Genealogical classification is the most developed classification of languages ​​in the world. It is based on the relationship of kinship. Based on these relationships, languages ​​are combined into so-called language families, each of which consists of language branches or groups, in turn they are divided either into separate languages ​​or into subgroups of closely related languages. The following families of languages ​​are usually distinguished: Turkic, Indo-European, Semitic, Finno-Ugric, Ibero-Caucasian, Paleo-Asian, etc. There are languages ​​that are not part of the language families. These are single languages. Such a language is, for example, the Basque language.

Indo-European languages ​​include such large associations / families / as the Slavic family of languages, Indian, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Iranian, Baltic, etc. In addition, Armenian, Albanian, Greek are also classified as Indo-European languages.

In turn, individual families of Indo-European languages ​​\u200b\u200bmay have their own division into subgroups. So, Slavic the group of languages ​​is divided into three subgroups - East Slavic, South Slavic, West Slavic. The East Slavic group of languages ​​includes Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, the West Slavic group includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, etc., the South Slavic group includes Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Old Slavonic / dead language /.

Indian the family of languages ​​includes a language composed in ancient times. Ritual texts, the texts of the Vedas, were written in this language. This language is called Vedic. Sanskrit is one of the oldest Indian languages. It is the language of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata. Modern Indian languages ​​include Bengali, Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, etc.

Germanic languages ​​are divided into East Germanic, West Germanic and Scandinavian / or North Germanic / groups. The northern group includes Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese. The Western group is English, German, Dutch, Luxembourgish, Afrikaans, Yiddish. The eastern group consists of dead languages ​​- Gothic, Burgundian, etc. Among the Germanic languages, the newest languages ​​stand out - Yiddish and Afrikaans. Yiddish was formed in the X-XIY centuries on the basis of High German elements. Afrikaans originated in the 17th century on the basis of Dutch dialects with the inclusion of elements from French, German, English, Portuguese and some African languages.

Romanskaya the family of languages ​​includes such languages ​​as French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, etc. This group of languages ​​is related by a common origin from the Latin language. On the basis of individual Romance languages, more than 10 Creoles arose.

Iranian the group is Persian, Dari, Ossetian, Tajik, Kurdish, Afghan / Pashto / and other languages ​​that make up the group of Pamir languages.

Baltic languages ​​are represented by Latvian and Lithuanian.

Another large family of languages, spread over a large area of ​​Asia and parts of Europe, are the Turkic languages. There are several classification schemes in Turkology. The generally accepted scheme is the classification of A.N. Samoilovich.

All Turkic languages ​​are divided into 6 groups: Bulgar, Uighur, Kypchak, Chagatai, Kypchak-Turkmen, Oguz. The Bulgar group includes the Chuvash language, the Uighur group includes Old Uyghur, Tuva, Yakut, Khakass; the Kypchak group consists of the Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Kirghiz and Altaic languages; the Chagatai group covers the modern Uighur language, Uzbek, etc.; the Kypchak-Turkmen group - intermediate dialects (Khivan-Uzbek, Khiva-Sart); The Oguz group includes Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen and some others.

Among all language families, Indo-European languages ​​occupy a special place, since the Indo-European family was the first language family that was distinguished on the basis of genetic / kinship / connection, therefore, the selection of other language families was guided by the experience of studying Indo-European languages. This determines the role of research in the field of Indo-European languages ​​for the historical study of other languages.

findings

Genealogical classification is based on kinship relationships. Relations of kinship are associated with a common origin.

The common origin is manifested in a single source of related words - in the parent language.

There is a hierarchy of proto-languages.

Linguistic kinship can be direct /immediate/ and indirect.

The genealogical classification is based on taking into account both direct and indirect types of language kinship.

Kinship relations are manifested in the material identity of sounds, morphemes, words.

Reliable data gives a comparison of the words that make up the oldest fund.

When comparing vocabulary, it is necessary to take into account the presence of borrowings. The material similarity of grammatical indicators is one of the most reliable proofs of kinship.

Phonetic identity is manifested in the presence of phonetic /sound/ correspondence.

