So, geographers have established a specific object of their research - geographic envelope of the earth. She represents a complex formation consisting of interacting main terrestrial spheres - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere. The contact zone of the spheres is in the focus of interaction between the Earth and space. It is a complex process.

The characteristic features of the geographic shell are as follows:

1. A wide variety of material composition. It significantly exceeds various substances, both in the bowels of the Earth and in its upper (outer) geospheres (ionosphere, exosphere, magnetosphere). In the geographic envelope, the substance is found in three aggregate states - liquid, solid and gaseous. In the geographic envelope, the substance has a wide range physical characteristics – density, thermal conductivity, viscosity, reflectivity. Amazing variety chemical composition. The real formations of the geographic shell are heterogeneous in structure . Allocate inert, or inorganic matter, living and bio-inert (soil). Each named type of substance includes hundreds and thousands of species, and the number of species of living organisms is from 1.5 to 2 million (according to various estimates).

2. Variety of types of energy entering the geographic envelope and forms of its transformation. For example, light energy is transformed into thermal long-wave energy; in the geographic shell, the flows of matter and energy coming from the bowels of the Earth and from space interact. Among the numerous transformations of energy, a special place is occupied by the processes of its accumulation. For example, in the form of organic matter, or the energy of the sun, water, magma, bioenergy.

3. Uneven distribution of energy over the earth's surface. Caused by the sphericity of the Earth, the complex relationship between land and ocean, glaciers, relief, etc. All this determines irregularity geographical envelope. This serves as the basis for the emergence various movements: energy flows, air circulation, water, soil solutions, migration of chemical elements, chemical reactions, etc.

4. Movements of matter and energy connect all parts of the geographic shell, causing it integrity. We can say that the integrity of the geographical shell is its main property. The geographical envelope is characterized dialectical unity two important qualities: continuity (continuity) and discontinuity (discreteness).

Continuity expressed in continuity spatial distribution of the geographic shell, and discontinuity- reflected in her divisibility into separate parts geosystems. According to V. S. Preobrazhensky, continuity is interconnectedness, fusion, gradualness, non-locality, infinite divisibility; and discreteness (discontinuity) is isolation, separation, spasmodicity, locality, limiting divisibility.

5. Essential for the emergence and development of the geographic envelope is set of planetary factors: the mass of the Earth, the distance to the sun, the speed of rotation around the axis and in orbit, the presence of a magnetosphere. All these factors provide a certain thermodynamic environment that is quite favorable for the implementation of various natural interactions - the basis of geographical processes and phenomena. The study of the nearest space objects - the planets of the solar system - showed that that only on Earth have conditions favorable for the emergence of a fairly complex material system.

6. In the course of the development of the geographic envelope, its structure became more complex, the diversity of the material composition and energy gradients increased. At a certain stage in the development of the shell, life appeared- the highest form of motion of matter. The emergence of life is a natural result of the evolution of the geographical envelope. And the activity of living organisms has led to a qualitative change in the nature of the earth's surface.

7. In the course of the development of the geographical shell, its role as a factor in its own development increases - self-development. The source of the development of the geographic envelope is the collision of many opposite tendencies present in it: the absorption and release of heat, demolition and deposition, the rise and fall of the earth's crust, life and death, metabolism, evaporation and condensation, transgression and regression of the sea. The main contradiction is zonality and azonality, as a contradiction of the internal properties and tendencies of the landscape shell.

8. At a sufficiently high level of development of the geographical envelope, its differentiation and integration, complex systems arose - natural territorial and aquatic complexes.

The word "complex" in Latin means plexus , that is, a very close connection of the parts of the whole. Complexes can have different areas: from a geographical envelope as a whole to, for example, a small lake; from a country to a small area or a single settlement.

Components geographical shells are air, water, rocks, living matter (plants, animals, humans). All components of the geographic envelope are so closely interconnected that a change in one of them leads to a change in the system as a whole. For example, climate change affects the change in the ice cover of the seas, the water content of rivers and lakes, and changes in plant groups. Or, the shape of the Earth determines the nature of the distribution of solar radiation, evaporation temperature, precipitation, air humidity, wind currents.

