How a person works: the structure of the body and its functions. Human anatomy: the structure of internal organs

Title: Normal human anatomy. Lecture notes.

This book contains a course of lectures on normal human anatomy, where concepts are clearly formulated, which is the main advantage in preparing for the exam and successfully passing it. The material is extremely concretized and systematized. Also, the manual is an alternative for teachers when planning classes.

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT OSTEOLOGY .
Skeleton- the totality of all the bones of the human body. The skeleton makes up 10% of the mass of the human body. The human skeleton performs many different functions. There are over 200 bones in the human body. The spinal column consists of 26 bones, the skull - of 29 bones. The skeleton of the lower limbs is formed by 62 bones, and the upper limbs by 64.

Human skeleton:
1) performs a supporting function, supporting a variety of soft tissues;
2) protects the internal organs, creating receptacles for them;
3) is a depot organ of many important macronutrients (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium). These substances are essential for normal metabolism.

The bone (os) is covered on the outside by the periosteum (periosteum), inside the bone there is a medullary cavity (cavitas medullares), in which red and yellow bone marrow (medulla ossium rubra et flava) is located.
The strength of the bone is determined by the content of organic and inorganic compounds in it. Bone is 29% organic, 21% inorganic, and 50% water.

Bone classification:
1) tubular bones (os longum) most often have a trihedral or cylindrical shape. The length of the bone can be roughly divided into three parts. The central part, which occupies a large proportion of the length of the bone, is the diaphysis (diaphysis), or the body of the bone, and the epiphyses (epiphysis) - the marginal parts that have a thickened shape. The epiphyses have an articular surface (facies articularis), which is covered with articular cartilage. The transition point between the diaphysis and the epiphysis is called the metaphysis.

There are long tubular bones (for example, shoulders, thighs, forearms, lower legs) and short ones (for example, phalanges of fingers, metacarpals and metatarsals);
2) flat bones (ossa plana). These include the bones of the pelvis, ribs, sternum, bones of the roof of the skull;
3) mixed bones (ossa irregularia) have a complex structure and a variety of shapes (an example is a vertebra);
4) spongy bones (os breve) often have the shape of an irregular cube (tarsal and wrist bones);
5) air bones (ossa pneumatica) have in their thickness a cavity lined with epithelium and filled with air (for example, upper, sphenoid, ethmoid, frontal jaws).

Elevations on the surface of the bone, to which ligaments and muscles are attached, are called apophyses. The apophyses include the crest (crista), tubercle (tuber), tubercle (tuberculum) and process (processus). In addition to elevations, there are recesses - a hole (fossula) and a hole (fovea).

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Normal human anatomy. Lecture notes

Published with the permission of the copyright holder - the Literary Agency "Scientific Book"

LECTURE 1. OSTEOLOGY

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT OSTEOLOGY

Skeleton(skeleton) - the totality of all the bones of the human body. The skeleton makes up 10% of the mass of the human body. The human skeleton performs many different functions. There are over 200 bones in the human body. The spinal column consists of 26 bones, the skull - of 29 bones. The skeleton of the lower limbs is formed by 62 bones, and the upper limbs by 64.

Human skeleton :

1) performs a supporting function, supporting a variety of soft tissues;

2) protects the internal organs, creating receptacles for them;

3) is a depot organ for many important macronutrients (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium). These substances are essential for normal metabolism.

Bone(os) outside covered with periosteum (periosteum), inside the bone there is a medullary cavity (cavitas medullares), in which red and yellow bone marrow (medulla ossium rubra et flava) is located.

The strength of the bone is determined by the content of organic and inorganic compounds in it. Bone is 29% organic, 21% inorganic, and 50% water.

Bone classification :

1) tubular bones(os longum) most often have a trihedral or cylindrical shape. The length of the bone can be roughly divided into three parts. The central part, which occupies a large proportion of the length of the bone, is the diaphysis (diaphysis), or the body of the bone, and the epiphyses (epiphysis) - the marginal parts that have a thickened shape. The epiphyses have an articular surface (facies articularis), which is covered with articular cartilage. The transition point between the diaphysis and the epiphysis is called the metaphysis.

There are long tubular bones (for example, shoulders, thighs, forearms, lower legs) and short ones (for example, phalanges of fingers, metacarpals and metatarsals);

2) flat bones(ossa plana). These include the bones of the pelvis, ribs, sternum, bones of the roof of the skull;

3) mixed bones(ossa irregularia) have a complex structure and a variety of shapes (an example is a vertebra);

4) spongy bones(os breve) often have the shape of an irregular cube (tarsal and carpal bones);

5) air bones(ossa pneumatica) have in their thickness a cavity lined with epithelium and filled with air (for example, the upper, sphenoid, ethmoid, frontal jaws).

