Grammar includes. Synchronic and historical grammar

The first 6 of them are significant; prepositions, conjunctions and particles - service; interjections do not belong to any of these classes. Sometimes participles and gerunds are considered special parts of speech. Some grammarians also distinguish the category of state.

Parts of speech are distinguished both by morphological (features of word formation and inflection) and syntactic (features of the role in the sentence), and by semantic features. Different categories are dominated by different criteria. So, nouns, adjectives and verbs have clear morphological features that separate them from other parts of speech. At the same time, for example, pronouns are divided into several classes that are morphologically close to nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and therefore stand out due to the peculiarities of their semantics.

Noun

A noun denotes an object, in a sentence it can be a subject, an object, a predicate.

The noun in Russian changes according to cases and numbers. In addition, it has a category of gender (the masculine, feminine and neuter genders are distinguished), which is not inflectional. There are two numbers: singular and plural, and 6 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental and prepositional. Number and case are expressed by the ending of the noun. In addition, sometimes 3 more cases are distinguished: vocative (God, Lord, Dim, Ol), local (in the forest, in the meadow), partitive (nothing? tea - R.p., pour a little something? tea).

There are three declensions of nouns. Usually the declension of feminine and masculine nouns into -and I referred to as 1st, masculine into a consonant and neuter into -o, -e- 2nd, and feminine nouns into a soft consonant or hissing - 3rd. In old grammars, 1st is sometimes called the declension of the masculine gender into a consonant and the neuter gender into -o, -e, and the 2nd - feminine and masculine on -and I.

In the 1st and 2nd declensions, soft and hard types are distinguished depending on the nature of the last consonant of the stem.

In addition, a number of nouns are distinguished that do not fall under these types (10 neuter nouns per -me and word way); many foreign nouns with non-standard Russian endings (i, u, etc.) are not declined.

Adjective

The adjective changes by case, number and gender. The gender, case and number of an adjective are expressed by its ending.

Declension of adjectives

Unlike nouns, adjectives generally change according to one pattern, only soft and hard types of declension differ.

After a hissing or back-lingual consonant, instead of "s", "i" is written.
If a masculine adjective ends in "-oy", that syllable is always stressed.
After the hissing consonants in the neuter gender of adjectives comes "-ee". This is sometimes referred to as the "rule good».
The accusative case is masculine and in the plural depends on the animation of the noun.

Verb

Grammatical categories of the Russian verb

Verbs in Russian are perfect and imperfect. The aspect category belongs to word-formation for various reasons, but in some cases it affects the inflection of the verb.

Traditionally, there are three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. (In addition, the infinitive, participle and gerund have no mood characteristics).

In the indicative mood, the verb changes in tense. In the present and future tense, the verb changes by number and person, and in the past by number and gender.

Two verb stems

Verb forms are formed from two stems. The first is the basis of the infinitive (from it the infinitive itself, the past tense and the subjunctive mood, the participle and the past participle are formed), and the second is the basis of the present tense (the present tense, the imperative mood, the participle and the present participle are formed from it).

To find the basis of the infinitive, it is necessary to subtract the final form from the feminine singular form of the past tense -la.

To find the basis of the present tense, it is necessary to subtract the ending from the form of the 3rd person plural of the present tense -at or -ut(ends -yat and -ut does not exist - these are purely graphic options: their presence after a vowel says that the stem of the present tense ends in a suffix -j-, after the consonant - that the stem ends in a soft consonant).

For example, throw: threw- stem of the infinitive kid-a-, throw(= kid-a-j-ut) - stem of present tense kid-a-j-; drive: carrier- stem of the infinitive water-and-, drive - the basis of the present tense waters "-(but in the first person singular stem vozh-), name: called - the basis of the infinitive on-star-a-, will be called- basis of present tense on-call-

The relationship between these fundamentals is very complex. More than 20 types of formation of the stem of the present tense from the stem of the infinitive are distinguished, although new verbs are formed from only five of them. As a result, it is impossible to give any rules for determining one from the other.

Forms formed from the stem of the infinitive

The infinitive itself is formed from the stem of the infinitive with the help of the suffix -th.

Combining an infinitive with an auxiliary verb be forms the future tense of imperfective verbs.

The past tense form is formed from the stem of the past tense with the suffix -l- and endings indicating gender and number. -0 for the masculine singular, -a- for the feminine singular, -about- for the neuter gender singular, -and- for the plural.

By attaching to the past tense form of the particle would forms the subjunctive mood.

From the stem of the past tense with the help of a suffix -vsh- and adjective endings, the past participle of the active voice is formed, using the suffix -an(n)-- Passive participle.

Forms formed from the basis of the present tense

Allocate: historical grammar is a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in development through a comparison of various stages in the history of a language and descriptive Grammar is a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in a synchronous way.

Grammar is traditionally divided into morphology(word grammar) and syntax(grammar of connected speech)

Semantics, lexicology and phonetics, as a rule, are not included in grammar (and are opposed to it).

However, understood more narrowly, grammar is closely related to lexicology (since it studies the grammatical properties of words), as well as to such sections of linguistics as:

orthoepy (and, more broadly, phonetics), as it explores the sound means of expressing meanings and the pronunciation of grammatical forms,
spelling, as it covers their spelling,
stylistics, as it describes the stylistic patterns of the use of grammatical forms in different genres of speech.

41 Morpheme, its types

A morpheme is the smallest significant unit of a language that is singled out as part of a word and performs the functions of word formation and form formation (inflection). The concept of a morpheme was introduced into science by Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay. If the phoneme is indivisible in terms of form, then the morpheme is indivisible in terms of content.

A morpheme is a two-sided unit, one of its sides is semantic, that is, the plan is content (meaning), the second is a phonetic or graphic form, that is, the plan is expression (signifier).