BORDERS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL

Scientists unequally draw the upper and lower boundaries of the geographic envelope. Some believe that the boundaries of the geographic envelope delineate the limits of the spread of life on Earth.

But the geographic envelope is older than the biosphere, and the prebiological stage of its development cannot be denied. Even before the appearance of life, there were processes of formation of the mass of the planet, differentiation of terrestrial matter, the emergence of the lithosphere, etc.

We will adhere to the opinion of S.V. Kalesnik (1984), who included the troposphere (upper boundary along the tropopause) into the composition of the geographic shell - it closely interacts with the hydrosphere and lithosphere. Further, Kalesnik included the hydrosphere, the biosphere, and the upper layer of the lithosphere (sedimentary cover) into the composition of the geographical shell. Thus, the total geographic envelope is on average about 30 - 35 km (it rises 20 - 30 km from the Earth's surface and falls 4 - 5 km).

The geographical envelope has a peculiar spatial structure: the geographical envelope three-dimensional- the natural coordinate system is formed by the surface of the geoid (two coordinates) and the plumb line - the third coordinate; geographical envelope spherical, so its space is closed. Further: the earth's surface - zone of the most active interaction of geocomponents, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. On both sides of this zone (that is, up and down), the intensity of physical and geographical processes decreases, and at a certain distance from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens, and then disappears completely. Consequently, the geographical essence of phenomena disappears. Since this happens gradually, the boundaries of the geographic envelope are fuzzy (blurred), and therefore researchers draw the upper and lower boundaries in different ways.

Geography is the science of the internal and external structure of the Earth, studying the nature of all continents and oceans. The main object of study are various geospheres and geosystems.

Introduction

The geographic shell or GO is one of the basic concepts of geography as a science, introduced into circulation at the beginning of the 20th century. It denotes the shell of the entire Earth, a special natural system. The geographic shell of the Earth is called an integral and continuous shell, consisting of several parts that interact with each other, penetrate each other, constantly exchange substances and energy with each other.

Fig 1. Geographical shell of the Earth

There are similar terms, with narrow meanings, used in the writings of European scientists. But they do not designate a natural system, only a set of natural and social phenomena.

Stages of development

The geographic shell of the earth has gone through a number of specific stages in its development and formation:

• geological (prebiogenic)– the first stage of formation, which began about 4.5 billion years ago (lasted about 3 billion years);
• biological– the second stage, which began about 600 million years ago;
• anthropogenic (modern)- a stage that continues to this day, which began about 40 thousand years ago, when humanity began to exert a noticeable influence on nature.

The composition of the geographic shell of the Earth

Geographic envelope- this is a system of the planet, which, as you know, has the shape of a ball, flattened on both sides by the caps of the poles, with a long equator of more than 40 tons km. GO has a certain structure. It consists of interconnected environments.

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Some experts divide civil defense into four areas (which, in turn, are also divided):

• atmosphere;
• lithosphere;
• hydrosphere;
• biosphere.

In any case, the structure of the geographic envelope is not arbitrary. It has clear boundaries.

Upper and lower bounds

In the entire structure of the geographic envelope and geographic environments, a clear zoning can be traced.

The law of geographical zoning provides not only for the division of the entire shell into spheres and environments, but also for the division into natural zones of land and oceans. It is interesting that such a division naturally repeats itself in both hemispheres.

Zoning is due to the nature of the distribution of solar energy over latitudes and the intensity of moisture (different in different hemispheres, continents).

Naturally, it is possible to determine the upper boundary of the geographic envelope and the lower one. Upper bound located at an altitude of 25 km, and bottom line The geographic envelope runs at a level of 6 km under the oceans and at a level of 30-50 km on the continents. Although, it should be noted that the lower limit is conditional and there are still disputes over its setting.