Elevations on the surface of the bone, to which ligaments and muscles are attached, are called apophyses. The apophyses include the crest (crista), tubercle (tuber), tubercle (tuberculum) and process (processus). In addition to elevations, there are depressions - a pit (fossula) and a pit (fovea).

Edges (margo) delimit the surface of the bone.

If a nerve or vessel is adjacent to the bone, then a groove (sulcus) is formed as a result of pressure.

When a nerve or vessel passes through a bone, a notch (incisura), a canal (canalis), a tubule (canaliculus) and a fissure (fissure) are formed.

There are nutritional holes (foramina nutricia) on the surface of the bone.

STRUCTURE OF THE CERVICAL, THORACIC AND LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

Cervical vertebrae(vertebrae cervicales) have a feature - the opening of the transverse process (foramen processus transverses). On the upper surface of the transverse process there is a groove for the spinal nerve (sulcus nervi spinalis). The process ends with two tubercles: anterior and posterior.

I cervical vertebra (atlas) has no body, but has an anterior and posterior arches (arcus anterior et posterior) and a lateral mass (massa lateralis). On the anterior surface of the anterior arch there is an anterior tubercle, on the posterior surface of the posterior arch there is a posterior tubercle. On the lateral masses there are upper (connects to the condyles of the occipital bone) and lower (connects to the II vertebra) articular surfaces.

II cervical vertebra (axis) has a distinctive feature - a tooth (dens), located on the upper surface of the body. The tooth has an apex (apex), anterior and posterior articular surfaces.

At the VI cervical vertebra, the posterior tubercle is better developed than on other vertebrae, and is called sleepy (tuberculum caroticum).

VII cervical vertebra is called protruding (vertebra prominens) due to the long spinous process.

Thoracic vertebrae(vertebrae thoracicae) have smaller vertebral foramens compared to the cervical ones. The thoracic vertebrae from II to IX have upper and lower costal fossae (fovea costales superior et inferior) on the posterolateral surfaces on the right and left. On the anterior surface of the transverse processes from I to X vertebrae there is a costal fossa of the transverse process (fovea costalis processus transverse).

Lumbar vertebrae(vertebrae lumbales) have a massive body and additional processes (processus accessories). All upper articular processes have a mastoid process (processus mamillares).

STRUCTURE OF THE SACUM AND KOPPIK

Sacrum(os sacrum) consists of five lumbar vertebrae fused into a single bone. It has a base (basis ossis sacri), an apex (apex ossis sacri), a concave pelvic surface (facies pelvia) and a convex posterior surface (facies dorsalis).

On the pelvic surface there are four transverse lines, at the ends of which the anterior sacral openings (foramina sacralia anteriora) open.

On the back surface there are five longitudinal ridges: median (crista sacralis mediana), paired intermediate (crista sacralis intermedia) and paired lateral crests (crista sacralis lateralis). Near the intermediate crests, the posterior sacral foramens open. Outside of the lateral crests is the lateral part, on which the articular surface is located. Next to it is the sacral tuberosity (tuberositas sacralis). The sacrum has a canal ending in the sacral fissure (hiatus sacralis), on the sides of which are the sacral horns (cornu sacrale).

Coccyx(os coccyges) consists of 4-5 coccygeal vertebrae. The coccyx is connected to the sacrum through the body and coccygeal horns.

STRUCTURE OF THE RIBS AND BREAST

Ribs(costae) consist of bone (os costale) and cartilaginous parts (cartilago costales). Seven pairs of upper ribs are called true and are connected by a cartilaginous part to the sternum. The remaining ribs are called false or oscillating (costae fluctuantes).

The ribs have a head (caput costae) and a neck (collum costae), between which there is a tubercle. On the top ten pairs of ribs, the tubercle is bifurcated. Behind the neck is the body (corpus costae), which has a rib angle (angulus costae). Throughout the body of the rib in its lower part there is a groove of the rib.

I rib differs in structure from other ribs. It has medial and lateral borders that define the upper and lower surfaces. On the upper surface there is a tubercle of the anterior scalene muscle (tuberculum musculi scaleni anterioris), anterior to which is the groove of the subclavian vein, and posteriorly - the groove of the subclavian artery.

Sternum(sternum) consists of three parts: the handle (manubrium sterni), the body (corpus sterni) and the xiphoid process (processus xiphoideus).

The handle has jugular and clavicular notches. The handle and body form the angle of the sternum (angulus sterni). On the edges of the body of the sternum there are costal notches (incisurae costales).

BELT OF THE UPPER LIMB

shoulder blade(scapula) refers to flat bones. The shoulder blade has three angles: upper (angulus superior), lower (angulus inferior) and lateral (angulus lateralis) - and three edges: upper (margo superior), having a notch (incisura scapulae), lateral (margo lateralis) and medial (margo medialis). ).

There are concave - anterior costal (facies costalis) - and back - convex - surfaces (facies posterior). The costal surface forms the subscapular fossa. The posterior surface has the spine of the scapula (spina scapulae), which divides it into supraspinous and infraspinatus fossae. In these pits are the muscles of the same name. The spine of the scapula ends at the acromion, at the top of which there is an articular surface.