Phonetic correspondences do not reflect the full articulatory and acoustic similarity between the sounds of related languages. Sound correspondences are the result of the most ancient phonetic processes.

Phonetic correspondences are found not in one isolated fact, but in a whole series of similar examples. In the historical study of languages, comparative-historical analysis is used.

The comparative-historical method is based on the comparison of related languages.

The comparison is carried out with the aim of reconstructing the oldest prototype and prototype.

The phenomena being reconstructed are classified as hypothetical. Not only separate fragments are recreated, but also proto-languages. The comparative-historical method was developed by both foreign and domestic linguists.

TURKIC LANGUAGES, that is, the system of Turkic (Turkic Tatar or Turkish Tatar) languages, occupy a very vast territory in the USSR (from Yakutia to the Crimea and the Caucasus) and much smaller beyond its borders (the languages ​​of the Anatolian-Balkan Turks, Gagauz and ... ... Literary Encyclopedia

TURKIC LANGUAGES- a group of closely related languages. Presumably, it is included in the hypothetical Altaic macrofamily of languages. It is divided into western (Western Xiongnu) and eastern (East Xiongnu) branches. The western branch includes: the Bulgar group Bulgar ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

TURKIC LANGUAGES- OR TURANIAN common name for the languages ​​​​of different nationalities of the sowing. Asia and Europe, the original home of the cat. Altai; therefore they are also called Altai. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Pavlenkov F., 1907 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Turkic languages- TURKIC LANGUAGES, see Tatar language. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of the publishing house of the Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial staff: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V ... Lermontov Encyclopedia

Turkic languages- a group of closely related languages. Presumably included in the hypothetical Altaic macrofamily of languages. It is divided into western (Western Xiongnu) and eastern (East Xiongnu) branches. The western branch includes: the Bulgar group Bulgar (ancient ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Turkic languages- (obsolete names: Turkic Tatar, Turkish, Turkish Tatar languages) languages ​​​​of numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR and Turkey, as well as some part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia and ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Turkic languages- An extensive group (family) of languages ​​spoken in Russia, Ukraine, the countries of Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Turkey, as well as Romania, Bulgaria, the former Yugoslavia, Albania. Belong to the Altai family. ... ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology

Turkic languages- Turkic languages ​​are a family of languages ​​spoken by numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR, Turkey, part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania. The question of the genetic relationship of these languages ​​to the Altaic ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

Turkic languages- (Turkic family of languages). Languages ​​that form a number of groups, which include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Kara-Kalpak, Uighur, Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Balkar, Karachai, ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

Turkic languages- (Turkic languages), see Altaic languages ​​... Peoples and cultures

Books

• Languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR. In 5 volumes (set), . The collective work LANGUAGES OF THE PEOPLES OF THE USSR is dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution. This paper summarizes the main results of the study (in synchronous terms) ... Buy for 11600 rubles
• Turkic convertibles and serialization. Syntax, semantics, grammaticalization, Grashchenkov Pavel Valerievich. The monograph is devoted to convertibles in -p and their place in the grammatical system of the Turkic languages. The question is raised about the nature of the connection (composing, subordinating) between the parts of complex predications with ...

TURKIC LANGUAGES, a language family spread over the territory from Turkey in the west to Xinjiang in the east and from the coast of the East Siberian Sea in the north to Khorasan in the south. Speakers of these languages ​​live compactly in the CIS countries (Azerbaijanis - in Azerbaijan, Turkmens - in Turkmenistan, Kazakhs - in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz - in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeks - in Uzbekistan; Kumyks, Karachays, Balkars, Chuvashs, Tatars, Bashkirs, Nogais, Yakuts, Tuvans, Khakass, Mountain Altaians - in Russia; Gagauz - in the Transnistrian Republic) and beyond its borders - in Turkey (Turks) and China (Uighurs). At present, the total number of speakers of Turkic languages ​​is about 120 million. The Turkic family of languages ​​is part of the Altai macrofamily.