Word formation is a section of the science of language that studies the morphological composition of words and methods of their formation.

Most words in Russian are divided into meaningful parts. For example, the verb bounced is divided into the prefix from; root - jump; suffixes -nu; -l; ending -a. Each of these parts expresses a certain meaning: it denotes a distance away, -jumping - a certain action, -well-perfect view, -l- past tense, -a -feminine, singular.

The significant part of a word is called a morpheme. According to the meaning and function in the word, the root morpheme and affixes (prefix, suffix, ending) are distinguished.

Affixes are divided into word-forming and formative.

Word-forming includes affixes, with the help of which new words are formed. For example, the suffix -ost forms the noun vivacity (from cheerful), the prefix noun suburb (from the city).

The affixes that participate in the formation of the grammatical forms of a given word are called formative. For example, the suffix -l (yes-l) forms the past tense, the suffix -ee (beautiful-her) forms the comparative degree of the adjective.

Word forms are modifications of the same word, which, while maintaining the lexical meaning, differ from each other in grammatical meanings. Grammatical forms are, for example, case forms and numbers of nouns, forms of gender, number, case, degrees of comparison of adjectives, mood forms, tense, person, number, voice, aspect of the verb, etc.

It is necessary to distinguish between related words and grammatical forms of the same word. For example, high, height, high-rise are related words that have different lexical meanings. The words high - higher - highest - are forms of the same word.

The common part of related words is the root. This is the central morpheme of the word, which contains its main lexical meaning. The root is distinguished by comparing a number of related words. For example, comparing the words price, valuable, price. to evaluate, we single out the root of prices.

42 Word form as a unit of morphology

A word form is a morphological unit, which is one of the possible forms of a particular word. (spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, about spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, about spring- word forms Spring, formed by changing this word in cases and numbers by adding formative morphemes - endings to the root -a, -s, -e etc.). In some studies (for example, in the works of G.A. Zolotova), the idea is expressed that not all words have word forms: invariable words (tomorrow, here, sitting etc.) do not have word forms, such forms are called words. But this discrepancy in terminology is purely conditional, terminological in nature. In this textbook, a word form is any specification of a word. In accordance with this, inflected words have several word forms (depending on the characteristics of declension or conjugation), and invariable words have one.

The word form as a unit of the morphological system has a grammatical (morphological) meaning, form, and at the same time has a lexical meaning inherent in a given word: if the word Spring denotes a certain time of the year, then each of the word forms of this word has the same meaning.

However, for some words, derivative lexical meanings do not appear in all word forms of a given word, but are assigned only to some of them. For example, all word forms of the word forest in its direct main meaning, this meaning is retained ("a large area covered with growing trees"), but this word has several derived meanings that are assigned only to some forms of this word: forest in the meaning of "building material" has no plural forms. numbers (They brought timber to the construction site) a forest in the meaning of "fastening design" is used only in pl. including (Around the building under construction, scaffolding for workers was erected). Word table in the meaning "type of furniture" retains this meaning in all 12 word forms (i.e. in all case forms singular and plural), and in the meaning "food * (This sanatorium has a good table) used only in the form of units. numbers (6 word forms).

When describing the morphological features of words, two terms are used: word form and word form. These terms express two different concepts, and therefore they should not be confused. The word form, as already noted, is a specific realization of the word in the text with a reflection of its lexical meaning and grammatical meanings and forms, the word form is an indication only of specific grammatical categories of the word. For example, words windowsill and coaster have the same structure and the same grammatical meanings and forms (noun, m. r., singular, im.-vin. p.), i.e. these are the same forms of words, but at the same time they are different word forms, since these are word forms of different words.

43 Sentence and saying

FROM THE LECTURE

A sentence is a unit of language. An utterance is a unit of speech.

"Language is an abstraction, it is social, and speech is individual, it is the realization of language."

Language as a means of communication exists in the minds of an entire people and in this sense it is abstract, speech is the realization of language, it is material and concrete, it can be pronounced and heard.

Each unit of language corresponds to a unit of speech.

Sentence as a unit of language implemented in a statement.

The difference between them is not only in abstractness and concreteness, but also in the fact that the sentence has a ready-made structure, while the statement is always built anew.

Thus:

Offer - language model on which the statement is built.

An utterance is a lexical, morphological and phonetic embodiment of a sentence.

This means that the sentence is filled with specific words in specific grammatical forms, while the meanings of person, number, aspect, tense, modality, etc. appear.

The ability to reflect the time and place of the described situation is called predicativity.

Vinogradov: “Predicativity includes the values place, time and person».

A certain communicative task is realized in the utterance: a request, an order, a statement, a question, etc. Transformations can occur in the utterance compared to the original model: the appearance of new members (details are added to the reflected situation that determine the specifics of a particular speech act). The statement signals what exactly is the most important.

A woman (THE WOMAN) entered the room - A woman entered the room (A WOMAN)

Emphasis is a prerequisite for the communication process.

NOT FROM THE LECTURE, PRO OFFER. Maybe you don't need to learn. I don't know:\

The sentence includes syntagmas - a combination of two members connected by some kind of relationship, where one member is defining, and the other is being determined.

Relationship types:

Predicative: predicate, connection with time and mood;

Attributive: 2nd term defines the first out of time and inclination, for example, a sign: a beautiful horse

Objective: the defining member is an object, i.e. not contained in the member being defined, but associated with it object relations (additions) eat soup, feed the mole with worms

- relative: that which is not contained in the defined, but is connected with it by certain relations of time, place, mode of action - ran fast, ran in the forest, ran in the morning.

