Yongfu was forced to leave his position on the Dai River due to heavy rainfall and flooding of the river. He returned to the city of Songtai, a few miles to the west.
Confrontation between France and China
Europeans on the streets of Guangzhou The French were ready for a major offensive at the end of the year, during which they planned to finish off Liu Yongfu and his Black Banners. In preparation for it, they tried to convince China to refuse support for the Black Banners, and also negotiated joint actions with other European powers. Negotiations were held in July 1883 in Shanghai between the French minister Arthur Trico and Li Hongzhang. However, the talks broke down on Chinese initiative, as Li Hongzhang received an optimistic report from the Chinese ambassador in Paris saying that France was not ready for a full-scale war. The parallel negotiations of the summer-autumn in Paris were also unsuccessful. The Chinese firmly stood their ground and refused to withdraw the garrisons from Songtai, Bak Ninh and Lang Son, despite the threat of war. The French, seeing the approach of war, persuaded Germany to delay the release of two Dingyuan-class battleships, which were being built at a German shipyard for the Chinese Beiyang fleet. Growing tensions in Franco-Chinese relations led to anti-foreign demonstrations in China in the fall of 1883. European merchants were attacked in Guangzhou, and the European powers were forced to provide gunboats to protect their citizens.
Songtai and Baknin
Capture of Songtai The French understood that an attack on Liu Yongfu would lead to an undeclared war with China, so they decided that a quick victory in Tonkin would present China with a fait accompli. Command in the Tonkin campaign was entrusted to Admiral Courbet, who in December 1883 attacked the Songtai fortress. The Songthai campaign proved fierce, with few Chinese and Vietnamese troops in the city, but Liu Yongfu's Black Banners fought fiercely. On December 14, the French attacked the outer fortifications of Songtai-Fusa, but were driven back with heavy losses. Hoping to exploit Courbet's weakening, Liu Yongfu attacked the French camp that same night, but was also repulsed with heavy losses. On December 15, Courbet rested his troops, and on the afternoon of December 16, Songtai attacked again. This time the attack was carried out after careful artillery preparation. At 5 pm, battalions of the foreign legion and marines took possession of the western gates of Songtai, and broke into the city. Liu Yongfu's garrison retreated to the citadel, and a few hours later, after dark, they evacuated. Courbet reached his goal, but the losses were significant: 83 men were killed and 320 were wounded. The losses of the Black Banners were also significant, according to some observers, they were finally defeated. Liu Yongfu realized that he was forced to bear the brunt of fighting for his Vietnamese and Chinese allies and decided not to put his troops in such danger again.
Retreat from Baknin In March 1884, the French resumed their offensive under General Charles-Théodore Milhaud, who took charge of the land campaign after Sontay. After receiving reinforcements from France and its African colonies, the French forces reached 10 thousand soldiers. Milhaud brought them into two brigades, putting Louis Brière de Lisle and Francois de Negrire, who had previously distinguished themselves in Africa, as commanders. The French target was Baknin, a powerful fortress defended by Chinese troops in Guangxi Province. Despite the fact that the Chinese had 18,000 soldiers, cannons, and fortified positions, the battle proved to be an easy one for the French. Milhaud bypassed the Chinese defenses southwest of Bak Ninh, and on March 12 attacked the fortress from the southeast. The morale of the Chinese army was poor and it fled after little resistance, leaving the French with ammunition and new Krupp cannons.
Tianjin Agreement and Treaty of Hue
Chinese soldiers The capture of Songtai and Baknin by the French strengthened the position of peace supporters in the Chinese court and discredited the party of extremists led by Zhang Zhidong, who advocated war with France. Further successes of the French in the spring of 1884 - the capture of Hung Hoa and Tainguen convinced Empress Dowager Cixi to agree with the French. On May 11, 1884, Li Hongzhang from the Chinese side and François-Ernest Fournier, captain of the cruiser Volta, from the French, signed an agreement in Tianjin, according to which the Chinese recognized the French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin and pledged to withdraw their troops from there. In return, the French promised to conclude a comprehensive treaty with China that would set the rules for trade and ensure the demarcation of disputed borders with Vietnam.
And on June 6, with the consent of the Chinese side, an agreement was signed between Hue and Vietnam. It established a French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin and allowed the French to garrison strategic points and major cities. The signing of the treaty was accompanied by a symbolic gesture: in the presence of the French and Vietnamese plenipotentiaries, the seal, which had been presented by the Chinese emperor to the Vietnamese king Gia Long several decades ago, was melted down. Thus, Vietnam's rejection of centuries-old ties with China was indicated.
Fournier was not a professional diplomat, leaving the Tientsin Agreement with several uncertainties. Most important of all, no date was specified for the withdrawal of Chinese troops from Tonkin. The French argued that the troops should be withdrawn immediately, while the Chinese claimed that only after the signing of a comprehensive treaty. The agreement was extremely unpopular in China, and the imperial court was unable to comply with it. The War Party called for Li Hongzhang's resignation, while his opponents sent troops to Vietnam to hold the Chinese position.
Ambush at Buckle
Ambush at Buckle Li Hongzhang hinted to the French that there might be difficulties in securing an agreement, but did not say anything specific. The French assumed that the Chinese troops would immediately leave Tonkin, and were preparing to occupy the border cities of Lang Son, Tsaobang and Thatke. In early June, a French column of 750 men under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Alphonse Dugennes advanced to occupy Langchon. On June 23, a 4,000-strong detachment of the Chinese Guangxi army blocked their path near the small town of Bakle. Due to the diplomatic significance of the event, Dugen had to inform the command in Hanoi of the presence of Chinese troops, and wait for further instructions. Instead, he issued an ultimatum to the Chinese, and, having received a refusal, he continued to move. The Chinese opened fire. During the two-day battle, the French were surrounded and badly beaten. In the end, Dugen broke through the encirclement and retreated with small forces.
When the news of the Buckle Ambush reached Paris, it was taken as a flagrant betrayal of the Chinese. Ferry's government demanded an apology from the Chinese, monetary compensation, and immediate implementation of the Tientsin Agreement. China agreed to negotiate, but refused to apologize and pay compensation, agreeing only to compensate the families of the French killed in Bacle. Negotiations lasted throughout July, Admiral Courbet was ordered to send his squadron to Fuzhou, and on July 12, Jules Ferry put forward an ultimatum to China: if French demands were not met by August 1, the French would destroy the naval shipyard in Fuzhou and seize the coal mines in Keelun in Taiwan. On August 5, Rear Admiral Sebastien Lespe's French squadron destroyed three Chinese batteries off Jilong, in northern Taiwan. The French landed troops to capture Jilong and the nearby coal mines at Patou, but the arrival of a large army of Chinese commissar Liu Mingchuan forced the French back on the ships on 6 August.
The course of the war
During the course of the war, the French Far East Squadron and the ground expeditionary forces in Tonkin operated without any communication with each other, which is why the war was fought in two isolated theaters: in North Vietnam and on the southeast coast of China.