The very first (3rd century BC, according to glottochronology) the Bulgar group separated from the Proto-Turkic community (in other terminology - R-languages). The only living representative of this group is the Chuvash language. Separate glosses are known in written monuments and borrowings in neighboring languages ​​from the medieval languages ​​of the Volga and Danube Bulgars. The rest of the Turkic languages ​​(“Common Turkic” or “Z-languages”) are usually classified into 4 groups: “Southwestern” or “Oghuz” languages ​​(main representatives: Turkish, Gagauz, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Afshar, Coastal Crimean Tatar) , "North-Western" or "Kipchak" languages ​​(Karaim, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkarian, Kumyk, Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Karakalpak, Kazakh, Kyrgyz), "South-Eastern" or "Karluk" languages ​​(Uzbek, Uighur), "North-Eastern" languages ​​- a genetically heterogeneous group, including: a) the Yakut subgroup (Yakut and Dolgan languages), which separated from the common Turkic, according to glottochronological data, before its final collapse, in the 3rd century BC. AD; b) the Sayan group (Tuvan and Tofalar languages); c) the Khakass group (Khakas, Shor, Chulym, Saryg-Yugur); d) Gorno-Altai group (Oirot, Teleut, Tuba, Lebedinsky, Kumandin). The southern dialects of the Gorno-Altai group are close in a number of parameters to the Kyrgyz language, constituting with it the "central-eastern group" of the Turkic languages; some dialects of the Uzbek language clearly belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kypchak group; Khorezm dialects of the Uzbek language belong to the Oguz group; part of the Siberian dialects of the Tatar language is approaching the Chulym-Turkic.

The earliest deciphered written monuments of the Turks date back to the 7th century. AD (steles written in runic script found on the Orkhon River in northern Mongolia). Throughout their history, the Turks used the Turkic runic (ascending, apparently, to the Sogdian script), Uighur script (later passed from them to the Mongols), Brahmi, Manichaean script, and Arabic script. At present, writings based on Arabic, Latin and Cyrillic are common.

According to historical sources, information about the Turkic peoples for the first time emerges in connection with the appearance of the Huns on the historical arena. The steppe empire of the Huns, like all known formations of this kind, was not monoethnic; judging by the linguistic material that has come down to us, there was a Turkic element in it. Moreover, the dating of the initial information about the Huns (in Chinese historical sources) is 4-3 centuries. BC. – coincides with the glottochronological definition of the time of the allocation of the Bulgar group. Therefore, a number of scientists directly connect the beginning of the movement of the Huns with the separation and departure to the west of the Bulgars. The ancestral home of the Turks is placed in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, between the Altai mountains and the northern part of the Khingan Range. From the southeast side they were in contact with the Mongol tribes, from the west their neighbors were the Indo-European peoples of the Tarim Basin, from the northwest - the Ural and Yenisei peoples, from the north - the Tungus-Manchus.

By the 1st century BC. separate tribal groups of the Huns moved to the territory of modern South Kazakhstan, in the 4th century. AD the invasion of the Huns to Europe begins, by the end of the 5th century. In Byzantine sources, the ethnonym "Bulgars" appears, denoting a confederation of tribes of Hunnic origin, which occupied the steppe between the Volga and Danube basins. In the future, the Bulgarian confederation is divided into the Volga-Bulgarian and Danube-Bulgarian parts.

After the breakaway of the "Bulgars", the rest of the Turks continued to remain in the territory close to their ancestral home until the 6th century. AD, when, after defeating the Zhuan-Zhuan confederation (part of the Xianbei, presumably the proto-Mongols who defeated and ousted the Huns in their time), they formed the Turkic confederation, which dominated from the middle of the 6th to the middle of the 7th century. over a vast territory from the Amur to the Irtysh. Historical sources do not provide information about the moment of separation from the Turkic community of the ancestors of the Yakuts. The only way to connect the ancestors of the Yakuts with some historical messages is to identify them with the Kurykans of the Orkhon inscriptions, which belonged to the Teles confederation absorbed by the Turks. They were localized at that time, apparently, to the east of Baikal. Judging by the references in the Yakut epic, the main advance of the Yakuts to the north is associated with a much later time - the expansion of the empire of Genghis Khan.