Relations between members of a syntagma can be of three types:

1) agreement- the grammatical meanings of the first word are repeated in the second: handsome young man- repeated number and gender

2) management- some grammatical meanings of the definitive evoke other, quite definite, grammatical meanings in the definitive: I see a dog, admire the dog, went to the dog

3) contiguity- a type of connection between the determined and the determining, when there is neither agreement nor control, but the relationship is expressed either positionally through word order, or intonationally, by repeating a melodic tone or by pausing.

The chimney sweep shakes the chimney of my house a lot.

44 Members of the proposal

Member of a sentence - the syntactic function of words and phrases in a sentence

Subject (in syntax) - the main member of the sentence, grammatically independent; denotes an object whose action is expressed by the predicate. The subject names who or what the sentence is talking about, and answers the questions “who?”, “What?”.

The predicate (in syntax) is the main member of the sentence, associated with the subject and answering the questions: “what does the object (or person) do?”, “what happens to it?”, “what is it?”, “what is it?”, "who is he?" etc. The predicate denotes the action or state of objects and persons that are expressed by the subject. The predicate is most often expressed by a verb that agrees with the subject, but often the predicate is also expressed by other parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, participles, numerals, pronouns, adverbs, indivisible phrases).

Definition (or attribute) - in the syntax of the Russian language, a minor member of a sentence, denoting a sign of an object. Usually expressed by an adjective or participle. Answers the questions “what?”, “whose?”, “which?”

The circumstance in the syntax of the Russian language is a minor member of the sentence, depending on the predicate and denoting a sign of an action or a sign of another sign. Usually circumstances are expressed by nouns in the forms of indirect cases or adverbs, although some groups of circumstances can be expressed by adverbial turnover.

According to the meaning that is clarified by the questions, the circumstances are divided into the following main types:

Time, Mode of action and degree, Place, Causes, Purposes, Comparisons, Conditions, Concessions.

An application is a definition expressed by a noun consistent with the word being defined in the case, for example: A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant cliff. Applications can indicate various qualities of an object, indicate age, nationality, profession and other signs.

An object in syntax is a minor member of a sentence expressed by a noun or a pronominal noun. The addition denotes the object or person who is the object of the action indicated by the predicate, and answers the questions of indirect cases (“what?”, “whom?”, “to whom?”, etc.).

There is a direct object - an unprepositional object after a transitive verb (in Russian - in the accusative, sometimes in the genitive case) - and an indirect object (in other cases, after prepositions and indirect cases)

45Word formation and its types

The term word formation has two meanings in the science of language. On the one hand, this is the very process of forming new words, on the other hand, it is a special branch of the science of language, in which the word-formation system of the Russian language is studied. The direct subject of study in word formation, as in any other branch of the science of language, are words. But unlike lexicology, where the individual features of a word (lexical meaning, expressive and stylistic possibilities) are studied, or from grammar, where the grammatical features of a word and its syntactic functions are studied, word formation studies the composition, structure, ways of forming a word as a unit of the word-formation system operating in the language. . The study of the word-formation system makes it possible to understand the laws of its functioning, to establish the norms of modern word formation.

The word-formation system is understood as those elements that make up words, i.e., meaningful word units (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings), their role in word production, the very structure of words used in the language (derivative and non-derivative words), as well as those laws according to which some words (derivatives) are motivated by others (producing), ways of forming words and those word-forming types (within the ways of formation) that are actively involved in the formation of new words.

The derivational type is the main unit of classification of derived words. The word-formation type is understood as a class of derivatives belonging to the same part of speech and characterized by the same word-formation properties:

a) derivative from words of one part of speech;

b) the same type of word formation;

c) the general way of word formation;

d) identical derivational meaning;

e) by the same means of expressing the word-formation meaning - by the derivator.
For example, substantive nouns belong to the same derivational type forester and baker: they are formed within the framework of nominative word-formation from one part of speech (noun) in the same way (suffixation), while they have the same word-formation meaning "a person characterized in relation to an object called a generating basis", which is expressed by the same suffix -Nick.

This type does not include, for example, derivatives: employee(the noun is not formed from the noun, but from the verb), pharmacist, kiosk(the derivational meaning is expressed by other suffixes: -ar", -or).
In addition, the general characteristics of one or another word-formation type take into account the transpositional / non-transpositional type of relationship between the derivative and the producer, as well as the productivity / unproductivity of tinge.
Transpositionality/non-transpositionality of the type is connected with the part-of-speech affiliation of the generating and derived words. Transpositional word-building types are characterized by the relation of the derivative and generating words to different parts of speech. [sing(ch.) -> singer(n.); white(adj.) -> turn white(Ch.)]. If the members of a word-formation pair belong to the same part of speech, then there is a non-transpositional word-formation type (sing-> sing; white-> white).
The productivity/unproductivity of a word-formation type is expressed in whether it can be replenished with new derivatives. Productive, for example, are the types of adjective adjectives with the suffix -sk-/-esk-(cf. neologisms: Aeroflot, bioacoustic, Hindu) or with prefix anti- (anti-colonial, anti-patriotic, anti-human). Non-productive derivational types are represented by closed lists of derivatives: they are not replenished with new words. Non-productive derivational types include, for example, types of collective nouns with the suffix -nyak (oak tree, willow tree), substantive adjectives with the suffix -av- (bloody, full of holes).

46 Affixation and internal inflection

Each grammatical phenomenon always has two sides: internal, grammatical meaning (what is expressed) and external, grammatical way (what is expressed). The grammatical mode is the material expression of grammatical meanings, both relational and derivational. Ultimately, all grammatical differences in morphemes, showing changes in cases, numbers, persons, tenses, etc., are expressed by phonemic differences. The role of the grammatical method is also played by special service words, which are needed both to express the relationship between the members of sentences and between sentences. Thus, grammatical meanings are expressed not directly by phonemes, but by known technical combinations from phonetic material.