Even if we take the upper boundary in the region of 25 km, and the lower one in the region of 50 km, then, compared to the total size of the Earth, we get something like a very thin film that covers the planet and protects it.

Basic laws and properties of the geographical shell

Within these boundaries of the geographical envelope, the basic laws and properties that characterize and determine it operate.

• Interpenetration of components or intra-component movement- the main property (there are two types of intra-component movement of substances - horizontal and vertical; they do not contradict and do not interfere with each other, although in different structural parts of GO the speed of movement of components is different).
• Geographic zoning- the basic Law.
• Rhythm- the frequency of all natural phenomena (daily, annual).
• The unity of all parts of the geographical shell due to their close relationship.

Characteristics of the Earth's shells included in the GO

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is important for keeping warm, and therefore life on the planet. It also protects all living things from ultraviolet radiation, affects soil formation and climate.

The size of this shell is from 8 km to 1 t km (or more) in height. It consists of:

• gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, ozone, helium, hydrogen, inert gases);
• dust;
• water vapor.

The atmosphere, in turn, is divided into several interconnected layers. Their characteristics are presented in the table.

All shells of the earth are similar. For example, they contain all types of aggregate states of substances: solid, liquid, gaseous.

Fig 2. The structure of the atmosphere

Lithosphere

The hard shell of the earth, the earth's crust. It has several layers, which are characterized by different power, thickness, density, composition:

• upper lithospheric layer;
• sigmatic sheath;
• semi-metallic or ore shell.

The maximum depth of the lithosphere is 2900 km.

What is the lithosphere made of? From solids: basalt, magnesium, cobalt, iron and others.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is made up of all the waters of the Earth (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and even groundwater). It is located on the surface of the Earth and occupies more than 70% of the space. Interestingly, there is a theory according to which large reserves of water are contained in the thickness of the earth's crust.

There are two types of water: salt and fresh. As a result of interaction with the atmosphere, during condensate, the salt evaporates, thereby providing the land with fresh water.

Fig 3. Earth's hydrosphere (view of the oceans from space)

Biosphere

The biosphere is the most "living" shell of the earth. It includes the entire hydrosphere, the lower atmosphere, the land surface and the upper lithospheric layer. It is interesting that living organisms inhabiting the biosphere are responsible for the accumulation and distribution of solar energy, for the migration processes of chemicals in the soil, for gas exchange, and for redox reactions. We can say that the atmosphere exists only thanks to living organisms.

Fig 4. Components of the Earth's biosphere

Examples of the interaction of media (shells) of the Earth

There are many examples of media interaction.

• During the evaporation of water from the surface of rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, water enters the atmosphere.
• Air and water, penetrating through the soil into the depths of the lithosphere, makes it possible for vegetation to rise.
• Vegetation provides photosynthesis by enriching the atmosphere with oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide.
• From the surface of the earth and oceans, the upper layers of the atmosphere are heated, forming a climate that provides life.
• Living organisms, dying, form the soil.
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The evolution of the earth's crust on Earth has led to the formation of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. At the same time, a planetary natural complex was formed, the four components of which, that is, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, are in constant interaction and exchange matter and energy. Each component of the complex has its own chemical composition, differs in its inherent properties. They can have a solid, liquid or gaseous state, their organization of matter, patterns of development, they can be organic or inorganic.

Interacting with each other, these natural components have a mutual influence and acquire new properties. So, on the earth's surface, in the course of a long interaction of the spheres, a new shell was formed, which had its own specific features, which was called the geographical shell. The doctrine of the geographical shell began to take shape at the beginning of the 20th century. The geographic shell is the main object of physical geography.

The geographical envelope has a peculiar spatial structure. It is three-dimensional and spherical. This is the zone of the most active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. At some distance up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens, and then completely disappears. This happens gradually and the boundaries of the geographical shell - fuzzy. The upper boundary is often taken to be the ozone layer at an altitude of 25-30 km. The lower boundary of the geographic shell is often drawn along the Mohorovichich section, that is, along the asthenosphere, which is the sole of the earth's crust.