In 583, the Turkic confederation was divided into Western (with its center in Talas) and Eastern Turks (in other words, the “blue Turks”), the center of which was the former center of the Turkic empire Kara-Balgasun on Orkhon. Apparently, the disintegration of the Turkic languages ​​into the western (Oghuz, Kipchak) and eastern (Siberia; Kirghiz; Karluk) macrogroups is connected with this event. In 745, the Eastern Turks were defeated by the Uighurs (localized to the southwest of Lake Baikal and presumably at first non-Turks, but by that time already Turkicized). Both the Eastern Turkic and the Uyghur states experienced a strong cultural influence of China, but the Eastern Iranians, primarily Sogdian merchants and missionaries, had no less influence on them; in 762 Manichaeism became the state religion of the Uighur empire.

In 840 the Uyghur state centered on the Orkhon was destroyed by the Kyrkiz (from the upper reaches of the Yenisei; presumably also at first not a Turkic, but by this time a Turkicized people), the Uyghurs fled to Eastern Turkestan, where in 847 they founded a state with the capital Kocho (in the Turfan oasis). From here the main monuments of the ancient Uighur language and culture have come down to us. Another group of fugitives settled in what is now the Chinese province of Gansu; their descendants may be Saryg-Yugurs. The entire northeastern group of Turks, except for the Yakuts, can also go back to the Uyghur conglomerate, as part of the Turkic population of the former Uyghur Khaganate, which moved northward, deeper into the taiga, already at the time of the Mongol expansion.

In 924, the Kyrgyz were ousted from the Orkhon state by the Khitans (presumably Mongols in language) and partly returned to the upper reaches of the Yenisei, partly moved westward, to the southern spurs of the Altai. Apparently, the formation of the central-eastern group of Turkic languages ​​can be traced back to this South Altai migration.

The Turfan state of the Uyghurs existed for a long time next to another Turkic state dominated by the Karluks, a Turkic tribe that originally lived to the east of the Uyghurs, but by 766 moved to the west and subjugated the state of the Western Turks, whose tribal groups spread in the steppes of Turan (Ili-Talas region , Sogdiana, Khorasan and Khorezm; at the same time, Iranians lived in the cities). At the end of the 8th c. Karluk Khan Yabgu converted to Islam. The Karluks gradually assimilated the Uighurs who lived to the east, and the Uighur literary language served as the basis for the literary language of the Karluk (Karakhanid) state.

Part of the tribes of the Western Turkic Khaganate were Oghuz. Of these, the Seljuk confederation stood out, which at the turn of the 1st millennium AD. migrated west through Khorasan to Asia Minor. Apparently, the linguistic consequence of this movement was the formation of the southwestern group of Turkic languages. Approximately at the same time (and, apparently, in connection with these events) there was a mass migration to the Volga-Ural steppes and Eastern Europe of tribes representing the ethnic basis of the current Kypchak languages.

The phonological systems of the Turkic languages ​​are characterized by a number of common properties. In the field of consonantism, restrictions on the occurrence of phonemes in the position of the beginning of a word, a tendency to weaken in the initial position, and restrictions on the compatibility of phonemes are common. At the beginning of the primordial Turkic words are not found l,r,n, š ,z. Noisy plosives are usually contrasted by strength/weakness (Eastern Siberia) or deafness/voicedness. At the beginning of a word, the opposition of consonants in terms of deafness/voicedness (strength/weakness) exists only in the Oguz and Sayan groups, in most other languages ​​at the beginning of a word, labials are voiced, dental and back-lingual are deaf. Uvular in most Turkic languages ​​are allophones of velar with back vowels. The following types of historical changes in the consonant system are classified as significant. a) In the Bulgar group in most positions there is a voiceless fricative lateral l coincided with l in sound in l; r and r in r. In other Turkic languages l gave š , r gave z, l and r preserved. In relation to this process, all Turkologists are divided into two camps: some call it rotacism-lambdaism, others - zetacism-sigmatism, and this is statistically associated, respectively, with their non-recognition or recognition of the Altaic kinship of languages. b) Intervocalic d(pronounced as interdental fricative ð) gives r in Chuvash t in Yakut d in the Sayan languages ​​and Khalaj (an isolated Turkic language in Iran), z in the Khakass group and j in other languages; respectively, talking about r-,t-,d-,z- and j- languages.