There are a limited number of grammatical methods used in languages, these are: affixation, internal inflection, repetitions, additions, auxiliary words, word order, stress, intonation and suppletivism. Some languages (like Russian, English) use all possible grammatical ways, others (like Chinese, French) use only a few.

The method of affixing consists in attaching affixes to the roots (or stems).

Affixes are morphemes with grammatical meaning. Affixes do not exist in languages outside of words; they accompany the root, serving for word formation and inflection.

By position relative to the root, affixes can be divided into prefixes before the root and postfixes after the root. There are languages that do not use prefixes, and the whole grammar is expressed by postfixes (Kyrgyz); other languages prefer prefixing and do not use postfixes (Swahili). Indo-European languages use both, with a clear preponderance towards postfixes. The group of postfixes can be divided into suffixes and inflections.

Suffixes are postfixes with a derivational meaning.

Inflections are postfixes with a relational meaning. With regard to the Indo-European languages, prefixes cannot be subdivided in this way, because the same prefix, even in combination with the same root, can express either a derivational or relational meaning, or both at once. In their grammatical role, suffixes are word-forming affixes, and inflections are inflectional; prefixes can play both roles.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself, or by internal inflection. However, there are different types of alternations: first of all, they are divided into phonetic (positional) and non-phonetic (alternation of different phonemes). The latter, in turn, are divided into morphological (historical) and grammatical (independently express grammatical meanings). It is grammatical alternations that are internal inflection.

The phenomenon of internal inflection was discovered on the material of the Indo-European languages of the Germanic group. The most ancient type of internal inflection was found in the so-called strong verbs (such as English drink - drank - drunk). Jacob Grimm called this phenomenon ablaut - the alternation of vowels in the verb system and verbal formations. A similar situation is observed in French (pouvoir - je peux - je puis - ils peuvent). In Russian, such alternations ceased to play an important role characteristic of Old Church Slavonic, due to the emergence of reduction of unstressed vowels. However, the combination of internal inflection with affixation is possible when a multiple subspecies is formed in imperfective verbs (walks - walked).

47 Reduplication, addition, auxiliary words, suppletivism

Repetitions, or reduplications, consist in the complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change in it.

Very often, repetition is used to express the plural, for example, in the Malay language orang - "person", orang-orang - "people", in the dead Sumerian language kur - "country", kur-kur - "country".

For many languages, repetitions are used in speech as a means of reinforcing a given message: yes-yes, no-no, neither-nor (pure negation), just about, or: barely, barely, just a little, a long time ago etc.

Onomatopoeic repetitions such as quack-quack (duck), oink-oink (piglet), ku-ku (cuckoo), etc. are widely known. knock Knock. If in Russian such repetitions are not typical for the Russian literary language, then they are very common in the dialects of the Russian language, and, for example, in the Somali language (East Africa), this method in the verb expresses a special form: fen - “to gnaw”, and fen-fen - “to gnaw to the end from all sides”, that is, terminologically, this is “comprehensively final form” (there is no such grammatical category in Russian, and this meaning is expressed lexically: “from all sides” and “to the end”). However, in the aspect category in Russian, there are cases of repetition to express special shades of the aspect of the verb, for example, you walk - you walk, you pray - you pray (Varlaam's words, a scene in a tavern from Pushkin's Boris Godunov tragedy).

In addition, in contrast to affixation, it is not the root morpheme with affixes that are combined in one lexeme, but the root morpheme with the root one, as a result of which a single new compound word arises; thus addition serves for word formation.

Both full roots and truncated ones, as well as stems and whole words in some grammatical form, can be combined during addition.

Such additions can also have two tendencies: mechanical, agglutinating, and organic, fusional. As a result of the first trend, the sum of the values of the terms of the elements arises; for example in Russian: professional work - “trade union work”,

Grammatical meanings can be expressed not inside the word, but outside it, in its environment, and above all in the auxiliary words accompanying significant words. Functional words free significant from the expression of grammar [ 470 ] or accompany inflectional affixation.

Service words, as already mentioned above, are devoid of a nominative function, since they do not name anything and only show the relationship between the members of the sentence (prepositions, conjunctions) or between sentences (conjunctions), and also indicate some grammatical meanings that do not depend on the combination of words in the sentence (articles, particles, auxiliary verbs, words of degree). These are qualifying relations, such as certainty and uncertainty, number, etc.

Functional words often play the same role as affixes, cf. I wanted to warm myself with tea, where the relation of supplementing with tea is expressed by case inflection, and in the sentence I wanted to warm myself with coffee, where the same thing is expressed by a function word, namely by the preposition through.

If the relation of the word cat to other members of the sentence in Russian is expressed by case inflections: cat, cat, cat, cat, etc., then in French, where there is no declension of nouns, the same grammatical connections are expressed by prepositions or their absence: Ie chat - “cat” (without a preposition with an article), du chat - “cat”, Among the service words one should distinguish:

Prepositions, Conjunctions, Particles, Articles, Auxiliary Verbs, Degree Words, etc.

Suppletivism is the formation of an inflectional form of a word in a unique way for the language (often from a different root and / or using a unique alternation). This form is called the suppletive form or suppletive.

For example, in Russian, the past tense of a verb is formed using the suffix -l added to the stem of the infinitive:

do - did, do - did, think - thought.

48 Word order, intonation, stress

The linearity of speech generates the significance of the order of the links in its chain. In many cases, changing the place of lexemes in a speech chain can serve as an expressive means for grammatical meanings.

In Latin, word order does not express grammatical meanings, and thus any permutations are possible without changing the meaning of the whole. In Russian, for nouns in -a, -я and for animate masculine nouns, the situation is the same as in Latin (my sister loves a dog), and for the rest, the understanding of what is the subject and what is the object is determined only by the place in the sentence (table scratches chair). In English and French, where there is no declension of nouns and articles, understanding what is the subject and what is the object depends entirely on the word order.