The components of the eographic shell are composed of substances of different composition, which are in different states. They are delimited by a system of active surfaces, where matter interacts and energy flows are transformed. These include: coastal zone, atmospheric and oceanic fronts, glacial zones.

Features of the geographical shell:

1. The geographical envelope is distinguished by a very complex composition and a diverse state of matter;

2. Life is concentrated in it and human society exists;

3. All physical and geographical processes in this shell proceed due to the solar and internal energy of the Earth;

4. All types of energy enter the shell, are transformed in it and partially preserved.

There are four main properties of the geographic envelope.

1. Rhythm associated with solar activity, the movement of the Earth around the Sun, the movement of the Earth and Moon around the Sun, the solar system around the center of the galaxy.

2. The circulation of substances, which is divided into cycles of air masses and water flows, which form cycles of air and moisture, cycles of mineral matter and lithospheric cycles, biological and biochemical cycles.

3. Integrity and unity, which are manifested in the fact that a change in one component of the natural complex inevitably causes a change in all the others and the entire system as a whole. In addition, changes that have occurred in one place are reflected in the entire shell, and sometimes on any part of it - in another place. The unity and integrity of the geographic shell is provided by the system of movement of matter and energy.

A very important feature of the geographic envelope is its ability to retain its basic properties throughout the history of its existence. For millions of years, the location of the continents, the composition of the atmosphere have changed on Earth, the formation and development of the biosphere has taken place. At the same time, the essence of the geographical envelope remained, as a zone of contact between the geospheres, where endogenous and exogenous forces interact. Its main properties have also been preserved: the presence of water in three states - liquid, solid and gaseous, the presence of stable boundaries between the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, the constancy of radiation and heat balances, the constancy of the salt composition of the World Ocean, etc. Therefore, the geographical shell is called geostat, that is, a system that is able to automatically maintain a certain state of the natural environment. In historical terms, the geographic envelope is self-organizing system which brings it closer to biological systems.

If we mentally cut the geographic shell from the upper to the lower boundary, it turns out that the lower tier is represented by the dense substance of the lithosphere, and the upper tiers are represented by the lighter substance of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Such a structure of the geographic envelope is the result of the evolution of the Earth, which was accompanied by differentiation of matter: with the release of dense matter in the center of the Earth and lighter matter along the periphery.

Many physical and geographical phenomena on the earth's surface are distributed in the form of strips, elongated along the parallels, or at some angle to them. This property of geographical phenomena is called zonation.

All components of the geographic shell bear the stamp of the influence of the world law of zoning. Zoning is noted for: climatic indicators, plant groups, soil types. The basis of the zonality of physical and geographical phenomena is the pattern of solar radiation entering the Earth, the arrival of which decreases from the equator to the poles.

Geographic zonation is formed on the basis of a combination of heat and moisture inflow to various regions of the earth. A number of geographical zones are distinguished. They are internally heterogeneous, which is primarily due to the zonal circulation of the atmosphere and moisture transfer. On this basis, sectors are allocated. As a rule, there are 3 of them: two oceanic (western and eastern) and one continental.

Sector- This is a geographical pattern, which is expressed in a change in the main natural indicators in longitude: from the oceans to the depths of the continents. All zonal phenomena are determined by endogenous energy. The zoning schemes are violated by the orographic conditions of the territory.

Altitudinal zonality- this is a natural change in natural indicators from sea level to the tops of mountains. It is determined by the change in climate with altitude, primarily by changes in the amount of heat and moisture. Altitude zoning was first described by A. Humboldt.

Hierarchy of geosystems

Hierarchy of the natural geosystem. natural geosystem- a historically established set of interrelated natural components, characterized by spatial and temporal organization, relative stability, the ability to function as a whole, producing a new substance. Geosystems can be formations of various dimensions.

Natural geosystems have a hierarchical structure. This means that all geosystems consist of several elements, and each geosystem is included as a structural element in larger ones.