Operations of the squadron of Admiral Courbet
Battle of Fuzhou and the Minjiang River
Negotiations were broken off in mid-August, and on August 22 Courbet was ordered to attack the Chinese Fujian fleet. On August 23, he suddenly attacked Chinese ships. , witnessed by the British and American ships standing on the roadstead, lasted no more than two hours. The entire Fujian fleet was practically destroyed: nine ships were sunk, including the flagship, the Yangwu corvette, the Fuzhou arsenal and the naval shipyard were seriously damaged, and about 3,000 Chinese sailors died. After the battle, Courbet went down the Minjiang River, his path to the sea was blocked by several coastal batteries. But since the batteries protected Fuzhou from the sea, Courbet approached them from the rear. On August 28, the French squadron reached the mouth and put to sea.
On August 27, 1884, after receiving news of the bombing of the Fuzhou shipyard and the destruction of the Fujian fleet, China declared war on France. In France, war was never declared, as it required the approval of Parliament, and the cabinet of Jules Ferry had very little support there.
Riots in Hong Kong
The news of the destruction of the Fujian fleet led to a patriotic upsurge in China. There were attacks on foreigners and foreign property throughout the country. There was a strong sympathy for China in Europe, thanks to which the Chinese were able to hire several English, German and American naval officers as advisers. A patriotic upsurge also swept over Hong Kong, where in September 1884, port workers refused to repair the damage to the French battleship La Galissoniere, received in the August battles. On October 3, there were serious riots, during which one rioter was shot dead and several policemen were injured. The British rightly believed that the riots had been fomented by the Chinese authorities in Guangdong.
Occupation of Ksilong
Landing in Jilong Meanwhile, the French decided to capture Kielong and Tamsui in northern Taiwan in order to avenge the August 6 setback and secure the peace talks. On October 1, a French force of 1,800 marines landed at Kilong, forcing the Chinese to withdraw to defensive positions in the surrounding hills. At the same time, the French detachment was too small to move on, and the Patou coal mines were left to China. Along with this, Admiral Lespe, after an ineffective naval bombardment, landed 600 sailors off Tamsui on October 8th. Here, the French landing force was resolutely repulsed by the forces of Fujian General Sun Kaihua. As a result, French control over Taiwan was limited to Jilong. It was far from what they had hoped for.
Blockade of Taiwan
By the end of 1884, the French blocked the northern ports of Taiwan: Kilong and Tamsui, and the southern ones: Tainan and Kaohsiung. In early January 1885, the French expeditionary force in Taiwan, under the command of Jacques Duchenne, was reinforced by two battalions of infantry, and its strength was 4,000 people. At the same time, Liu Mingchuan's troops, reinforced by the Xiang and Huai armies, reached 25,000 men. Being outnumbered, the French were able to recapture several small ones southeast of Jilong at the end of January, but in February they were forced to stop the offensive due to heavy rains.
Britain opposed the blockade of Taiwan, on whose chartered ships the Chinese transferred reinforcements. The blockade led to the actual inactivity of the strongest Beiyang fleet in China, and the fettering of the actions of the Nanyang. Due to the decentralization of fleet management in China, the French were able to gain control over the seas, they did not fight against the entire fleet of China.
Battles of Shipu and Zhenhai and rice blockade
French destroyer attacking the Yuyuan frigate In early 1885, the Nanyang Fleet under the command of Wu Ankang left the base and headed to break the blockade of Taiwan. Admiral Courbet, having received reinforcements by that time, moved towards him. Both fleets met on February 13, 1885 at Chusan Island on the coast of Zhejiang Province. At Ankang, with three cruisers, he managed to escape and headed for the Zhenhai fortress, which covered the port of Ningbo from the sea. And the frigate "Yuyuan" and the messenger sloop "Chengqing" took refuge in the nearest bay of Shipu. In the battle of Shipu, the Courbet squadron blocked the exit from the bay, and the destroyers sank both Chinese ships without loss.
On March 1, Courbet's squadron approached Zhenhai, where three Nanyang cruisers and 4 more warships were hiding. The Battle of Zhenhai resulted in an inconclusive skirmish between French cruisers and Chinese coastal fortifications. For some time the French squadron blocked the Chinese ships, but then retreated. The Chinese general Ouyang Lijian, who commanded the defense of Ningbo and Zhenhai, considered the Battle of Zhenhai a defensive victory for the Chinese.
Under British diplomatic pressure, the French were unable to interfere with China's maritime trade. Then on February 20, France announced a rice blockade. The northern Chinese provinces, including the capital, experienced a lack of food, so they imported it, especially rice, from the fertile south. Much of the rice was transported by sea, and Courbet, by stopping ships at the mouth of the Yangtze, hoped to cause food shortages in the north and thus incline China to peace. The blockade severely hampered the export of rice from Shanghai by sea, and forced the Chinese authorities to move it more slowly by land, but the war ended before the rice blockade could seriously affect China's economy.
Operations in Tonkin
Victories in the Hongha Delta
Storming the village of Kep Meanwhile, the French army in Tonkin was putting pressure on the Chinese and the Black Banners. General Milhaud resigned for health reasons in September 1884 and was replaced by Louis Brière de Lisle, commander of one of the battalions. The main task of Brière de Lisle was to repulse the Chinese invasion of Tonkin. Two Chinese armies - the Yunnanese under the command of Tang Jingsong and the Guangxi under the command of Pan Dingxin began a slow advance deep into Vietnam. At the end of September, large detachments of the Guangxi provincial army advanced from Lang Son and occupied the Luknam Valley, where on October 2 they ambushed two French gunboats. Brière de Lisle responded by conducting the Cap Campaign from 2 to 15 October, transporting some 3,000 French troops into the Luknam valley aboard a flotilla of gunboats, and attacking the Chinese troops to their concentration. Three French columns under the general command of General Negrir attacked scattered Chinese detachments and won successive victories over them at Lam (October 6), Kep (October 8) and Chu (October 10). The assault on the village of Kep ended in fierce hand-to-hand combat, in which the French suffered heavy losses. The enraged French after the battle shot and bayoneted dozens of captured Chinese, which shocked public opinion in Europe. During the Franco-Chinese War, prisoners were rarely taken, and the French were also shocked by the behavior of the Chinese in executing their soldiers.
Louis Brière de Lisle As a result of French victories, the Chinese were driven back to Buccle and Dong Song, while Negrir established forward positions at Kep and Chu. Chu was only a few miles from Dongsong, and on December 16, a strong Chinese force ambushed two detachments of the foreign legion at the village of Hoha, near Chu. The legionnaires bravely fought their way out of the encirclement, but suffered heavy losses and had to leave the dead on the battlefield. Negrir immediately sent reinforcements and began pursuing the Chinese detachment, but he successfully escaped to Dongsong.