The lateral angle of the scapula forms the articular cavity (cavitas glenoidalis), which includes the head of the humerus. The articular surface, narrowing, forms supra- and subarticular tubercles. Behind the glenoid cavity is the neck of the scapula (collum scapulae). From the upper edge of the scapula upward and anteriorly, the coracoid process (processus coracoideus) departs.

Collarbone(clavicula) has an S-shape. The clavicle has a body (corpus claviculae), thoracic (extremitas sternalis) and acromial (extremitas acromialis) ends. At the thoracic end there is a sternal articular surface. The acromial end of the clavicle is connected to the acromion of the scapula. The upper surface of the clavicle is smooth, and on the lower there is a cone-shaped tubercle (tuberculum conoideum) and a trapezoid line (linea trapezoidea).

LOWER LIMB BELT

Pelvic bone(os coxae) consists of three bones fused together: the ilium, pubic and ischium, the bodies of which form the acetabulum (acetabulum). In the center of the depression there is a hole of the same name. The acetabulum is limited by a high edge, which, interrupted on the medial side, forms the notch of the acetabulum (incisura acetabuli). Along the periphery of the cavity (in its lower part) is the semi-lunar surface (facies lunata).

Ischium(ischium) has a body and branches of the ischium. An angle is formed between the body and the branch, in the region of which the ischial tubercle (tuber ischiadicum) is located.

Ilium(os ilium) has a body (corpus ossis illi) and a wing (ala ossis illi). The wing ends with a convex edge - the iliac crest (crista iliaca), on which three lines are distinguished: the outer lip (labium externum), the intermediate line (linea intermedia) and the inner lip (labium internum).

On the crest in front and behind there are symmetrically located protrusions: the upper anterior (spina iliaca anterior superior), the lower anterior (spina iliaca anterior inferior), the upper posterior (spina iliaca posterior superior) and the lower posterior iliac spine (spina iliaca posterior inferior).

Three lines are located on the outer surface of the wing: the anterior, posterior and lower gluteal lines (lineae gluteales anterioris, posterioris et inferioris). On the inner surface of the wing there is an iliac fossa (fossa iliaca), the lower border of which is an arcuate line (linea arcuata), starting from the ear-shaped surface (facies auricularis). Above this surface is the iliac tuberosity (tuberositas iliaca).

Pubic bone(os pubis) has a body from which the upper branches (ramus superior ossis pubis) depart, having an iliac-pubic eminence (eminencia iliopubica). On the upper branches is the pubic tubercle (tuberculum pubicum), from which the crest of the same name begins. The anterior parts of the upper branches bend down and are considered as the lower branches (ramus inferior ossis pubis). The place of transition of the upper branches to the lower ones is called the symphyseal surface.

TEMPORAL BONE

Temporal bone(os temporale) is a receptacle for the organs of balance and hearing. The temporal bone, connecting with the zygomatic bone, forms the zygomatic arch (arcus zygomaticus). The temporal bone consists of three parts: squamous, tympanic and petrosal.

scaly part(pars squamosa) of the temporal bone has an external smooth temporal surface (facies temporalis), on which the groove of the middle temporal artery (sulcus arteriae temporalis mediae) passes. From this part (just above the external auditory canal) begins the zygomatic process (processus zygomaticus), at the base of which is the mandibular fossa (fossa mandibularis). In front, this fossa is limited by the articular tubercle (tuberculum articulare). On the inner cerebral surface (facies cerebralis) there are finger-like depressions and arterial grooves.

drum part(pars tympanica) of the temporal bone is fused with its edges with the mastoid process and the squamous part, limiting the external auditory opening (porus acusticus externus) on three sides, the continuation of which is the external auditory canal (meatus acusticus externus). Behind, at the site of fusion of the tympanic part with the mastoid process, a tympanic mastoid fissure (fissura tympanomastoidea) is formed. In front of the auditory opening there is a tympanic-squamous fissure (fissura tympanosquamosa), which is divided by the edge of the roof of the tympanic cavity into a stony-scaly (fissura petrosquamosa) and a stony-tympanic fissure (fissura petrotympanica).

Stony part, or pyramid(pars petrosa), the temporal bone has the shape of a trihedral pyramid. In the pyramid, the apex (apex partis petrosae), anterior, posterior and inferior surfaces, superior and posterior margins, and mastoid process are distinguished.

Canals of the temporal bone.

The anterior surface of the temporal bone from the lateral side passes into the brain surface of the squamous bone, from which it is separated by a stony-squamous fissure (fissura petrosquamosa). Near the stony-scaly fissure lies the opening of the musculo-tubal canal (canalis musculotubaris), which is divided by a septum into two half-channels. One of them is a semi-canal of the auditory tube, and the other is a muscle that strains the eardrum.