There are three categories of geosystems (by spatial dimensions): planetary(hundreds of million km 2) - the landscape shell as a whole, continents and oceans, belts, zones; regional– physical-geographical countries, regions, provinces, districts; local - (from several m 2 to several thousand m 2) areas, tracts, sub-stows, facies.

Each of these geosystemic taxa is characterized by certain cycles of matter and energy of a certain scale - large geological, biogeochemical, biological.

The landscape envelope obeys the law of the hierarchical organization of its constituent parts. Its structure involves natural geosystems of various spatio-temporal scales. From the largest and most durable formations, such as oceans and continents, to the smallest and highly variable. They are combined into a multi-stage system of taxa, called the hierarchy of natural geosystems. From the recognition of the fact of subordination of geosystems of different ranks, the methodological rule of the triad arises, according to which each natural geosystem should be studied not only in itself, but also necessarily as breaking down into subordinate structural elements and at the same time as part of a higher natural unity.

Several variants of taxonomic classification of natural geosystems are proposed.

Geographic envelope- this is an integral, continuous shell of the Earth, the environment of human activity, within which they come into contact, mutually penetrate each other and interact with each other the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper layers of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere (Fig. 1). All spheres of the geographic envelope continuously exchange matter and energy with each other, forming an integral and balanced natural system.

The geographical shell does not have clear boundaries, so scientists conduct them in different ways. The upper boundary is combined with the boundary of the troposphere (8-18 km) or with the ozone screen (25-30 km). The lower boundary is taken as the boundary of the earth's crust (from 5 km under the oceans to 70 km under the mountain structures of the continents) or the lower boundary of its sedimentary layer (up to 5 km). The substance in the geographic shell is in three states: solid, liquid, gaseous. This is of great importance for the development of life and the ongoing natural processes on Earth.

The main sources of development of all processes occurring in the geographic envelope are solar energy and the internal energy of the Earth. Experiencing the geographical shell and the influence of space. Only in it are conditions created for the development of organic life.

The main regularities of the geographical shell

The geographical shell has the following general patterns of its development: integrity, rhythm, circulation of matter and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge of the general patterns of development of the geographical envelope allows a person to use natural resources more carefully, without causing damage to the environment.

Integrity- this is the unity of the geographical shell, the relationship and interdependence of its natural components (rocks, water, air, soil, plants, animals). The interaction and interpenetration of all natural components of the geographic envelope binds them into a single whole. Thanks to these processes, the natural balance is maintained. A change in one component of nature inevitably entails a change in other components and the geographical envelope as a whole. Knowledge of the law of the integrity of the geographic envelope is of great practical importance. If this regularity of the geographic envelope is not taken into account in the economic activity of a person, then destructive processes will occur in it.

A preliminary thorough study of the territory that is exposed to human impact is required. For example, after draining a swamp, the groundwater level drops. As a result, the soil, microclimate, vegetation, and wildlife change, i.e., the natural balance of the territory is disturbed.

Understanding the integrity of the geographic envelope makes it possible to foresee possible changes in nature, to give a geographical forecast of the results of human impact on nature.

Rhythm- this is the repetition of certain natural phenomena at certain intervals of time, or rhythms. In nature, all processes and phenomena are subject to rhythms. There are rhythms of different duration: diurnal (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intra-secular (associated with changes in solar activity - 11, 22 years, etc.), centuries-old (centenary) and covering millennia and many millions of years. Their duration can reach 150-240 million years. Associated with them, for example, are periods of active formation of mountains and relative calm of the earth's crust, cooling and warming of the climate.

The best known is the 11-year rhythm of solar activity, which is determined by the number of spots visible on the surface of the Sun. An increase in solar activity is accompanied by an increase in the number of spots on the Sun and the flow of solar energy to the Earth (“solar wind”). This causes magnetic storms on Earth, affects the weather and climate, and human health.

Circulation of matter and energy- the most important mechanism for the development of natural processes of the geographical shell, due to which the exchange of substances and energy between its constituent parts is carried out. There are various cycles (cycles) of matter and energy: the water cycle (hydrological cycle), air cycles in the atmosphere (atmospheric circulation), cycles in the lithosphere (geological cycle), etc.