After the October fighting, Brière de Lisle resupplyed the western outposts of Hung Hoa, Tainguyen, and Tuanquang, which were threatened by the troops of Liu Yongfu and Tang Jingsong. On November 19, a reinforcement column for Tuan Quang under the command of Jacques Duchesne was ambushed by the Chinese in the Yuoc Gorge. In the battle of Yuok, the French were able to break through to their fortifications. The French also occupied the eastern points of Tianyen, Dongtrieu and others, and also blocked the Cantonese port of Beihai in southern China, which allowed them to secure the theater of operations from the province of Guangdong. The lower course of the Hong Ha River was also cleared of Vietnamese partisans. These preparations enabled Brière de Lisle to concentrate the bulk of the expeditionary corps around Chu and Kep at the end of 1884 in order to launch an attack on Langshon early next year.
Lang Son Campaign
The French strategy in Tonkin was the subject of fierce debate in the Chamber of Deputies. The Minister of the Army, Jean-Baptiste-Marie Campignon, argued that the French should gain a foothold in the Hong Ha Delta, while his opponents called for an all-out offensive to drive the Chinese out of northern Tonkin. The debate ended with the resignation of Campignon and the appointment of General Jules-Louis Leval in his place, who ordered Brière de Lisle to capture Langchon. The Lang Son Campaign began from forward positions at Chu, on January 3 and 4, 1885, Negrir attacked units of the Guangxi Army at Nuibop, which were trying to disrupt French preparations. A brilliant victory at the Battle of Nuibop, accomplished with a tenfold superiority of the Chinese, became the pinnacle of Negrir's career.
Capture of Lang Son Preparations for the advance on Lang Son took another month. Finally, on February 3, Brière de Lisle set out from Chu with 7,200 infantry and 4,500 servants. The column advanced slowly, capturing Chinese fortifications along the way. Taihoa was taken on February 4, Hahoa on February 5, and Dongsong on February 6. After a short respite in Dongsong, the detachment continued to move. On February 9, Deokuao was captured, on February 11, Phowi, and on February 12, the French captured Bakvye, located just a few kilometers south of Lang Son, in a fierce battle. On February 13, after rearguard battles in Quilua, the Chinese surrendered Lang Son almost without a fight.
Siege and liberation of Tuen Quang
Chinese prisoners near Tuen Quang Back in November 1884, units of the Yunnan army of Tang Jingsong and the "Black Banners" of Liu Yongfu besieged the French garrison in Tuen Quang under the command of Major Mark Edmond Dominet, consisting of 400 soldiers of the foreign legion and 200 Vietnamese Annamese riflemen. In January and February 1885, the garrison fought off seven Chinese attacks, losing a third of their strength in the process. By mid-February, it became clear that the Tuen Quang garrison would fall if it did not receive help, so after taking Langshon, Brière de Lisle moved to his rescue.
Leaving Negrir's 2nd Brigade in Lang Son, Brière de Lisle personally led Laurent Giovaninelli's 1st Brigade and led it to Hanoi. Then the brigade went to Tuenkuang, on February 24, reinforced by the Phudoan garrison. On March 2, 1885, the Giovaninelli Brigade attacked the Chinese left flank at Hoamok. The Battle of Hoamok was one of the fiercest of the entire war, the Chinese repulsed two French attacks, and only on the third time did the French take control, losing 76 people killed and 408 wounded. However, the Yunnan army and the Black Banners lifted the siege from Tuen Quang and retreated to the west, and Brière de Lisle entered the liberated city on March 3.
End of the war
Bangbo, Kilua and Retreat from Lang Son
Bangbo fortifications Even before his departure from Lang Son, Brière de Lisle ordered Negrir to move to the Chinese border and drive the remnants of the Guangxi army from Tonkin. After replenishing the 2nd Brigade with food and ammunition, Negrir defeated the Guangxi army at the Battle of Dongdang on February 23 and drove it out of Tonkin. After that, French troops crossed the Chinese border and blew up the "Gate of China" - a complex of customs buildings on the border of Tonkin and the Chinese province of Guangxi. Negrir did not have the strength to develop success, and at the end of February he returned to Langshon.
By the beginning of March, a stalemate had developed in Tonkin. The Chinese Yunnan and Guangxi armies did not have the strength to attack, and the two French brigades that jointly took Lang Son were also unable to attack separately. Meanwhile, the French government pressed Brière de Lisle to send the 2nd Brigade across the Chinese border to Guangxi, in the hope that the threat to its own territory would force China to sue for peace. On March 17, Brière de Lisle reported to Paris that such operations were beyond his powers. However, reinforcements arriving in Tonkin in mid-March broke the stalemate. Brière de Lisle sent the main part of the reinforcements to Hung Hoa to reinforce the 1st brigade, intending to attack the Yunnan army. Negrir was ordered to hold positions at Langshon.
On March 23 and 24, Negrir's 2nd Brigade, with only 1,500 soldiers against 25,000 soldiers of the Guangxi army, attacked the Bangbo fortifications on the Sino-Tonkin border. The Battle of Bangbo in China is known as the Battle of Zhengnan Pass. Although on March 23 the French took a number of outer fortifications, on March 24 they were unable to take the main positions, and were in turn counterattacked. The brigade was forced to retreat and with difficulty kept the line, due to unstable morale and running out of ammunition, Negrir decided to retreat to Lang Son. French losses were high - 70 killed and 188 wounded.
The Vietnamese porters ran away from the French and supplies were threatened, the Chinese outnumbered them. The Chinese set off in pursuit of Negrir, who met them on March 28 at a heavily fortified position at Quilua. The French won a landslide victory - they lost only 7 people, while the Guangxi army lost 1200 people killed and about 6000 wounded. By the end of the battle, Negrir, while reconnaissance of Chinese positions, was seriously wounded in the chest, and was forced to transfer command to the senior commander of the regiment, Paul-Gustave Erbinier, a well-known military theorist, but who did not perform well in Lang Son and Bangbo.
Taking command of the brigade, Herbinier panicked. Even though the Chinese retreated to the frontier in disarray, Erbinje figured they were going to encircle Lang Son and cut off his supplies. Ignoring the protests of the shocked officers, Herbigne on the evening of March 28 ordered the 2nd Brigade to leave Langshon and retreat to Chu. The retreat was carried out with little Chinese intervention, but in great haste. Large stocks of food, ammunition and equipment were left in Lang Son. Pan Dingxin's Chinese troops entered Lang Son on 30 March.
On the Western Front, the Chinese were also successful. A French detachment sent to reconnoitre positions at Hunghoa before Giovaninelli's attack on the Yunnan army was defeated at Fulamtao on March 23.
Resignation of the Ferry government
On March 28, after receiving a disturbing message from Herbigné about the retreat from Langchon, Brière de Lisle sent an extremely pessimistic telegram to Paris, indicating that the expeditionary force in Tonkin was facing disaster and would not hold out unless it received reinforcements. Although Brière de Lisle sent a second, calmer telegram when he learned that Herbigné was staying in Dong Song, the first one, reaching Paris, caused a storm of emotions. Prime Minister Jules Ferry asked Parliament for a loan of 200 million francs for the needs of the army and navy, but at a meeting of the House of Representatives on March 30, he was passed a vote of no confidence. Ferry was accused of actually waging war without the approval of Parliament, as well as military defeats. Ferry's cabinet was dismissed by 306 votes to 149. Henri Brisson, who replaced him, was determined to continue the war to a victorious end in order to preserve the honor of France.