In the middle of the anterior surface of the temporal bone there is an arcuate elevation (eminencia arcuata), between it and the stony-scaly fissure is the roof of the tympanic cavity (tegmen tympani). Near the top of the anterior surface there is a trigeminal depression, lateral to which is the opening of the canal of the large stony nerve (hiatus canalis nervi petrosi majoris), from which the sulcus of the same name begins. Lateral to this canal is the opening of the canal of the small stony nerve, from which the sulcus of the same name departs.

In the middle of the posterior surface of the pyramid of the temporal bone is the internal auditory opening (porus acusticus internus), which passes into the internal auditory meatus. Lateral to this opening lies the subarc fossa (fossa subarcuata), below and lateral to which there is an external opening of the vestibule aqueduct (apertura externa aqueductus vestibuli).

The lower surface of the pyramid of the temporal bone has a jugular fossa (fossa jugularis) at the base, on the front wall of which there is a groove ending in a mastoid opening (foramen mastoideus). The posterior wall of the jugular fossa is represented by the notch of the same name. This notch and notch of the occipital bone form the jugular foramen (foramen jugulare). In front of the jugular fossa, the carotid canal (canalis caroticus) begins, in the wall of which there are small pits that continue into the carotid-tympanic tubules. On the crest, which separates the jugular fossa and the external opening of the carotid canal, there is a stony dimple (fossula petrosa), at the bottom of which the lower opening of the tympanic tubule opens. Lateral to the jugular fossa, the styloid process (processus styloideus) begins, posterior to which there is a stylomastoid foramen (foramen stylomastoideum).

The upper edge of the pyramid of the temporal bone separates the anterior surface from the posterior one, and a furrow of the superior petrosal sinus (sulcus sinus petrosi superioris) passes along its surface.

The posterior edge of the pyramid of the temporal bone separates the posterior and inferior surfaces, along it there is a furrow of the lower stony sinus (sulcus sinus petrosi inferioris).

The mastoid process (processus mastoideus) of the temporal bone is separated from the squamous part by the parietal notch (incisura parietalis) from above, and from below the process is limited by the mastoid notch (incisura mastoidea). Medial to the latter is the sulcus of the occipital artery (sulcus arteriae occipitalis). On the inner surface of the process there is a wide groove of the sigmoid sinus (sulcus sinus sigmoidei). The internal structure of the process is represented by cells, the largest of which is called the mastoid cave (antrum mastoideum).

Numerous channels and tubules pass through the temporal bone:

1) mastoid tubule (canaliculus mastoideus);

2) tympanic tubule (canaliculus tympanicus);

3) tubule of the drum string (canaliculus chordae tympani);

4) carotid tympanic tubules (canaliculus caroticotympanici);

5) carotid canal (canalis caroticus);

6) facial canal (canalis facialis);

7) muscular tubal canal (canalis musculotubarius).

ETHMOID BONE

Ethmoid bone(os ethmoidale) consists of a lattice labyrinth, lattice and perpendicular plates.

lattice maze(labyrinthus ethmoidalis) of the ethmoid bone consists of communicating lattice cells (cellulae ethmoidales). On the medial side are the superior and middle nasal conchas (conchae nasales superior et media). There is the highest nasal concha (concha nasalis suprema). Under the middle nasal concha there is a nasal passage of the same name, the middle nasal concha at the posterior end has a hook-shaped process (processus uncinatus), posterior to which is a ethmoidal vesicle (bulla ethmoidalis). Between the last formations there is a funnel of the same name. The lateral side of the ethmoid labyrinth is covered with a plate, which is part of the orbital plasty (lamina orbitalis).

Lattice plate(lamina cribrosa) is the upper part of the ethmoid bone. Above the plate is an elevation - the cockscomb (crista galli), which anteriorly continues into the wing of the cockscomb (ala cristae galli).

Perpendicular plate(lamina perpendicularis) of the ethmoid bone is a continuation of the cockscomb downwards.

UPPER JAW

upper jaw(maxilla) has a body and four processes: zygomatic, alveolar, palatine and frontal.

zygomatic process(processus zygomaticus) of the upper jaw connects to the zygomatic bone.

frontal process(processus frontalis) of the upper jaw on its medial surface has a crib crest (crista ethmoidalis), on the lateral surface - the anterior lacrimal crest (crista lacrimalis anterior).

palatine process(processus palatinus) departs from the upper jaw on the medial edge has a nasal crest (crista nasalis), takes part in the formation of the hard palate when connected to the process of the same name on the opposite side. When they are connected, a median suture is formed, at the front end of which there is an opening for the incisive canal. In the posterior part of the lower surface of the palatine process there are palatine furrows (sulci palatini).

bottom edge alveolar ridge(processus alveolaris) in the upper jaw has dental alveoli (alveoli dentales), separated by interalveolar septa (septa interalveolaria). On the outer surface of the process there are elevations of the same name.