The vocalism of most Turkic languages ​​is characterized by synharmonism (the likening of vowels within one word) in row and roundness; the vowel system is reconstructed for the Proto-Turkic as well. Synharmonism disappeared in the Karluk group (as a result of which the opposition of velar and uvular was phonologized there). In the New Uighur language, a kind of synharmonism is again built - the so-called "Uyghur umlaut", the leading of wide unrounded vowels before the next i(which ascends both to the front *i, and to the rear * ï ). In Chuvash, the whole system of vowels has changed a lot, and the old vowel harmony has disappeared (its trace is the opposition k from a velar in an anterior word and x from the uvular in the back row word), but then a new synharmonism lined up in a row, taking into account the current phonetic characteristics of vowels. The opposition of vowels by longitude/shortness that existed in the Proto-Turkic was preserved in the Yakut and Turkmen languages ​​(and in a residual form in other Oghuz languages, where the voiceless consonants sounded after the old long vowels, as well as in the Sayan languages, where short vowels before voiceless consonants receive the sign of "pharyngealization") ; in other Turkic languages ​​it disappeared, but in many languages ​​long vowels reappeared after intervocalic voiced omissions (Tuvinsk. so"tub"< *sagu and under.). In Yakut, primary wide long vowels have turned into ascending diphthongs.

In all modern Turkic languages ​​- a power stress, which is morphonologically fixed. In addition, tonal and phonation oppositions were noted for the Siberian languages, however, they were not fully described.

From the point of view of morphological typology, the Turkic languages ​​belong to the agglutinative, suffixal type. At the same time, if the Western Turkic languages ​​are a classic example of agglutinative ones and have almost no fusion, then the Eastern ones, like the Mongolian languages, develop a powerful fusion.

The grammatical categories of the name in the Turkic languages ​​are number, belonging, case. The order of affixes is: base + aff. numbers + aff. accessories + case aff. Plural form h. is usually formed by adding an affix to the stem -lar(in Chuvash -sem). In all Turkic languages, the plural form hours is marked, the form of units. hours - unmarked. In particular, in the generic meaning and with numerals, the singular form is used. numbers (kumyk. men at gerdyum " I (actually) saw horses."

Case systems include: a) the nominative (or main) case with a zero indicator; the form with a zero case indicator is used not only as a subject and a nominal predicate, but also as an indefinite direct object, an adjectival definition and with many postpositions; b) accusative case (aff. *- (ï )g) - case of a certain direct object; c) genitive case (aff.) - the case of a concrete-referential applied definition; d) dative-directive (aff. *-a/*-ka); e) local (aff. *-ta); e) ablative (aff. *-tin). The Yakut language rebuilt the case system along the lines of the Tungus-Manchu languages. Usually there are two types of declension: nominal and possessive-nominal (declension of words with affixes of the 3rd person; case affixes take a slightly different form in this case).

The adjective in the Turkic languages ​​differs from the noun in the absence of inflectional categories. Receiving the syntactic function of the subject or object, the adjective acquires all the inflectional categories of the noun.

Pronouns change by case. Personal pronouns are available for 1 and 2 persons (* bi/ben"I", * si/sen"you", * bir"we", *sir"you"), in the third person demonstrative pronouns are used. Demonstrative pronouns in most languages ​​distinguish three degrees of range, for example, bu"this", Su"this remote" (or "this" when indicated by the hand), ol"that". Interrogative pronouns distinguish between animate and inanimate ( Kim"who" and ne"what").

In the verb, the order of affixes is as follows: the stem of the verb (+ aff. voice) (+ aff. negation (- ma-)) + aff. inclination/view-temporal + aff. conjugations for persons and numbers (in brackets - affixes that are not necessarily present in the word form).