In languages where word order is free, word permutation (in the broad sense of inversion) is a very powerful stylistic device.

Intonation refers not to a word, but to a phrase, and thus is grammatically related to the sentence and its structure.

First of all, this applies to the modal form of the sentence: with the same order of the same words in many languages, one can distinguish interrogative sentences from affirmative sentences, expressing doubt from sentences, etc. by intonation. The arrangement and gradation of pauses within a sentence can show the grouping of sentence members or the division of a sentence. Pausing can distinguish between simple and complex sentences. Intonation can distinguish a coordinating connection from a subordinating one in the absence of unions. A special phenomenon is the so-called logical stress, i.e. this or that shift of phrasal stress for the logical selection of any elements of the sentence. Intonation, namely the acceleration of the tempo and the brittle normal intonation wave, distinguishes introductory words and expressions, which is how they differ from the members of the sentence.

Intonation is not easily used as a grammatical device in every language. So, for example, French intonation is very indifferent to the expression of grammar.

The expression of expression and, above all, of various feelings is closely related to intonation, but does not belong to the field of grammar.

In the speech flow, phrasal, textual and verbal stress is distinguished. Verbal stress is the selection during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of the word. Russian stress is different. The heterogeneity is used to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms (Organ-organ) and individual forms of various words (moyu-moyu), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of a word or gives the word a stylistic coloring (well done, well done).
The mobility and immobility of stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: mobile - city-city; motionless - garden-garden-gardens ... The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms: buy-buy
Words can be unstressed or weakly stressed. Functional words and particles are usually devoid of stress, but they sometimes take on stress, so the preposition with self. word have one accent: nA-winter.
Two-syllable and three-syllable prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with a noun, ligaments TO BE and BECOME, some of the introductory words can be weakly impacted. Some of the words have, in addition to the main one, an additional, side stress: (aircraft building)

49 Synthetic and analytic languages

Synthetic languages are a typological class of languages in which synthetic forms of expression of grammatical meanings predominate. Synthetic languages are opposed to analytical languages, in which grammatical meanings are expressed with the help of function words, and polysynthetic languages, in which several nominal and verbal lexical meanings are combined within a whole-formed complex (outwardly resembling a word).

The basis for dividing languages into synthetic, analytic, and polysynthetic is essentially syntactic, so this division intersects with the morphological classification of languages, but does not coincide with it. The division of languages into synthetic and analytic was proposed by August Schleicher (only for inflectional languages), then he extended it to agglutinative languages.

In synthetic languages, grammatical meanings are expressed within the word itself (affixation, internal inflection, stress, suppletivism), that is, by the forms of the words themselves. To express the relationship between words in a sentence, elements of the analytical system (functional words, order of significant words, intonation) can also be used.

Morphemes included in a word in synthetic languages can be combined according to the principle of agglutination, fusion, and undergo positional alternations (for example, Turkic vowel harmony). Synthetic forms are found in a large part of the world's languages. Since a language, in principle, is not typologically homogeneous, the term "synthetic languages" is applied in practice to languages with a sufficiently high degree of synthesis, for example, German, Russian, Turkic, Finno-Ugric, most of the Semitic-Hamitic, Indo-European (ancient), Mongolian, Tungus- Manchu, some African (Bantu), Caucasian, Paleoasian, American Indian languages.

Analytic languages are languages in which grammatical meanings are mostly expressed outside of the word, in the sentence: English, French, and all isolating languages, such as Vietnamese. In these languages, the word is a transmitter of lexical meaning, and grammatical meanings are transmitted separately: by the order of words in a sentence, function words, intonation, etc.

The phrase in Russian is "the father loves the son." If you change the word order - “the father loves the son”, then the meaning of the phrase will not change, the word “son” and the word “father” change the case ending. The phrase in English is "the father loves the son". When the word order is changed to “the son loves the father”, the meaning of the phrase changes exactly the opposite - “the son loves the father”, since there are no case endings, and the word son sounds and is spelled the same even if it corresponds to the nominative case of the Russian language, and indirect cases. Therefore, the meaning of a sentence depends on the order of the words in the sentence. The same phenomenon is observed if we consider the French phrase "le père aime le fils" with the same meaning.

50 Typological classification of languages

Typological classification of languages - a classification based on the similarity and difference in the linguistic structure (morphological, phonological, syntactic, semantic), regardless of genetic or territorial proximity. From this point of view, there are: an isolating (amorphous) type (Old Chinese, Vietnamese), an agglutinating (agglutinative) type (Turkic, many Finno-Ugric languages), an inflectional (inflectional) type (Russian). Some scholars single out incorporating (polysynthetic) languages (some Paleo-Asiatic, Caucasian languages).

The typological classification unites languages according to the common structure and type. Does not depend on origin and relies primarily on grammar.

Basic concepts of typological (morphological) classification - morpheme and word; the main criteria: the nature of the morphemes combined in the word (lexical - grammatical), the way they are combined (pre- or postposition of grammatical morphemes, which is directly related to syntax; agglutination - fusion, which refers to the field of morphonology); the relationship between the morpheme and the word (isolation, when the morpheme = the word, analytic / synthetism of word formation and inflection), associated with syntax.

The typological classification seeks to characterize not specific languages, in which several morphological types are always represented, but the main structural phenomena and trends that exist in languages.