Body of the upper jaw(corpus maxillae) has a maxillary sinus (sinus maxillaries), which communicates with the nasal cavity through the maxillary cleft. The anterior surface is separated from the orbital surface by the infraorbital margin, under which there is an opening of the same name (foramen infraorbitale). Under this hole is the canine fossa (fossa canina).

On the medial edge of the upper jaw there is a nasal notch, the lower edge of which forms the anterior nasal spine (spina nasalis anterior).

The nasal surface has a lacrimal sulcus (sulcus lacrimalis), in front of which is the shell crest (crista conchalis).

The orbital surface forms the inferior wall of the orbit. On its back, the infraorbital groove (sulcus infraorbitalis) begins, which anteriorly passes into the canal of the same name.

The infratemporal surface has a tubercle of the upper jaw (tuber maxillae), on which alveolar openings (foramina alveolaria) open, leading to the canals of the same name. The greater palatine sulcus (sulcus palatinus major) passes medially to the tubercle.

Inferior turbinate(concha nasalis inferior) has three processes: ethmoid (processus ethmoidalis), lacrimal (processus lacrimalis) and maxillary (processus maxillaris).

Cheekbone(os zygomaticum) has three surfaces: temporal, orbital and lateral - and two processes: temporal and frontal. On the orbital surface there is a zygomaticoorbital foramen (foramen zygomaticoorbitale).

SMALL BONES OF THE NOSE

lacrimal bone(os lacrimale) has a posterior lacrimal crest (crista lacrimalis posterior) on the lateral surface, which ends with a lacrimal hook (hamulus lacrimalis). In front of the crest is the lacrimal sulcus (sulcus lacrimalis), which is involved in the formation of the fossa of the lacrimal sac (fossa sacci lacrimalis).

Coulter(vomer) is involved in the formation of the bony septum of the nose and has two wings (alae vomeris) on the upper back edge.

nasal bone(os nasale) forms the bony back of the nose; has three edges: upper, lower and lateral. On its front surface there is a ethmoidal groove (sulcus ethmoidalis).

Hyoid bone(os hyoideum) has a body (corpus ossis hyoidei), large (cornu majora) and small horns (cornu minora).

palatine bone(os palatum) consists of perpendicular and horizontal plates connected at right angles; has three processes: wedge-shaped (processus sphenoidalis), orbital (processus orbitalis) and pyramidal (processus pyramidalis).

Perpendicular plate(lamina perpendicularis) of the palatine bone has on the lateral surface a large palatine groove (sulcus palatinus major), which, with the same grooves of the sphenoid bone and the upper jaw, forms a large palatine canal, which ends with a large palatine opening (foramen palatinum majus). On the medial surface of the perpendicular plate are shell (crista conchalis) and ethmoid crests (crista ethmoidalis).

horizontal plate(lamina horisontalis) of the palatine bone is involved in the formation of the bony palate (palatum osseum). It has two surfaces: the upper nasal, on which the nasal crest (crista nasalis) is located, passing into the posterior nasal spine (crista nasalis posterior) and the palatine.

LECTURE 2. ARTROLOGY

FOOT JOINTS

The foot consists of 12 bones with little mobility. The foot has one transverse and five longitudinal arches.

Talon-heel-navicular joint(articulatio talocalcaneonavicularis) is formed by two joints: subtalar (articulatio subtalaris) and talonavicular (articulatio talonavicularis). The talocalcaneal-navicular joint is a ball-and-socket joint, but it can move only around the sagittal axis. The plantar calcaneonavicular ligament (lig calcaneonaviculare plantare) complements the anterior talar articular surface of the calcaneus. The talocalcaneal-navicular joint is reinforced by the talonavicular ligament (lig talonaviculare) and the strong interosseous talocalcaneal ligament (lig talocalcaneum).

Calcaneocuboid joint (articulatio calcaneocuboidea) refers to the saddle joint. The articular cavity of this joint communicates with the cavity of the talocalcaneal-navicular joint. On the plantar side, the joint capsule is strengthened by a long plantar ligament (lig plantare longum) and a plantar calcaneocuboid ligament (lig calcaneocuboideum plantare). The calcaneocuboid joint and the talonavicular joint are considered as a single transverse tarsal joint - the Chopar joint (articulatio tarsi transversa). For these joints, the bifurcated ligament (lig bifurcatum) is common, which is divided into calcaneocuboid (lig calcaneocuboideum) and calcaneal-navicular (lig calcaneonaviculare) ligaments.

wedge-shaped joint (articulatio cuneonavicularis) refers to flat joints. This joint is strengthened by interosseous intersphenoid ligaments (ligg intercuneiformia interossea), dorsal and plantar cuneonavicular ligaments (ligg cuneonavicularia dorsalia et plantaria), dorsal and plantar intersphenoid ligaments (ligg intercuneiformia dorsalia et plantaria).