Final fights
During the active development of events in Tonkin, the French troops in Taiwan were able to win two victories. From March 4 to March 7, Colonel Duchen was able to break through the Chinese encirclement of Jilong. The Chinese were forced to retreat across the Jilong River. Duchenne's victory caused panic in Taipei, but the French did not have the strength to continue the offensive beyond the Kzilun bridgehead. Duchen's and Liu Mingchuan's troops stood in position until the end of the war.
Duchenne's victory allowed Admiral Courbet to take a battalion of marines from the Kilong garrison and capture the Pescadores in late March 1885. The fortress of Magun was taken, which Courbet began to strengthen as the main stronghold of the fleet in the region. Despite the great strategic importance of the victory in the Pescadores campaign, which prevented the build-up of the Chinese army in Taiwan, the capture of the islands did not have time to affect the course of the war. And after the defeats in Tonkin, Courbet even found himself on the verge of evacuating troops from Taiwan to assist the Tonkin Corps.
News of the 4 April armistice did not reach Tonkin until several days later. The last battle took place on 14 April, when the French repulsed a Chinese attack on Kep. And although Brière de Lisle was planning an attack on Fulamtao to avenge the defeat on March 23, many French officers doubted that this offensive would have succeeded. The Chinese were also unable to dislodge the French from Hung Hoa and Chu, and the military situation in Tonkin reached a stalemate.
The April 4 truce called for the withdrawal of Chinese troops from Tonkin, and the French continued to hold the Jilong and Pescadores Islands as a pledge of Chinese good faith. Admiral Courbet fell seriously ill during this occupation and died on 11 June aboard his flagship, the Bayard, in Magun harbor. The Chinese Yunnan and Guangxi armies, as well as the "Black Banners" of Liu Yongfu, left Tonkin by the end of June.
French attempts to form an alliance with Japan
The French were aware of Chinese fears regarding Japan, and as early as 1883 they tried to conclude an alliance with her. The French offered the Japanese to revise unequal treaties on more favorable terms. The Japanese welcomed French help, but did not want to be drawn into a military alliance, as they considered Chinese military power too high.
After the difficult Taiwan campaign, the French again began to seek an alliance with Japan, but the Japanese continued to refuse. French defeats in Tonkin began to sway public opinion in Japan in favor of open conflict with China, but the war ended before these sentiments could bear fruit.
An important factor in China's decision to make peace was the fear of Japanese aggression in Korea. In December 1884, the Japanese sponsored an attempted military coup in Korea. The coup was crushed by the intervention of Chinese troops under the command of Yuan Shikai, and China and Japan were on the brink of war. The Qing court considered Japan a greater threat than France, and in January 1885 Empress Dowager Cixi sent diplomats to Paris to conclude an honorable peace. Negotiations went on in February-March 1885, and after the fall of Ferry's cabinet, the main obstacle to peace was removed.
Treaty of Tientsin
On April 4, an armistice was signed, ending hostilities, and on June 9, in Tianjin, Li Hongzhang and French Minister Jules Petenotre signed a peace treaty.
Consequences of the war
The French, on the whole, got what they wanted. Tonkin became a French protectorate, and in 1887 Kochinina, Annam, Tonkin and Cambodia became part of French Indochina. The following years were spent on suppressing the Vietnamese resistance.
The unsatisfactory end to the war cooled the ardor of the proponents of an active colonial policy. The war caused Ferry's resignation, and his successor, Henri Brisson, also resigned because of the "Tonkin Debate" in which Clemenceau and other opponents of colonial expansion almost got their troops out of Tonkin. By a margin of just three votes, they managed to leave North Vietnam for France. Other colonial projects were greatly delayed, including the conquest of Madagascar.
In China, the war caused a great national upsurge and the weakening of the ruling Qing dynasty. Particularly sensitive was the loss of the entire Fujian fleet. The system of independent regional armies and navies has shown its inconsistency. At the same time, in October 1885, the central admiralty was created, and for several years after the war, modern steam ships were purchased.
Plan
Introduction
1 Reason for war
2 Combat
3 End of the war
4 Franco-Chinese War statistics
Franco-Chinese War
Introduction
The Franco-Chinese War is a war between France and China for hegemony over Vietnam. Its main reason was the desire of France to own the territory of the Red River, which flows in North Vietnam and South China.
1. Cause for war
After two Franco-Vietnamese wars (1858-1862 and 1883-1884), France owned South and Central Vietnam. Northern Vietnam was nominally a vassal of the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China. During the Franco-Vietnamese War of 1883-1884. France captured a number of points belonging to the Qing dynasty. On May 11 and June 9, 1884, a convention was signed between France and China obliging China to withdraw from Vietnam the troops brought there in 1882-1883. China also promised to recognize any treaties that would be concluded between France and Vietnam. On June 6, 1884, France forced Vietnam to conclude a peace treaty, according to which it established a protectorate over all of Vietnam. The Qing government refused to recognize the Vietnamese-French peace treaty. In June 1884, Chinese troops destroyed the French detachments that arrived in Vietnam in order to occupy it according to the treaty. The French government used this as a pretext for war.
2. Fighting
At the beginning, the commander-in-chief of the French naval forces convinced his government of the need to attack the capital of the Qing dynasty - Beijing. But French Prime Minister Jules Ferry was against an attack on Beijing. He was afraid that this might cause discontent in Russia and Great Britain. He limited the fighting to Indo-China and the South China Sea.
On August 23-24, 1884, a French squadron (13 ships), under the command of Admiral Coubret, attacked Chinese ships (22 ships, including sailing junks), based near Fuzhou. The Chinese lost 11 steamships and 12 junks. The French received minor damage to only 3 ships. During the battle and subsequent actions of the French squadron against the coastal forts, the Chinese lost 796 killed and 150 wounded, while the French had 12 killed and 15 wounded.
On October 1, 1884, the French landed a landing detachment (2,250 soldiers) on Taiwan and attacked the port of Jilong. On October 23, the French blockaded the island. In December 1884, the Chinese defeated the French near the city of Sanqi, and in March 1885, together with the Vietnamese troops, they defeated them near the city of Lang Son and occupied it.
It seemed that France would lose the war. But in the government of the Qing dynasty, strife and betrayal began. The Chinese people opposed the war, and the government feared mass uprisings. The French also wanted to end the war as quickly as possible, as they were under pressure from the Japanese government, which did not want to have a competitor in Asia. The future Japanese admiral Togo followed the fighting of the French, in particular in Taiwan.
3. End of the war
Despite the apparent defeat of the French, the emperor of the Qing Dynasty invited France to sit down at the negotiating table. The Tientsin Franco-Chinese Treaty of 1885 was signed on June 9, 1885. Under this agreement, China recognized France as the mistress of Vietnam, paid an indemnity and granted France a number of trade privileges in the provinces of Yannan and Guangxi bordering Vietnam. Now the entire territory of Vietnam was under the rule of the Third French Republic.