Modern typology, while maintaining as the most important typological categories the representations developed by the founders of the typology - "analytical type of language", "synthetic type", "agglutination", "fusion", etc. - has abandoned the idea of a single and general typological classification languages. It became obvious that only one typological classification (for example, morphological) is not enough, since different language levels have their own typologically significant features that are independent of the structure of other language levels. Therefore, in addition to the morphological classification, various other classifications of languages were required: depending on the type of phonological system, the nature of stress, the type of syntax, the type of lexicon, the nature of word formation, the functional (communicative) profile of the language, the type of normative-stylistic structure of the language (in the typology of literary languages) etc.

Modern typology, while maintaining as the most important typological categories the representations developed by the founders of the typology - "analytical type of language", "synthetic type", "agglutination", "fusion", etc. - has abandoned the idea of a single and general typological classification languages. It became obvious that only one typological classification (for example, morphological) is not enough, since different language levels have their own typologically significant features that are independent of the structure of other language levels. The understanding of language type has also changed. It became obvious that there were no languages that could be considered in

as "pure", "one hundred percent" representatives of one type or another. Any language is more or less a “typical representative” of “its” type. Therefore, the very category of “language type” (analytical type, synthetic, agglutination, etc.) began to be interpreted differently: not as a cell in the classification, but as one from possible ideal (mental) schemes for the structure of a language (or some level of a language); this scheme is created on the basis of studying a number of languages as their generalized and, of course, abstract image and then applied (as if "trying on") to individual specific languages.

51 Comparative historical…

Comparative-historical linguistics (linguistic comparative studies) is a field of linguistics devoted primarily to the relationship of languages, which is understood historically-genetically (as a fact of origin from a common proto-language). Comparative historical linguistics deals with establishing the degree of kinship between languages (building a genealogical classification of languages), reconstructing proto-languages, studying diachronic processes in the history of languages, their groups and families, and etymology of words.

Comparative historical linguistics during the 19th century was the dominant branch of linguistics.

Comparative historical linguistics appeared after the discovery by Europeans of Sanskrit, the literary language of ancient India. As early as the 16th century, the Italian traveler Filippo Sasseti noticed the similarity of Indian words with Italian and Latin, but no scientific conclusions were made. The beginning of comparative historical linguistics was laid in the 18th century by William Jones.

The historical method of cognition includes different types. With the help of various methods, knowledge of phenomena is carried out to one degree or another.

GRAMMAR

(Greek grammatike, from grammata - writing, derived from graphein - to write). 1) a collection of laws and rules for the use of oral and written language. 2) an educational book containing the grammar of a known language.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .

GRAMMAR

Greek grammatike, from grammata, writing, from graphein, to write. The science of the laws of language.

Explanation of 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. - Mikhelson A.D., 1865 .

GRAMMAR

exposition of the laws of language and rules for the structure of speech in Ph.D. language.

A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. - Popov M., 1907 .

GRAMMAR

the science that studies the structure of language. Its parts: phonetics (the study of the sound system of the language), etymology (the study of the external form of the language) and syntax (the study of the combination of words and sentences). Philosophical city explores the essence of the laws of language from a philosophical point of view. Comparative city explores the existing languages in their mutual relations. The historical city examines the course of language development.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Pavlenkov F., 1907 .

Grammar

(gr. grammatike) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of words and sentences in a language and consists, respectively, of two parts: morphology (the study of the combination of morphemes in word forms) and syntax (the study of the combination of words in a sentence).

New dictionary of foreign words.- by EdwART,, 2009 .

Grammar

[ama], grammar, f. [Greek grammatike]. The doctrine of the structure of a language or group of languages (lingu.). French grammar. Comparative grammar of Slavic languages. || An educational book outlining the basics (rules) of a certain. language. I bought myself a grammar

A large dictionary of foreign words. - Publishing house "IDDK", 2007 .

Grammar

and, well. ( Greek grammatikē).
1. pl. no. Section of linguistics that studies the structure and change of words ( morphology) and combining words into combinations and sentences ( syntax).
Grammarian- scholar, grammarian.
|| Wed lexicology , semasiology , semantics , phonetics , phonology , phraseology.
2. A book that lays down the rules based on this science. school g. Academic g.
3. pl. no. The structure of the language, the system of relations between language categories. Russian g. difficult for foreigners.
Grammatical- pertaining to grammar 1, 3.
|| Wed vocabulary , phonetics.

Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words L. P. Krysina.- M: Russian language, 1998 .

Synonyms:

See what "GRAMMAR" is in other dictionaries:

- (from the Greek grammata "writing", "scripture"). In the original understanding of the word, grammar coincides with the science of linguistic forms in general, including the study of the elements of the sound form of sounds or, as they were expressed up to the beginning of the 19th century, “letters”; this inclusion... Literary Encyclopedia

- [ama], grammar, wives. (Greek grammatike). The doctrine of the structure of any language or group of languages (ling.). French grammar. Historical grammar. Comparative grammar of Slavic languages. || Educational book laying out the basics ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Grammar- GRAMMAR is a branch of linguistics that includes the doctrine of the forms of words and phrases, although it should be noted that this meaning of this term is by no means generally recognized. "Grammars" of individual languages (and not only practical ... Dictionary of literary terms

GRAMMAR- (from the Greek gramma - a written sign, line, line). 1. A system of rules objectively operating in the language for changing words, forming word forms and combining words into phrases and sentences. 2. A section of linguistics containing the doctrine of forms ... ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

Modern Encyclopedia

- (Greek grammatike from gramma letter, writing), 1) the structure of the language, that is, the system of language forms, methods of word production, syntactic constructions that form the basis for language communication. 2) A section of linguistics that studies the structure of the language, its laws. ... … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Grammar- (Greek grammatike, from gramma letter, spelling), 1) the structure of the language, i.e. a system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and constructions, methods of word production. Without a grammar (the structural basis of the language), neither can be created ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

GRAMMAR, and, fem. 1. The formal structure of the language (word formation, morphology and syntax), which, together with phonetics and vocabulary, forms its integral system. 2. The science of this system. Grammar Theory. 3. A book describing this formation. Academic g… Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

Exist., number of synonyms: 2 glossonomy (1) linguistics (73) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Grammar and its sections

Grammar(ancient Greek γραμματική from γράμμα - “letter”) as a science is a section of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language. Grammar formulates these patterns in the form of general grammar rules.