Lisfranc joint , or tarsal-metatarsal joints (articulationes tarsometatarsales), refers to flat joints; formed by the cuboid and sphenoid bones and the bases of the metatarsal bones. The joint capsules are strengthened by the dorsal and plantar tarsal-metatarsal ligaments (ligg tarsometatarsalia dorsalia et plantaria), between the metatarsal and sphenoid bones there are interosseous and cuneiform ligaments (ligg cuneometatarsalia interossea).

Intermetatarsal joints (articulationes intermetatarsales) are formed by the surfaces of the bases of the metatarsal bones facing each other. The joint capsules are strengthened by the dorsal and plantar metatarsal joints (ligg metatarsalia dorsalia et plantaria) and interosseous metatarsal ligaments (ligg metatarsalia interossea).

Metatarsophalangeal joints (articulationes metatarsophalangeales) are formed by the heads of the metatarsal bones and the bases of the proximal phalanges of the fingers; belong to the spherical joints. The joint capsule is reinforced on the sides by collateral ligaments (ligg collateralia), from below - by plantar ligaments (ligg plantaria) and a deep transverse metatarsal ligament (lig metatarsale transversum profundum).

Interphalangeal joints of the foot (articulationes interphalanges pedis) refer to block joints. The articular capsule of these joints is reinforced from below by plantar ligaments (ligg plantaria), and from the lateral and medial sides by collateral ligaments (ligg collateralia).

JOINTS OF THE SKULL BONES

All bones of the skull, with the exception of the connection of the temporal bone with the lower jaw, which forms the joint, are connected using continuous connections, represented in adults by sutures, and in children by syndesmoses.

Continuous connections are formed by the edges of the frontal and parietal bones, forming a jagged coronal suture (sutura coronalis); the edges of the belt bones form a serrated sagittal suture; the edges of the parietal and occipital bones are a serrated lambdoid suture (sutura lambdoidea).

The bones that form the facial skull are connected with flat sutures. Some sutures are named after the bones that form the sutures, such as the temporo-zygomatic suture (sutura temporozigomatica). The scales of the temporal bone are connected to the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the parietal bone with the help of a scaly suture (sutura squamosa). In addition to sutures, some bones are connected using synchondrosis: the body of the sphenoid bone and the basilar part of the occipital bone - sphenoid-occipital synchondrosis (synchondrosis sphenooccipitalis), the pyramid of the temporal bone with the basilar part of the occipital bone - petrooccipital synchondrosis (synchondrosis petrooccipitalis). By the age of 20, synchondrosis is replaced by bone tissue.

Skull joints .

Temporomandibular joint (articulatio temporomandibularis) is a complex paired elliptical joint. This joint is formed by the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone (fossa mandibularis) and the head of the lower jaw (caput mandibulae). Between these articular surfaces is the articular disc, dividing the articular cavity into two floors.

The movement in the right and left joints is symmetrical, the following movements are possible: lateral movements, lowering and raising the lower jaw and shifting the lower jaw forward and backward (to its original position).

The upper synovial membrane (membrana synovialis superior) covers the entire joint capsule, attaching along the edge of the articular cartilage, and the lower membrane (membrane synovialis inferior), in addition to the capsule, also covers the posterior surface of the articular disc. In the upper floor, the articular surface of the temporal bone is articulated with the upper surface of the articular disk, and in the lower floor, the head of the lower jaw is articulated with the lower surface of the articular disk.

The joint capsule is strengthened on the lateral side by the lateral ligament (lig laterale), on the medial side there are auxiliary ligaments: stylomandibular (lig stylomandibulare) and sphenomandibular ligaments (lig sphenomandibulare).

CONNECTION OF THE VERTEBRAS

Connection of the vertebrae(articulationes vertebrales) is carried out when the bodies, arches and processes of the vertebrae are connected.

The vertebral bodies are connected by intervertebral discs (discus intervertebrales) and symphyses (symphysis intervertebrales). The intervertebral discs are located: the first - between the bodies of the II and III cervical vertebrae, and the last - between the bodies of the V lumbar and I sacral vertebrae.

In the center of the intervertebral disc is located the nucleus pulposus (nucleus pulposus), on the periphery is the fibrous ring (annulus fibrosus), formed by fibrous cartilage. There is a gap inside the nucleus pulposus, which turns this connection into a semi-joint - the intervertebral symphysis (symphysis intervertebralis). The thickness of the intervertebral discs depends on the level of location and mobility in this section of the spinal column and ranges from 3 to 12 mm. The connections of the vertebral bodies through the intervertebral discs are strengthened by the anterior (lig longitudinale anterius) and posterior (lig longitudinale posterius) longitudinal ligaments.

The vertebral arches are connected by yellow ligaments (lig flava).

Articular processes form intervertebral joints (articulationes intervertebrales), related to flat joints. The most protruding articular processes are the lumbosacral joints (articulationes lumbosacrales).