Voices of the Turkic verb: real (without indicators), passive (*- il), return ( *-in-), mutual ( * -ïš- ) and causative ( *-t-,*-ir-,*-tyr- and some etc.). These indicators can be combined with each other (cum. ger-yush-"see", gyor-yush-dir-"to force to see" jaz-hole-"force to write" yaz-hole-yl-"to be compelled to write").

The conjugated forms of the verb fall into proper verbal and improper verbal forms. The former have personal indicators that go back to the affixes of belonging (except for 1 lit. plural and 3 lit. plural). These include the past categorical tense (aorist) in the indicative mood: verb stem + indicator - d- + personal indicators: bar-d-im"I went" oqu-d-u-lar"they read"; means a completed action, the fact of the implementation of which is beyond doubt. This also includes the conditional mood (verb stem + -sa-+ personal indicators); desired mood (verb stem + -aj- + personal indicators: pra-Turkic. * bar-aj-im"let me go" * bar-aj-ik"let's go"); imperative mood (pure stem of the verb in 2 l singular and stem + in 2 l. pl. h.).

Non-proper verbal forms are historically gerunds and participles in the function of the predicate, decorated with the same indicators of predicability as nominal predicates, namely, postpositive personal pronouns. For example: other Turkic. ( ben)beg ben"I'm Bek" ben anca tir ben"I say so", lit. "I say so-I." Present participles (or simultaneity) are distinguished (stem + -a), indefinite future (base + -VR, where V– vowel of different quality), precedence (stem + -ip), desired mood (base + -g aj); participle perfect (stem + -g an), behind-the-eyes, or descriptive (stem + -mus), definite-future tense (stem + ) and many others. etc. The affixes of gerunds and participles do not carry collateral oppositions. Verbs with predicative affixes, as well as gerunds with auxiliary verbs in proper and improper verbal forms (numerous existential, phase, modal verbs, verbs of motion, verbs "take" and "give") express a variety of committed, modal, directional and accommodative meanings, cf. Kumyk. bara bulgaiman"Looks like I'm going" go- dep. simultaneity become- dep. desired -I), ishley goremen"I am going to work" ( work- dep. simultaneity look- dep. simultaneity -I), language"sleep (for yourself)" ( write- dep. precedence take). Various verbal names of action are used as infinitives in various Turkic languages.

From the point of view of syntactic typology, the Turkic languages ​​belong to the languages ​​of the nominative system with the prevailing word order "subject - object - predicate", preposition of the definition, preference for postpositions over prepositions. There is a folded design – with the indicator of membership at the defined word ( at bas-i"horse head", lit. "the horse's head is hers"). In a composing phrase, usually all grammatical indicators are attached to the last word.

The general rules for the formation of subordinating phrases (including sentences) are cyclical: any subordinating combination can be inserted as one of the members into any other, and the connection indicators are attached to the main member of the built-in combination (the verb form turns into the corresponding participle or gerund). Wed: Kumyk. ak sakal"white beard" ak sakal-ly gishi"white-bearded man" booth-la-ny ara-son-yes"between the booths" booth-la-ny ara-son-da-gye yol-well orta-son-da"in the middle of the path passing between the booths", sen ok atganing"you shot an arrow" sen ok atganyng-ny gerdyum"I saw you shoot an arrow" ("you shot an arrow - 2 l. singular - vin. case - I saw"). When a predicative combination is inserted in this way, one often speaks of the "Altai type of a complex sentence"; indeed, the Turkic and other Altaic languages ​​show a clear preference for such absolute constructions with the verb in the impersonal form over subordinate clauses. The latter, however, are also used; for connection in complex sentences, allied words are used - interrogative pronouns (in subordinate clauses) and correlative words - demonstrative pronouns (in main sentences).

The main part of the vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​is native, often having parallels in other Altaic languages. Comparison of the general vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​allows us to get an idea of ​​the world in which the Turks lived in the period of the collapse of the Proto-Turkic community: the landscape, fauna and flora of the southern taiga in Eastern Siberia, on the border with the steppe; metallurgy of the early Iron Age; economic structure of the same period; transhumance cattle breeding based on horse breeding (with the use of horse meat for food) and sheep breeding; farming in a subsidiary function; the big role of developed hunting; two types of dwellings - winter stationary and summer portable; quite developed social dismemberment on a tribal basis; apparently, to a certain extent, a codified system of legal relations in active trade; a set of religious and mythological concepts characteristic of shamanism. In addition, of course, such “basic” vocabulary as the names of body parts, verbs of movement, sensory perception, etc. is being restored.