Speaking about grammar as a science, there are:

historical grammar- a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in development through a comparison of various stages in the history of a language;

synchronous grammar- a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in synchronous terms (in the 19th century this discipline was called descriptive grammar).

The grammar is divided into two sections:

- 1) the structure of the language, i.e. a system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and constructions, methods of word production. Thus, grammar presented grammatical categories, grammatical units and grammatical forms. In this sense, grammar is the structural basis of the language, without which words (with all their forms), sentences and their combinations cannot be created;

2) a section of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of the language, its multi-level organization, its categories and their relationship to each other.

The concept of the grammatical structure of the language

Grammar language is the internal structure of the language. The grammatical structure is not uniform. It distinguishes between morphological and syntactic levels of the language, each of which is a complex and ordered system. The grammatical structure exists independently of the speaker, i.e. objectively, and is a reflection of the real world, which itself also has a complex structure. The structure of the objective world is manifested in the fact that it breaks up into separate elements (objects, phenomena, signs, etc.) that are interconnected. The relations between the facts of objective reality are heterogeneous. It's a relationship: a) between the subject and the action, b) the action and the object, c) the object and its attribute, d) temporal relations, e) spatial, f) causal, g) target, etc. These heterogeneous relations are reflected in the language.

Basic units of grammar

Like all levels of the language, the grammatical structure has own units. These are: 1) a morpheme; 2) word form; 3) phrase; 4) offer. The units of the grammatical structure also include the word, which is the subject of study primarily of lexicology. In grammar, the word is studied differently: with t. sp. its grammatical forms, as well as the presence in it of those minimal semantic elements (morphemes) that are included in the composition, which are included in the phrase and sentence not directly, but indirectly, through the word. In this respect, the word is also a unit of grammar.

The concept of GC

Grammatical meaning is a meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relationships (relation to other words in a phrase and sentence; attitude to the person performing the action; relationship of the reported fact to reality and time; attitude of the speaker to the reported, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings.

2 The concept of a morpheme.

Morpheme– minimal, shortest, i.e. further, a unit that is indivisible into components of the same rank and has a value. The minimality of a morpheme is manifested in the fact that it cannot be further divided into smaller morphemes. As a result of this division, phonetic units appear: forest - l, e, s. A morpheme is a two-sided unit of a language that has both a plane of expression and a plane of content. The plane of expression is its sound composition. The content plan is its derivational meaning. Yes, in a word watersa the ending a is an exponent of three grammatical meanings: g. r., units h., im. pad. In the word underwater prefix under has a derivational meaning - "direction under something"

Morpheme types

Root (roots), required

Root- the main significant part of the word. It is an obligatory part of any word - there are no words without a root (except for rare secondary formations with a lost root like the Russian “vy-well-t (prefix-suffix-ending)”, although such words are far from rare in artificial Esperanto, for example aĵ- o - thing (suffix-ending), aĉ-aĵ-o - muck (suffix-suffix-ending)). Root morphemes can form a word both accompanied by affixes and independently. The main morpheme is the root, without it the word cannot exist. The lexical meaning of the word depends on the meaning of the root. It is in the root that the meaning is common to all words with the same root. For example, words with the root -bel- (whitish, white, whitish, whiteness, whiten, whitewash, squirrel, white marble, snow-white) are combined with the meaning "the color of snow or chalk, light", and words with the root -black-//-black- (black, blackness, daughter, blacken, blacken, black-browed, prunes, chernozem) are united by the opposite meaning - "the colors of soot, coal, dark."

Affixes (affixes), optional

Affix- an auxiliary part of the word, attached to the root and serving for word formation and expression of grammatical meanings. Can't on its own

to form a word (in Russian) - only in combination with roots. Unlike some roots (such as post office,glass beads), are not single, occurring only in any one word.

3 Meanings expressed by morphemes (real, derivational, relational).

According to the American scientist Edward Sapir, morphemes express three types of meanings: real, derivational and, finally, relational.

real value, or lexical is the objective meaning. This concept is correlated with specific objects and phenomena of reality. It is expressed using a root, but can be expressed with a prefix and a suffix: years, flight, pilot.

Derivative value close to the real, but not equal to it: it expresses feelings - diminutiveness, caress, scorn. Otherwise, it is called expressive-emotional (lat. expressio "expression (of feelings)", lat. emovere "to excite"). The derivational meaning is expressed by suffixes. For example, in the fable of I.A. Krylov "The Crow and the Fox": close, eyes, sock, voice, sister, craftswoman. The derivational value refines the real value.

relational value is concomitant of both real and derivational values. It expresses an abstract, abstract meaning, which may be real, or may have a relative, conditional character. For example, the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter are sometimes due to the natural division of living beings by sex. In this case, the gender value is real. But the meaning of the middle gender is no longer real, it is purely grammatical. Compare also: the grammatical meaning of a number: the singular and plural meanings are really applicable to countable objects (house-houses), but they become grammatical in other cases: sleigh, trousers, scissors - the subject is one, and the meaning of the number is plural. The grammatical meaning can be wide or narrow, general and particular. For example, all nouns have the meaning of objectivity, i.e. answer the question “who, what?”. This is the broadest and most general meaning of all the grammatical meanings of nouns, they also have the meanings of gender and number - these are already somewhat less meanings, while the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter are even less.

4 Morphemic processes of simplification, re-decomposition, analogy.

Morphemes can change over time. The most interesting processes of changing morphemes are simplification and redistribution.