The spinous processes are connected by the supraspinous ligament (lig supraspinale), which is especially pronounced in the cervical spine and is called the ligament (lig nuchae), and the interspinous ligaments (lig interspinalia).

The transverse processes are connected by means of intertransverse ligaments (lig intertransversalia).

atlantooccipital joint (articulatio atlantooccipitalis) consists of two symmetrically located condylar joints, being a combined joint. In this joint, movement around the sagittal and frontal axes is possible. The joint capsule is reinforced by the anterior (membrana atlantooccipitalis anterior) and posterior (membrana atlantooccipitalis posterior) atlantooccipital membranes.

Median atlantoaxial joint (articulatio atlantoaxialis mediana) is a cylindrical joint. It is formed by the anterior and posterior articular surfaces of the tooth of the axial vertebra, the articular surface of the transverse ligament of the atlas, and the fossa of the tooth of the atlas. The transverse ligament of the atlas (lig transversum atlantis) is stretched between the inner surfaces of the lateral masses of the atlas.

Lateral atlantoaxial joint (articulatio atlantoaxialis lateralis) refers to the combined joints, as it is formed by the articular fossa (fovea articularis inferior) on the right and left lateral masses of the atlas and the upper articular surface of the body of the axial vertebra. The paired lateral and median atlanto-axial joints are strengthened by paired pterygoid ligaments (lig alaria) and a ligament of the tooth apex (lig apices dentis). Behind the pterygoid ligaments there is a cruciate ligament of the atlas (lig cruciforme atlantis), which is formed by fibrous longitudinal bundles and the transverse ligament of the atlas. Behind these joints are covered with a wide integumentary membrane (membrana tectoria).

sacrococcygeal joint (articulatio sacrococcigea) is formed by the top of the sacrum and the 1st coccygeal vertebra. The joint capsule is strengthened by the ventral (lig sacrococcigeum ventrale), superficial dorsal (lig sacrococcigeum dorsale superficiale), deep dorsal (lig sacrococcigeum dorsale profundum), paired lateral sacrococcygeal ligaments (lig sacrococcygeum laterale).

vertebral column (columna vertebralis) is represented by the totality of all vertebrae connected to each other. The spinal column is the seat of the spinal cord, which is located in the spinal canal (canalis vertebralis).

There are five sections in the spine: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal.

The spine has an S-shape due to the presence of physiological curves in the frontal and sagittal planes: thoracic and sacral kyphosis, cervical and lumbar lordosis, as well as pathological: thoracic scoliosis.

LECTURE 3. MYOLOGY

MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER

Deltoid (m. deltoideus) starts from the outer edge of the acromion, the anterior edge of the lateral third of the clavicle, the spine of the scapula, attaching to the deltoid tuberosity.

Function: the scapular part unbends the shoulder, lowers the raised arm down; the clavicular part bends the shoulder, lowers the raised arm down; the acromion abducts the arm.

Innervation: n. axillaris.

teres minor muscle (m. teres minor) originates from the lateral edge of the scapula and infraspinatus fascia, attaching to the lower area of the large tubercle of the humerus.

Function: supination of the shoulder.

Innervation: n. axillaris.

teres major muscle (m. teres major) originates from the lower angle of the scapula, infraspinatus fascia, the lower part of the lateral edge of the scapula, attaching to the crest of the small tubercle of the humerus.

Function: with a fixed scapula: brings the raised arm to the body, unbends and penetrates the shoulder in the shoulder joint; with a strengthened arm: pulls the lower angle of the scapula outward with a forward shift.

supraspinatus muscle (m. supraspinatus) originates from the posterior surface of the scapula above the scapular spine and from the supraspinous fascia, attaching to the upper area of the large tubercle of the humerus.

Function: abducts the shoulder, pulling the joint capsule.

Innervation: n. subscapularis.

infraspinatus muscle (m. infraspinatus) originates from the posterior surface of the scapula under the scapular spine and from the infraspinatus fascia, attaching to the middle area of the large tubercle of the humerus.

Function: supination of the shoulder when the joint capsule is retracted.

Innervation: n. suprascapularis.

Subscapularis (m. subscapularis) originates from the lateral edge of the scapula and from the surface of the subscapular fossa, attaching to the lesser tubercle and crest of the lesser tubercle of the humerus.

Function: pronation and bringing the shoulder to the body.

Innervation: n. subscapularis.

MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER

Anterior shoulder muscle group .

Biceps brachii (m. biceps brachii) consists of two heads. The short head (caput breve) starts from the top of the coracoid process of the scapula, and the long head (caput longum) starts from the supraspinous tubercle of the scapula. Both heads in the middle of the humerus form a single abdomen, the tendon of which is attached to the tuberosity of the radius.

Function: flexes the shoulder at the shoulder joint, supinates the forearm turned inward, flexes the forearm at the elbow joint.