There is a circulation of substances in the lithosphere. Magma flows to the surface and forms igneous rocks. Under the influence of the energy of the Sun, water and temperatures, they collapse and turn into sedimentary rocks. Plunging to great depths, sedimentary rocks experience the action of high temperatures and pressure, and turn into metamorphic rocks. At very high temperatures, the rocks melt, and they again return to their original state (magma).

The cycles are not closed, they are constantly under the influence of external and internal forces, there are qualitative changes in substances and energy, the development of all components of nature and the geographical envelope as a whole. This contributes to the preservation of balance in nature, its restoration. For example, with slight pollution, water is able to purify itself.

The main regularity of the geographical shell is the manifestation of geographical zoning. Geographic zoning- the main law of the distribution of natural complexes on the surface of the Earth, which manifests itself in the form of latitudinal zonality (consecutive change of geographical zones and natural zones). Latitudinal zoning- a regular change in natural conditions on the Earth's surface from the equator to the poles, associated with a change in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays. A single and integral geographical envelope is heterogeneous at different latitudes. Due to the uneven distribution of solar heat with latitude on the globe, not only the climate, but also soil-forming processes, vegetation, wildlife, and the hydrological regime of rivers and lakes naturally change from the equator to the poles.

The largest zonal divisions of the geographic shell - geographic zones. They, as a rule, extend in a latitudinal direction, replace each other on land and in the ocean from the equator to the poles and are repeated in both hemispheres: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic, arctic and antarctic. Geographic zones differ from each other in air masses, climate, soils, vegetation, and wildlife.

Each geographical zone has its own set of natural zones. natural area- a zonal natural complex within a geographical zone, which is characterized by common temperature conditions, moisture, similar soils, flora and fauna.

In accordance with the change in climatic conditions from south to north, in latitude, natural zones also change. The change of natural zones with geographic latitude is a manifestation of the geographical law of latitudinal zonality. Climatic conditions, especially humidity and temperature amplitudes, also change with distance from the ocean to the depths of the continents. Therefore, the main reason for the formation of several natural zones within the geographical zone is the ratio of heat and moisture. (Analyze the correspondence of natural zones to geographical zones on the atlas map.)

Each natural zone is characterized by a certain climate, type of soil, vegetation and wildlife. Natural zones regularly change from the equator to the poles and from the coast of the oceans to the depths of the continents following the change in climatic conditions. The nature of the relief affects the moisture regime within the natural zone and can disrupt its latitudinal extent.

Along with zonality, the most important regularity of the geographic envelope is azonality. Azonality- this is the formation of natural complexes associated with the manifestation of the internal processes of the Earth, which determine the heterogeneity of the earth's surface (the presence of continents and oceans, mountains and plains on the continents, etc.). The azonality is most clearly manifested in the mountains in the form of altitudinal zonation. Altitudinal zonality- regular change of natural complexes (belts) from the foot of the mountains to their peaks (see Fig. 2). Altitude zonality has much in common with latitudinal zonality: the change of belts when climbing mountains occurs in approximately the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. The first altitudinal belt always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountains are located.

The main regularities of the geographic envelope are integrity, rhythm, circulation of matter and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge about the patterns of development of the geographical envelope is necessary for understanding the processes and phenomena occurring in nature, foreseeing the consequences of human economic activity.

Geographic envelope - covers the upper part of the earth's crust, the lower part of the atmosphere and includes the hydrosphere, soil and vegetation cover and wildlife. Unlike other spheres of the globe (as well as from the shells of other planets), in the geographic shell of the Earth, matter occurs in three states (simultaneously in liquid, solid and gaseous). The processes in it proceed both due to cosmic and internal (terrestrial) energy sources. Only she has life.