Simplification- this is a change in the morphological structure of the word, as a result of which the non-derivative stem, which previously broke up into separate morphemes, turns into a non-derivative, morphologically inseparable. For example, in + cous = taste;woz + spirit = air;for + shield = protection.

Reasons for Simplification:

1. Loss of semantic connection with the words on the basis of which they are formed: castle from the word yard, squirrel from the word white.

2. Loss of the generating stem and related words correlative with the data: benefit -(it is forbidden); petal - petal; necessary - needed.

3. Phonetic changes in words: deceased - asleep, paddle - to carry. In words day, spouse, gift, feast as a result of the loss of productivity of the corresponding prefix and suffix (su-, -r).

Redecomposition- this is the movement of the boundaries of morphemes in the composition of the word, as a result of which the stem of the word, remaining articulated, derivative, is articulated now differently than it once was. For example: living creatures - living (living-n-ost), then the word living goes out of use, and the word is articulated differently liveliness.(The same readiness from g otovny, rod from bit and now from the word to fish). As a result of re-decomposition, not only new suffixes appear, but also new prefixes: under-, without- ( underwork, deforest).

An interesting morphemic process is law of analogy(gr. Analogia "similarity, likeness"). In Russian, for example, there was a verb take out in the system of verbs to accept, appease, take, that is, it had a prefix you-, root -n-, suffixes -I, -th. But it turned out that the word take out turned out to be influenced by verbs in -nut: du choke, plus choke and changed the morphemic composition by analogy with them - it turned out a word without a root: you- choke…

The law of analogy interferes with the assimilation of the correct use of the forms of the conjugated verb to want:

Unit h. plural

hoch-y hot-them

hoch-eat hot-ite

hoch-et hot-yat

Forms want, want; want, want, want arise under the influence of the mutual analogy of the forms of the singular and plural, and all turn out to be erroneous.

6 The word is a part of speech. Teaching about parts of speech.

The part of speech is a category of words in a language, which is determined by syntactic and morphological features. In the languages of the world, first of all, the name (further divided into a noun, adjective, etc.) and a verb are opposed. It is also generally accepted to divide parts of speech into independent and service parts. In the article Morphological analysis, you can see many additional characteristics of parts of speech.

Independent parts of speech (include words that name objects, their actions and various signs):

1 noun

3 adjective

4 numeral

5Pronoun

7Communion

8Green participle

Service parts of speech (they do not name objects, actions, or signs, but only express the relationship between them):

2 Particles

4 Interjections, onomatopoeic words.

The concept of parts of speech

Words as grammatical and lexical units are grouped into parts of speech, i.e., into grammatical classes of words, united according to three features: generalized grammatical meaning (objectivity, attribute, action); the same composition of constant and variable grammatical features; commonality of basic syntactic functions.

In other words, speaking of parts of speech, they mean the grammatical grouping of lexical units of the language, i.e. the allocation in the vocabulary of the language of certain groups or categories, characterized by certain features.

The generalized meaning that characterizes all the words of a particular part of speech is an abstract representation of the general that is present in the lexical and morphological meanings of specific words of a given class. The most generalized meanings for parts of speech are the meanings of an object (substance) and a sign - procedural (represented as an action or state) and non-procedural (represented as a quality or property).

Each part of speech has its own set of grammatical categories, which represent the generalized meaning that is characteristic of all words of this part of speech. Thus, the meaning of objectivity, inherent in a noun, is grammatically represented by morphological categories of gender, number, and case; the meaning of the process, characteristic of the verb, - the categories of aspect, voice, mood, tense and person.

7 Phrase and sentence are the basic units of syntax

Syntactic units, as already mentioned, include a phrase and a sentence. A phrase is understood as a nominative unit, which in a dismembered form conveys a single concept ( desk, four-storey building). The main function of the phrase is that it serves as a building material for a sentence. The specificity of a combination as a syntactic unit is its production directly in speech (compare with reproducible phraseological combinations). The production of combinations is carried out according to certain models, therefore, the units of the syntactic level are combination models.

It should be noted that there is no unity in the definition of the phrase. In addition to the above definition, there is a broader understanding of the term. A phrase is any combination of words between which there is a formally expressed semantic connection. In this case, combinations of the subject with the predicate are among the phrases.

With a broad definition of a phrase, they will be not only combinations with a subordinating connection, but also with a coordinating one. A subordinating relationship is a formally expressed relationship between two words, the relationship between which is unequal: one element of the combination turns out to be the main one, the other is subordinate, dependent.

A more complex unit of syntax is the sentence. The sentence performs a communicative function, with the help of sentences people communicate. Each sentence is related to a specific situation. This correlation is manifested in temporality and modality. Temporality is an expression in a sentence of an attitude to time, modality is an expression of an attitude to reality. Temporality is usually expressed by the morphological category of time, modality - by verbal moods.

The sentence can be realized in one word or in several words. The difference between a sentence and a word is manifested primarily in the intonation of the sentence: Fire! Fire?! Intonation in these sentences is a means of conveying predicativity and correlates the sentence with a specific real situation. Word fire only names a class of objects, without correlating them with the temporal plan and reality.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Grammar includes. Synchronic and historical grammar

Noun

Adjective

Declension of adjectives

Verb

Grammatical categories of the Russian verb

Two verb stems

Forms formed from the stem of the infinitive

Forms formed from the basis of the present tense

see also

See what "Russian Grammar" is in other dictionaries:

See what "GRAMMAR" is in other dictionaries:

Portal for the student. Self-training

Noun

Adjective

Declension of adjectives

Verb

Grammatical categories of the Russian verb

Two verb stems

Forms formed from the stem of the infinitive

Forms formed from the basis of the present tense

see also

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