Coracobrachial muscle (m. coracobrachialis) originates from the top of the coracoid process, attaching below the crest of the lesser tubercle to the humerus.

Function: flexes the shoulder at the shoulder joint and brings it to the body. With a pronated shoulder, it is involved in turning the shoulder outward.

Innervation: n. musculocutaneus.

shoulder muscle (m. brachialis) originates from the lower two-thirds of the body of the humerus between the deltoid tuberosity and the articular capsule of the elbow joint, attaching to the tuberosity of the ulna.

Function: flexes the forearm at the elbow joint.

Innervation: n. musculocutaneus.

Posterior shoulder muscle group .

Elbow muscle (m. anconeus) originates from the posterior surface of the lateral epicondyle of the shoulder, attaching to the lateral surface of the olecranon, fascia of the forearm and the posterior surface of the proximal part of the ulna.

Function: extends the forearm.

Innervation: n. radialis.

Triceps brachii (m. triceps brachii) has three heads. The medial head originates on the posterior surface of the shoulder between the fossa of the olecranon and the insertion of the teres major muscle. The lateral head originates from the outer surface of the humerus between the groove of the radial nerve and the insertion of the teres minor muscle. The long head starts from the subarticular tubercle of the scapula. The heads unite and form the belly of the muscle, the tendon of which is attached to the olecranon of the ulna.

Function: unbends the forearm at the elbow joint, the long head is involved in extension and bringing the shoulder to the body.

Innervation: n. radialis.

MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM

Anterior forearm muscles .

The anterior muscles of the forearm are arranged in four layers.

First, or superficial , layer of muscles of the forearm.

Round pronator (m. pronator teres) originates from the medial epicondyle of the shoulder, fascia of the forearm, medial intermuscular septum (this is its large part) and from the coronoid process of the ulna (this is its small part), ending in the middle of the lateral surface of the radius.

Function: rotates the forearm along with the hand to the elbow side, participates in flexion of the forearm in the elbow joint.

Innervation: n. medianus.

long palmar muscle (m. palmaris longus) originates from the medial epicondyle of the shoulder, adjacent muscular septa and fascia of the forearm, attaching in the middle of the forearm.

Function: participates in flexion of the hand and stretches the palmar aponeurosis.

Innervation: n. medianus.

brachioradialis muscle (m. brachioradialis) originates from the lateral supracondylar crest of the humerus and the lateral intermuscular septum, attaching to the lateral surface of the distal end of the radius.

Function: flexes the forearm at the elbow joint, sets the hand in the middle position between pronation and supination, rotates the radius.

Innervation: n. radialis.

flexor carpi radialis (m. flexor carpi radialis) originates from the medial epicondyle of the shoulder, the medial intermuscular septum and the fascia of the shoulder, attaching to the base of the II metacarpal bone.

Function: flexes the wrist, participates in the abduction of the hand to the lateral side.

Innervation: n. medianus.

Flexor carpi ulnaris (m. flexor carpi ulnaris)

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Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170503/30-1_lk_na_-_fundamentalynaya_disciplina_v_sisteme_medicinskogo_obrazovaniya.ppt_images/30-1_lk_na_-_fundamentalynaya_disciplina_v_sisteme_medicinskogo_obrazovaniya.ppt_27.jpg" anatomy from 1887 to 1905."> А.И. Таренецкий - руководитель кафедры нормальной анатомии с 1887 по 1905 гг. Создатель антропологического общества и антропологического отдела музея; Автор уникальной книги «Кафедра и музей анатомии за 100 лет»; Начальник академии (1901-1905)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170503/30-1_lk_na_-_fundamentalynaya_disciplina_v_sisteme_medicinskogo_obrazovaniya.ppt_images/30-1_lk_na_-_fundamentalynaya_disciplina_v_sisteme_medicinskogo_obrazovaniya.ppt_28.jpg" anatomy from 1905 to 1915"> И.Э. Шавловский - руководитель кафедры нормальной анатомии с 1905 по 1915 гг. Автор оригинальной методики инъекции лабиринта металлической массой ВУДА; Инициатор создания на кафедре анатомии микроскопической лаборатории; Автор методик бальзамирования формалинсодержащими растворами!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170503/30-1_lk_na_-_fundamentalynaya_disciplina_v_sisteme_medicinskogo_obrazovaniya.ppt_images/30-1_lk_na_-_fundamentalynaya_disciplina_v_sisteme_medicinskogo_obrazovaniya.ppt_30.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Department of Normal Anatomy of the Military Medical Academy from 1956 to 1963."> Б.А. Долго-Сабуров - руководитель кафедры нормальной анатомии ВМедА с 1956 по 1963 гг. Создатель уникальной краниологической коллекции периода ВОВ (1942-1945гг.); Продолжатель научного направления школы В.Н.Тонкова – «коллатерального кровообращения»; Основатель нового научного направления – «иннервация вен и внутренних органов»!}

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