The geographic envelope is a system: all its components are interconnected, interact and mutually determine each other. The most important thing is that it is an open system: the exchange of matter and energy occurs not only between its components, but also between the shell, space and the inner parts of the Earth. In its development, the geographical shell has passed 3 stages. The beginning of the first of them - inorganic - was laid by the separation of land from the ocean and the release of the atmosphere. At the second stage, a biosphere is formed in the geographic envelope, which has transformed all the processes occurring in it. On the third (modern) stage, human society arises in it.

It is differentiated both in latitudinal (from north to south) and in longitude (from west to east) directions.

The most essential spatial feature is its differentiation into oceanic and inland sectors. There are 6 in total:

3 mainland - European-African, Asian-Australian, American;

3 oceanic - Atlantic, Indian, Pacific.

The second most important feature of the geographic envelope is its zoning(regular changes in each component and all nature as a whole from the pole to the equator).

Division into zones and sectors.

Geographical zones encircle the Earth in a ring, including continents and oceans. They are due to the sphericity of the planet ® uneven distribution of solar radiation, atmospheric circulation, moisture circulation.

1) equatorial;

2) two tropical;

3) two moderate;

4) two polar.

Sectors - in each belt on land, there are (western, central, eastern) sectors. In the oceans, according to the currents - western, eastern.

Zoning- within each geographical zone are formed zones based on a combination of heat and moisture (atmospheric humidification).

Natural areas - geographical areas - landscape areas.

Temperate zone: Arctic, subarctic zone, taiga, forest-steppe, steppe zone, semi-desert zone, desert.

Regionality: natural areas are divided into regions(provinces) are those parts of the zones that fall into different sectors of the geographical zone. The separation is based on the exchange between the ocean, atmosphere and land.

The geographical zonality of the Northern and Southern hemispheres is so different that it makes the geographic envelope dissymmetric with respect to the equator. It is caused by the asymmetry of the relief. The southern hemisphere is oceanic, the northern hemisphere is continental. Around the North Pole is an ocean, around the South Pole is the mainland. The forest, forest-steppe, steppe and desert zones of temperate latitudes could develop only on vast land - therefore they are only in the Northern Hemisphere, in the Southern they are represented only in very limited areas.

equatorial belt- extends 5 ° latitude into both hemispheres. The atmosphere is characterized by excess heat balance. Solar heat comes in large quantities (from 100 to 160 kcal/cm2/year). High air humidity 80-95%, high cloudiness and heavy precipitation 1000-2500 mm/year. Evaporation is relatively low - 1000-1500 mm. Atmospheric humidification is excessive up to 150%. The air temperature all months keeps within 24-26°С. Land waters are plentiful, there are many wetlands, the river network is dense, and the rivers are full of water. There are few lakes, which is explained by the intensity of river erosion. The equatorial vegetation is represented by hylaea - powerful evergreen, moist forests of a multi-tiered structure.

Subequatorial belts- (up to 25° N and 20° S) variable atmospheric circulation is characteristic, which manifests itself in the latitudinal migration of the equatorial baric minimum, in subequatorial monsoons, in the presence of dry and rainy seasons. It is associated with a pronounced seasonal rhythm of all natural processes. In the World Ocean, the subequatorial belts are very clearly expressed and marked by trade winds. Average monthly temperatures range from 15 to 30°C. The duration of the rainy season in the subequatorial forests is from 1/3 to 2/3 of the year, in the savannas - less than 1/3 of the year. The main zone of this belt is savannah (herbaceous xerophilic vegetation, dry forests, light forests, thorny shrubs, single-growing trees). Depending on the duration of the rainy season, subequatorial forests are divided into predominantly deciduous and mixed deciduous-evergreen.

tropical belts- (northern from 14-31 0 N and southern - 18-30 0 S) these are the latitudes of dominance of dry and hot tropical air, both on the continents and on the oceans. Here the trade winds arise and the eastern transfer of air masses begins. The maximum temperature reaches 58°C, the minimum falls below 0°C, the monthly average is 12-35°C. There is already a thermal difference between the seasons. There is no permanent temporary flow, as well as local rivers and lakes. The rivers are only transit. Intensive physical weathering and eolian processes. Moist monsoon deciduous forests, desert and semi-desert zone.