4. Statistics of the Franco-Chinese War
1. Of these, 1089 were killed in battle and died of wounds, 1011 were wounded, the rest died of disease (3996 soldiers).
2. This figure includes those killed, wounded, and those who died of disease.
Franco-Chinese War- War between France and China in 1884-1885. Its main reason was the desire of France to own the northern part of Vietnam.
Reason for war
In December 1883, the French first encountered Chinese government troops. Admiral Amadeus Courbet stormed the well-fortified Shontei, but suffered serious losses (400 people with 2 thousand Chinese killed). The new commander of the French forces in Tonkin, General Charles Millau, acted more successfully. In March 1884, with a 10,000-strong corps, he defeated an 18,000-strong Chinese army defending heavily fortified positions in Baknin. Before the battle, it actually did not come. When the French entered the rear of the Chinese, they fled, abandoning their fortifications and cannons. Losses on both sides were minimal. Thus, the Chinese were forced out of the Red River valley.
Impressed by the first failures, the head of the "moderate party" in the Chinese government, the governor of the northern province of Zhili, Li Hongzhang, insisted on concluding a peace agreement with France. On May 11, 1884, in Tianjin, he signed a convention obliging China to withdraw its troops from Vietnam. China also promised to recognize any treaties that would be concluded between France and Vietnam. On June 6, 1884, France forced Vietnam to conclude a peace treaty, according to which it established a protectorate over all of Vietnam. However, the governors of the provinces of South China were ready to continue the fight for Tonkin.
On June 23, a French detachment of 750 people, moving along the so-called. The Mandarin Road, which connected Hanoi with the border with China, collided with a 4,000-strong Chinese detachment near Bakle. The French demanded that the Chinese, in accordance with the Tientsin Agreement, withdraw from Vietnam. However, the Chinese attacked the French and forced them to retreat. The French lost approx. 100 people killed. On July 12, 1884, French Prime Minister Jules Ferry issued an ultimatum to the Chinese government:
1. Withdraw all Chinese troops from Vietnam
China agreed to the withdrawal of its troops from Vietnam, but refused to pay indemnity. The Chinese were only prepared to pay 3.5 million francs in compensation to the families of those who died at Bacley.
After the expiration of the ultimatum, Ferry gave the order to start military operations against China.
The course of hostilities
During the course of the war, French naval and land forces acted without any communication with each other. In this regard, two independent theaters of military operations arose - in North Vietnam and off the coast of China.
Action off the coast of China
In France, it was believed that the French Far Eastern Squadron under the command of Admiral Amédée Courbet should play a decisive role in the war with China. It consisted of 4 armored cruisers, 5 large and 7 small armorless cruisers and 5 gunboats. The Chinese navy at that time was still in its infancy. The most powerful battleships built for China in Germany were detained at the shipyard at the request of France. Few ships of modern types were in the Zhili Gulf and in Shanghai. In the southern ports of Fuzhou and Guangzhou, there were only weak, obsolete ships. At the same time, the Chinese had strong coastal batteries.
With the superiority of its Far Eastern squadron, France did not have the strength to attack the main coastal centers of China. In addition, this could cause dissatisfaction with Great Britain, which had its own interests there. Therefore, Admiral Courbet was instructed to act against Fuzhou and Taiwan, which were considered as peripheral objects. On August 5, part of the French squadron fired from the sea on Kilun in northern Taiwan and tried to land an assault force, which was repulsed. Nevertheless, the Chinese authorities did not consider this incident as the beginning of hostilities. In particular, the Chinese did not prevent the French from concentrating their warships at Fuzhou, although for this they had to pass along the river past the Chinese coastal batteries.
For almost a month, the Chinese and French ships off Fuzhou stood peacefully next to each other. But on August 23, 1884, Admiral Courbet unexpectedly attacked the Chinese squadron. In the Battle of Fuzhou against four large French cruisers (one armored), one small cruiser and three gunboats, the Chinese had only five small cruisers and four gunboats. The French also had more modern naval artillery. Most of the Chinese ships taken by surprise could not offer resistance and were sunk in the very first minutes of the battle. Chinese admiral Zhang Peilun was on the shore during the attack and did not lead his forces. Having defeated the Chinese squadron, Admiral Courbet fired at the Fuzhou shipyards, and then destroyed the coastal batteries, which had previously managed to repel the attack of another part of the French squadron from the sea (one French armored cruiser was damaged by their fire and sent for repair to Hong Kong).
After the attack on Fuzhou on August 27, 1884, the Chinese government issued a decree declaring war on France. In France, war was never formally declared, as it required the approval of the French Parliament, where Ferry had weak support.
At the beginning of September 1884, Admiral Courbet's squadron concentrated off the northern coast of Taiwan, constantly bombarding the Jilong. Arrived there on transport ships and 2 thousand landing troops. In October they landed, supported by ships, on an island off Jilong and occupied its forts, but met with strong resistance and could not achieve much success. Another landing - at Tamsui, was repulsed.
The Chinese sent reinforcements to Taiwan on chartered British ships. On October 20, Courbet announced a blockade of the island. England protested, and the blockade was formally lifted, although in fact it continued to operate. In January 1885, the French also received reinforcements. 4 more cruisers and 2 gunboats came to them, as well as 1.5 thousand landing troops.
In order to alleviate the position of its ground forces in Taiwan, the Chinese fleet at the beginning of 1885 conducted its first and last military campaign in this war. In January, Admiral Wu Ankang's squadron of 4 large cruisers and a messenger ship set off south from Shanghai. Two cruisers of the northern Beiyang squadron were also supposed to participate in the campaign, but Li Hongzhang sent them to Korea, where a conflict with Japan was brewing.
By the beginning of February, Wu Ankang's squadron reached the Taiwan Strait and, limiting itself to a demonstration there, turned back. Meanwhile, Courbet, having received information about the Chinese fleet going to sea, with 3 large cruisers (2 of them armored) went to Shanghai, and then moved towards the enemy. The meeting of the Chinese and French squadrons took place on February 13, 1885 near Chusan Island off the coast of Zhejiang Province. Not accepting the battle, Wu Ankang broke away from the French with 3 new cruisers and went to Zhenhai, a port suburb of Ningbo. The old slow cruiser and the messenger ship took refuge in the nearby harbor of Shipu, where the next night they were blown up with pole mines by French destroyers. Courbet blocked the Chinese ships from the sea in Zhenhai, but did not dare to attack the heavily fortified harbor.
On February 20, 1885, France, unable to interfere with maritime trade with China due to the position of England, announced a blockade of rice. The northern Chinese provinces, experiencing food shortages, traditionally were supplied with rice from the south of China, and a significant part of it was transported by sea on foreign ships. Now the French began to stop such ships loaded with rice and send them back.
In March 1885, French landing forces launched an offensive in northern Taiwan, occupying the Kilong coal mines. At the same time, Courbet carried out an amphibious operation to capture the Pescadores Islands in the Taiwan Strait. The Chinese fortifications on Magun Island were taken by storm. Courbet began to fortify Magun as the main base of his fleet.
Operations in North Vietnam
In contrast to the French, China in the war made the main bet on offensive operations in North Vietnam. Two Chinese armies formed in the border provinces of Guangxi and Yunnan were to simultaneously invade Tonkin: the Yunnan army under the command of Tang Jingsong from the northwest, and the Guangxi army under the command of Pan Dingxin from the northeast. Both armies were to link up in the Red River Delta and throw the French forces into the sea. With the concentration of forces in the border provinces, the number of both Chinese armies reached 40-50 thousand people. Chinese troops had modern weapons (Mauser rifles and Krupp guns), but were poorly trained and showed themselves best in defense in fortified positions. There was practically no light field artillery. Their offensive operations were slow progress with continuous building of fortifications. Initially, the Chinese troops enjoyed the support of the local population, but later, due to military requisitions, the Vietnamese changed their attitude towards the Chinese.
By this time, the French had 15 thousand combat-ready troops in Tonkin. The great advantage of the French corps, commanded by Louis Brière de Lisle, who replaced General Milhaud, was the presence of a river flotilla. This made it possible to quickly transfer military forces against one or another Chinese army, to make detour maneuvers along the river systems. At the same time, the French troops were not well organized, they consisted of a number of separate units - conventional troops, marines, Algerian, Annam (South Vietnamese), Tonkin (North Vietnamese) colonial troops. The French suffered the greatest losses in Vietnam from tropical diseases.
After the attack of the French fleet on Fuzhou, the Chinese troops, even before the full concentration of all forces, began in September 1884 a slow advance from their borders into the depths of Vietnam. The advanced units of the Guangxi army moved from Langshon along the Mandarin Road, and the Yunnan army moved from Laokai down the Red River valley. In October, the French halted the offensive of the Guangxi army, separately defeating several advanced Chinese detachments and capturing strategically important points. At the same time, the Chinese suffered heavy losses, and the French massacres of prisoners were noted, which was discussed in the European press.
In November, units of Tang Jingsong's Yunnan army laid siege to the small but well-fortified fortress of Tuenkuang. The fortress, which was defended by a garrison under the command of Major Mark Edmond Dominet (650 soldiers of the foreign legion and Annamese riflemen), was besieged by 6 thousand Chinese. Another 15,000 Chinese troops were gathered further south to repel French attempts to unblock the fortress. Thus, the siege of Tuenkuang fettered the main forces of the Yunnan army for several months, which was of great importance for the course of hostilities.
While half of the Chinese troops were occupied at Tuenkuang, the French command decided to strike at the Guangxi army. The commander of the French corps, Brière de Lisle, concentrated 7.5 thousand of his troops against Pan Dingxin (the rest of the French troops were garrisons of fortresses) with a large number of field artillery, large stocks of food and military equipment were collected for the offensive campaign, transport was organized.
From the beginning of February 1885, the French carried out a 10-day offensive on Langshon, which ended with its capture. The Chinese Guangxi army was unable to counteract the rapid detour marches of the French and retreated, fighting only rearguard battles, sometimes stubborn. February 13 Langshon was taken. Brière de Lisle, believing that the Guangxi army was finished, turned with 5 thousand soldiers against the Yunnan army. The French troops returned along the Mandarin Road to Hanoi, after which they began to ascend the Red River on the ships of the river flotilla. In January-February 1885, the Tuenkuang garrison repulsed seven Chinese assaults, but its forces were coming to an end. In early March, Brière de Lille broke through the front of the Yunnan army with a blow from the south and freed Tuenkuang from the siege.
2.5 thousand French troops led by General Francois de Negrier, left at Langshon, at that time continued to pursue parts of the Guangxi army to the border of China and even defiantly crossed it for a short time, blowing up the so-called. "Chinese Gate" - customs building. However, the Guangxi army was not defeated. After retreating from Tonkin to their own territory, the Chinese troops were reorganized and reinforced. Their number has grown to 30 thousand people. The Negrie Brigade that opposed them had less than 3,000 soldiers. With such a small force, Negrie was ordered to strike again on the border in order to persuade the Chinese to accept the terms of peace.
On March 23, 1885, near the town of Banbo, Negrie attacked the fortified Chinese positions, but was driven back with heavy losses. Having lost 300 people. killed, Negrie gave the order to retreat to Langshon to wait for reinforcements there. On March 28, the Chinese troops advancing behind attacked the French at Lang Son. In the ensuing battle, Negrie knocked over the left flank of the Chinese, but in the midst of the battle he was seriously wounded. Having lost their commander, the French troops lost their stamina and turned into a disorderly retreat, abandoning artillery and convoy (the blame for this largely lay with Colonel Herbinier, who took temporary command of the brigade).
End of the war
Failures in Vietnam led to a government crisis in France. The French government was accused of hiding the true state of affairs - waging war with China, without having the authority of Parliament. Ferry, in his defense, argued that it was not a war being waged against China, but a repressive action that did not require parliamentary sanction. After the news of the defeats at Banbo and Langshon, Ferry's cabinet fell. The new Brisson government was nevertheless determined to end the war with China with a victory "in order to preserve the honor of France." It was decided to send new troops to Tonkin, but in April China agreed to peace talks.
The reasons for this unexpected decision were the consequences of the rice blockade established by Admiral Courbet or the threat of war between China and Japan arising at that time due to unrest in Korea. Of great importance was the position of Great Britain, through the mediation of which with con. In 1884, unofficial negotiations between Chinese and French representatives were going on in London. Initially, England, on which Beijing's foreign policy largely depended, supported the demands of the Chinese, who claimed to partition the territory of North Vietnam, so that the northern provinces of Lao Cai and Lang Son would pass to China. Britain was interested in the Chinese tying up the French in Indo-China, with whom the British competed over Upper Burma and Thailand. However, when an Anglo-Russian conflict threatened in Central Asia in 1885, Great Britain decided that it was necessary to shift China's attention from the southern to the northern borders in order to put pressure on Russia. Therefore, the Chinese were advised to completely cede Vietnam to the French.
April 4, 1885 France and China signed a preliminary armistice agreement. The French fleet lifted the blockade of China's commercial ports, but continued to blockade the Chinese military squadron in Zhenhai. French landing troops continued to be in Taiwan and the Pescadores, while Chinese troops began to withdraw from North Vietnam. On June 9, 1885, the final Franco-Chinese peace treaty was signed in Tianjin. Under this treaty, China recognized that the whole of Vietnam was controlled by France, and all Chinese troops were withdrawn from Vietnamese territory. For its part, France withdrew its troops and navy from Taiwan and the Pescadores and refused to demand indemnity. France was granted a number of trade privileges in the provinces bordering Vietnam.
Statistics of the Franco-Chinese War
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Notes
Literature
- Mernikov A. G., Spektor A. A. World history of wars. - Minsk., 2005.
Information is also taken from the following books:
- Urlanis B. Ts. Wars and the population of Europe. - Moscow., 1960.
- Bodart G. Losses of life in modern wars. Austria-Hungary; France. - London., 1916.