subtropical belts lie between tropical and temperate. A characteristic feature of the atmosphere of the subtropics, in addition to the variable circulation, is the equality of its solar and actual temperatures. Here there is no excess of heat, as in hot zones, and there is no shortage of it in winter, as in temperate and cold ones. The average annual air temperature coincides with the average day of the Earth (at a height of 2 meters) - 14°C. Summer dryness causes a general annual insufficiency of atmospheric moisture (it is not higher than 59%). Aridity affects the whole appearance of the nature of Middle-earth. The rivers are generally shallow, shallow in summer, and the level rises in winter. There are few lakes, due to the dissection of the relief. Wild vegetation is represented by forest, shrub and steppe, large areas are occupied by cultivated plants.

northern temperate zone- outside the subtropical latitudes, in temperate zones, the Earth's relief becomes asymmetric: the Northern Hemisphere is continental, and the southern - oceanic. 4 seasons clearly stand out + a less clear fifth: spring, summer, autumn, pre-winter, winter. In January, the radiation balance is negative. In the cold part of the year, the atmosphere is warmed not so much by radiative as by advective (from tropical latitudes) heat. Here, more than in any other belt, the gradients of heat and moisture and ® are very clearly defined sectors: on the continents, western oceanic, inland and eastern oceanic; on the oceans, western with cold currents, eastern with warm currents. The horizontal zonality of nature is just as distinct. The temperate zone is subdivided into moderately warm and dry (on the mainland there are zones of deserts, semi-deserts, steppes, forest-steppes; in the oceanic sector, a zone of broad-leaved forests); moderately cold and damp (zone of mixed forests and taiga).

southern temperate zone- antipodal to the north. It is located almost entirely on the ocean. Intense westerly transport, cyclonic activity and a continuous circumpolar cold current of westerly winds are characteristic. Floating ice - icebergs of Antarctica reach 45 ° S.l.

Northern subpolar (subarctic) belt- is located on the northern periphery of Eurasia and in North America. There is little solar heat. For most of the cold season, the radiation balance is negative. Summer is short. The soil is covered by permafrost already at a depth of 30 cm. Atmospheric circulation is variable: both arctic and temperate air masses penetrate. There is little precipitation - 300-100 mm, evaporation is even less, moisture is excessive up to 150%. Numerous surface waters - small rivers, lakes, many swamps.

Southern subpolar belt- completely on the ocean. The island land is scattered in it. The nature of the islands is oceanic, tundra: cool summers and moderate winters, high humidity and strong winds, sparse moss-lichen vegetation.

polar belts- The North and South Poles are opposite in terms of the nature of the relief - the first is oceanic, the second is continental, but they are climatically homogeneous. Both belts are ice. Here is the minimum amount (for the Earth) of solar radiation, but also the mass of ice. The climate of Antarctica is harsher than the Arctic.

Altitudinal zonality. In mountainous countries, horizontal natural parts of the land are replaced by altitudinal belts. It is associated with a decrease in air temperature and evaporation with height, an increase in precipitation and atmospheric moisture. The altitudinal belts of any mountainous country, each ridge and even its individual slopes are qualitatively individual. Vertical zonality always begins with the horizontal zone in which the mountain system is located.

The geographic envelope of the Earth is characterized by rhythm(the movement of the Earth around its axis creates daily rhythms, the rotation of the double planet Earth-Moon = tidal waves in the hydrosphere, the biological clock of some animals). The annual circulation of the Earth around the Sun determines the seasonal rhythm of geographical shells, the change of seasons. In addition to the well-studied and obvious seasonal and diurnal ones, there are less obvious perennial and secular ones.

The entire development of the geographic envelope proceeds through annually accumulating progressive changes. Development proceeds progressively from simple to complex, from low to high, from old to new. In the process of development, it becomes deeper and deeper differentiated and becomes more complex.