Links
- http://onwar.com/aced/chrono/c1800s/yr80/fsinofrench1884.htm
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Chinese_War
- http://cow2.la.psu.edu/cow2%20data/WarData/InterState/Inter-State%20Wars%20(V%203-0).htm
- http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/wars19c.htm
- Tonkin expedition // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
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An excerpt characterizing the Franco-Chinese war
- Well, now you will believe it! .. - Stella said contentedly. - Went?This time, apparently having already gained some experience, we easily “slid” down the “floors”, and again I saw a depressing picture very similar to those seen before ...
Some black, stinking slurry was champing underfoot, and streams of muddy, reddish water were flowing from it... The scarlet sky was getting dark, blazing with bloody reflections of the glow, and, still hanging very low, drove somewhere the crimson bulk of heavy clouds. .. And those, not yielding, hung heavy, swollen, pregnant, threatening to be born in a terrible, sweeping waterfall... From time to time, a wall of brown-red, opaque water broke out of them with a booming roar, hitting the ground so hard that it seemed the sky is falling...
The trees stood naked and featureless, lazily moving their drooping, thorny branches. Farther behind them stretched a bleak, burnt-out steppe, lost in the distance behind a wall of dirty, gray fog... True, it did not cause the slightest pleasure to make one want to look at it ... The whole landscape evoked horror and longing, seasoned with hopelessness ...
- Oh, how scary it is here ... - Stella whispered, shivering. – No matter how many times I come here, I just can’t get used to it... How do these poor things live here?!
- Well, probably, these "poor things" were too guilty once if they ended up here. After all, no one sent them here - they just got what they deserved, right? Still not giving up, I said.
“Now look…” Stella whispered mysteriously.
Before us suddenly appeared a cave overgrown with grayish greenery. And out of it, squinting, stepped out a tall, stately man who in no way fit into this miserable, chilling landscape ...
- Hello, Sad! Stella greeted the stranger affectionately. - I brought a friend! She does not believe that good people can be found here. And I wanted to show you to her... You don't mind, do you?
- Hello, dear... - the man answered sadly, - Yes, I'm not so good to show me to someone. You are right...
Oddly enough, but this sad man I really liked something right away. He exuded strength and warmth, and it was very pleasant to be near him. In any case, he did not in any way resemble those weak-willed, heartbroken people who surrendered to the mercy of fate with whom this “floor” was packed.
“Tell us your story, sad person…” Stella asked with a light smile.
“Yes, there is nothing to tell there, and there is nothing special to be proud of ...” the stranger shook his head. - And what do you need it for?
For some reason, I felt very sorry for him... Even without knowing anything about him, I was already almost sure that this person could not have done something really bad. Well, I just couldn’t!.. Stella, smiling, followed my thoughts, which she apparently liked very much ...
- Well, okay, I agree - you're right! .. - Seeing her satisfied face, I finally honestly admitted.
“But you don’t know anything about him yet, and everything is not so simple with him,” Stella said with a sly smile. “Well, please tell her, Sad…”
The man smiled sadly at us, and quietly said:
- I'm here because I killed ... I killed many. But not by desire, but by need, it was ...
I was immediately terribly upset - I killed! .. And I, stupid, believed! .. But for some reason I stubbornly did not have the slightest feeling of rejection or hostility. I obviously liked the person, and no matter how hard I tried, I couldn’t do anything about it ...
“Is it the same fault to kill at will or out of necessity?” I asked. Sometimes people don't have a choice, do they? For example: when they have to defend themselves or protect others. I have always admired heroes – warriors, knights. In general, I have always adored the latter ... Is it possible to compare simple murderers with them?
He looked at me for a long time and sadly, and then also quietly answered:
“I don’t know, dear... The fact that I’m here says that the guilt is the same... But from the way I feel this guilt in my heart, then no... I never wanted to kill, I just I defended my land, I was a hero there... But here it turned out that I was just killing... Is that right? I think no...
So you were a warrior? I asked hopefully. - But then, it's a big difference - you defended your home, your family, your children! And you don't look like a killer!
– Well, we are all different from what others see us... Because they only see what they want to see... or only what we want to show them... As for the war, I also first just as you thought, even proud ... But here it turned out that there was nothing to be proud of. Murder is murder, and it doesn't matter how it happened.
– But this is not right! .. – I was indignant. - What then happens - a maniac-killer turns out to be the same as a hero?! .. This simply cannot be, this should not be!
Everything in me was raging with indignation! And the man sadly looked at me with his sad, gray eyes, in which understanding was read ...
“A hero and a murderer take life in the same way. Only, probably, there are “extenuating circumstances”, since a person who protects someone, even if he takes his life, is for a bright and righteous reason. But, one way or another, they both have to pay for it ... And it's very bitter to pay, you believe me ...
- And can I ask you - how long have you lived? I asked, a little embarrassed.
– Oh, quite a long time ago... This is the second time I've been here... For some reason, my two lives were similar - in both I fought for someone... Well, and then I paid... And it's always just as bitter ... - the stranger was silent for a long time, as if not wanting to talk about it anymore, but then he continued quietly. There are people who love to fight. I've always hated it. But for some reason, life brings me back to the same circle for the second time, as if I was locked in this, not allowing me to free myself... When I lived, all our peoples fought among themselves... Some captured foreign lands - others the lands were protected. Sons overthrew their fathers, brothers killed their brothers... Everything happened. Someone accomplished unthinkable feats, someone betrayed someone, and someone turned out to be just a coward. But none of them even suspected how bitter the payment for everything they did in that life would be ...
- Did you have a family there? to change the subject, I asked. - Were there children?
- Certainly! But that was already so long ago!.. They once became great-grandfathers, then died... And some are already living again. That was a long time ago...
– And you are still here?!.. – I whispered, looking around in horror.
I could not even imagine that he had existed here like this for many, many years, suffering and "paying" his guilt, without any hope of leaving this terrifying "floor" even before his hour of return to the physical came. Earth! .. And there he will again have to start all over again, so that later, when his next “physical” life ends, he will return (perhaps right here!) With a whole new “baggage”, good or bad, depending on how he will live his “next” earthly life... And he could not have any hope to free himself from this vicious circle (whether it be good or bad), since, having begun his earthly life, each person “dooms” himself to this endless, an eternal circular "journey"... And, depending on his actions, returning to the "floors" can be very pleasant, or very scary...
“And if you don’t kill in your new life, you won’t return to this “floor” anymore, right?” I asked hopefully.
“So I don’t remember anything, dear, when I return there ... It’s after death that we remember our lives and our mistakes. And, as soon as we return to live back, the memory immediately closes. Because, apparently, all the old “deeds” are repeated because we do not remember our old mistakes ... But, to be honest, even if I knew that I would be “punished” again for this, I still would never stood aside if my family suffered... or my country. All this is strange... If you think about it, then the one who "distributes" our guilt and pay, as if he wants only cowards and traitors to grow on earth... Otherwise, he would not punish scoundrels and heroes equally. Or is there some difference in punishment?.. In fairness, there should be. After all, there are heroes who have accomplished inhuman feats... Songs have been composed about them for centuries, legends live about them... They definitely cannot be "settled" among ordinary murderers!.. It's a pity there is no one to ask...
“I also think it can’t be!” After all, there are people who performed miracles of human courage, and they, even after death, like the sun, for centuries illuminate the path for all those who survived. I really like to read about them, and I try to find as many books as possible that tell about human exploits. They help me live, help me cope with loneliness when it gets too hard ... The only thing I can't understand is: why on Earth heroes always have to die so that people can see them right? .. And when the same the hero can no longer be resurrected, everyone is finally indignant, human pride that has been dormant for a long time rises, and the crowd, burning with righteous anger, demolishes the “enemies” like dust particles that have fallen on their “right” path ... - sincere indignation raged in me , and I probably spoke too quickly and too much, but I rarely got the opportunity to talk about what "hurts" ... and I continued.
- After all, even their poor God, people first killed, and only then they began to pray to him. Isn’t it possible to see the real truth even before it’s too late?.. Isn’t it better to save the same heroes, look up to them and learn from them? ?.. Why is it necessary to kill, so that later you can erect a monument and praise? Honestly, I would prefer to erect monuments to the living, if they are worth it ...
And what do you mean by saying that someone "spreads the blame"? Is it God or what?.. But it is not God who punishes... We punish ourselves. And we are responsible for everything.
– You don’t believe in God, dear?.. – the sad man, who attentively listened to my “emotionally indignant” speech, was surprised.
– I haven't found him yet... But if he really exists, then he must be kind. And for some reason, many people scare him, they are afraid of him ... In our school they say: "A man sounds proud!" How can a person be proud if fear hangs over him all the time?! .. Yes, and there are too many different gods - each country has its own. And everyone is trying to prove that they are the best... No, I still don't understand a lot of things... But how can you believe in something without understanding it?.. In our school they teach that there is nothing after death ... And how can I believe this, if I see something completely different? .. I think blind faith simply kills hope in people and increases fear. If they knew what was really happening, they would behave much more carefully ... They would not care what happens next, after their death. They would know that they would live again, and they would have to answer for how they lived. Only not in front of the "terrible God", of course ... But in front of you. And no one will come to atone for their sins, but they will have to atone for their sins themselves ... I wanted to tell someone about this, but no one wanted to listen to me. Probably, it’s much more convenient for everyone to live like that ... Yes, and it’s probably easier, too, - I finally finished my “deadly long” speech.
I suddenly felt very sad. Somehow, this man managed to get me to talk about what had been “nibbling” inside me since the day I first “touched” the world of the dead, and in my naivety I thought that people need to “just tell, and they they will immediately believe and even rejoice!... And, of course, they will immediately want to do only good things...». How naive a child must be to have such a stupid and unrealizable dream born in your heart?! People don't like to know that "there" - after death - there is something else. Because if you admit it, it means that they will have to answer for everything they have done. But this is exactly what no one wants ... People, like children, for some reason they are sure that if they close their eyes and see nothing, then nothing bad will happen to them ... Or blame everything on the strong shoulders to this same God, who will “atone for” all their sins for them, and everything will be fine right there ... But is that right? my simple, "childish" logical framework. In the book about God (Bible), for example, it was said that pride is a great sin, and the same Christ (the son of man!!!) says that by his death he will atone for “all the sins of men” ... What Pride one had to have to equate himself to the whole human race, taken together?!. And what kind of person would dare to think such a thing about himself? .. Son of God? Or the Son of Man?.. And the churches?!.. One another is getting more beautiful. As if the ancient architects tried hard to outdo each other, building God's house... Yes, the churches are really unusually beautiful, like museums. Each of them is a real work of art... But, if I understood correctly, a person went to church to talk with God, right? In this case, how could he find him in all that stunning, eye-catching luxury, which, for example, not only did not dispose me to open my heart, but, on the contrary, to close it as soon as possible so as not to see the same the very, bleeding, almost naked, brutally tortured God, crucified in the middle of all that brilliant, sparkling, crushing gold, as if people were celebrating his death, and did not believe and did not rejoice in his life ... Even in cemeteries, we all imprison living flowers so that they remind us of the life of the same dead. So why didn’t I see a statue of the living Christ in any church, to whom one could pray, talk with him, open his soul?.. And does the House of God mean only his death? .. Once I asked a priest why we don't pray to the living God? He looked at me like I was an annoying fly and said that “this is so that we don’t forget that he (God) gave his life for us, atoning for our sins, and now we must always remember that we are not his worthy (?!), and to repent of their sins as much as possible”... But if he has already atoned for them, then why should we repent?.. And if we must repent, then all this atonement is a lie? The priest became very angry and said that I had heretical thoughts and that I should atone for them by reading “Our Father” twenty times in the evening (!) ... Comments, I think, are superfluous ...
I could go on for a very, very long time, because all this annoyed me a lot at that time, and I had thousands of questions that no one gave me answers to, but only advised me to simply “believe”, which I would never do in my life could not, because before believing, I had to understand why, and if there was no logic in the same “faith”, then for me it was “looking for a black cat in a black room”, and such faith was not neither my heart nor my soul needs. And not because (as some told me) I had a “dark” soul that did not need God ... On the contrary, I think that my soul was bright enough to understand and accept, only there was nothing to accept ... Yes, and what could be explained if people themselves killed their God, and then suddenly decided that it would be “more correct” to worship him?.. So, in my opinion, it would be better not to kill, but would try to learn from him as much as possible, if he really was a real God... For some reason, much closer at that time I felt our "old gods", carved statues of which in our city, and throughout Lithuania, a great a bunch of. These were funny and warm, cheerful and angry, sad and stern gods who were not as incomprehensibly "tragic" as the same Christ, who was given amazingly expensive churches, as if really trying to atone for some sins...
"Old" Lithuanian gods in my hometown of Alytus, homely and warm, like a simple friendly family...
These gods reminded me of kind characters from fairy tales, who were somewhat similar to our parents - they were kind and affectionate, but if necessary, they could also severely punish us when we played pranks too much. They were much closer to our soul than that incomprehensible, distant, and so terribly perished by human hands, God...
I ask the believers not to be indignant, reading the lines with my then thoughts. It was then, and I, like in everything else, in the same Faith was looking for my childish truth. Therefore, I can argue about this only about my views and concepts that I have now, and which will be presented in this book much later. In the meantime, it was a time of "stubborn search", and it was not so easy for me ...
“You are a strange girl...” the sad stranger whispered thoughtfully.
“I’m not weird—I’m just alive. But I live among two worlds - the living and the dead... And I can see what many, unfortunately, do not see. Because, probably, no one believes me ... But everything would be so much easier if people would listen, and at least for a minute think, even if not believing ... But, I think that if this happens when Someday, it certainly won’t happen today ... But today I have to live with this ...
“I'm sorry, honey…” the man whispered. “You know, there are a lot of people like me here. There are thousands of them here... It would probably be interesting for you to talk to them. There are even real heroes, not like me. There are many here...