In addition to the original Turkic vocabulary, modern Turkic languages ​​use a large number of borrowings from languages ​​with whose speakers the Turks have ever come into contact. These are, first of all, Mongolian borrowings (there are many borrowings from the Turkic languages ​​in the Mongolian languages, there are also cases when a word was borrowed first from the Turkic languages ​​into Mongolian, and then back, from the Mongolian languages ​​into Turkic, cf. other Uighur. irbi, Tuvan. irbis"bars" > mong. irbis > Kirg. irbis). There are many Tungus-Manchurian borrowings in the Yakut language, in Chuvash and Tatar they are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages ​​of the Volga region (as well as vice versa). A significant part of the “cultural” vocabulary has been borrowed: in the Old Uyghur there are many borrowings from Sanskrit and Tibetan, primarily Buddhist terminology; in the languages ​​of the Muslim Turkic peoples there are many Arabicisms and Persianisms; in the languages ​​of the Turkic peoples that were part of the Russian Empire and the USSR, there are many Russian borrowings, including internationalisms like communism,tractor,political economy. On the other hand, there are many Turkic borrowings in Russian. The earliest are borrowings from the Danube-Bulgarian language into Old Church Slavonic ( book, drop"idol" - in the word temple“pagan temple”, etc.), who came from there to Russian; there are also borrowings from Bulgar into Old Russian (as well as into other Slavic languages): serum(Common Turk. *jogurt, bulg. *suvart), bursa"Persian silk fabric" (Chuvashsk. porcin< *bar and un< Wed-Pers. *aparesum; trade of pre-Mongol Rus with Persia went along the Volga through the Great Bulgar). A large amount of cultural vocabulary was borrowed into Russian from the late medieval Turkic languages ​​in the 14th–17th centuries. (during the time of the Golden Horde and even more later, during the time of brisk trade with the surrounding Turkic states: ass, pencil, raisin,shoe, iron,Altyn,arshin,coachman,Armenian,ditches,dried apricots and many others. etc.). In later times, the Russian language borrowed from Turkic only words denoting local Turkic realities ( snow leopard,ayran,kobyz,sultana,village,elm). Contrary to a common misconception, there are no Turkic borrowings among the Russian obscene (obscene) vocabulary, almost all of these words are Slavic in origin.

About 90% of the Turkic peoples of the former USSR belong to the Islamic faith. Most of them inhabit Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The rest of the Muslim Turks live in the Volga region and the Caucasus. Of the Turkic peoples, only the Gagauz and Chuvash living in Europe, as well as the Yakuts and Tuvans living in Asia, were not affected by Islam. The Turks have no common physical features, and only language unites them.

The Volga Turks - Tatars, Chuvashs, Bashkirs - were under the long influence of Slavic settlers, and now their ethnic regions do not have clear boundaries. The Turkmens and Uzbeks were influenced by Persian culture, and the Kirghiz - by the long-term influence of the Mongols. Some nomadic Turkic peoples suffered significant losses during the period of collectivization, which forcibly attached them to the land.

In the Russian Federation, the peoples of this language group constitute the second largest "bloc". All Turkic languages ​​are very close to each other, although usually several branches are distinguished in their composition: Kypchak, Oguz, Bulgar, Karluk, etc.

Tatars (5522 thousand people) are concentrated mainly in Tataria (1765.4 thousand people), Bashkiria (1120.7 thousand people),

Udmurtia (110.5 thousand people), Mordovia (47.3 thousand people), Chuvashia (35.7 thousand people), Mari El (43.8 thousand people), however, they live dispersed in all regions of European Russia, as well as in Siberia and the Far East. The Tatar population is divided into three main ethno-territorial groups: Volga-Ural, Siberian and Astrakhan Tatars. The Tatar literary language was formed on the basis of the middle one, but with a noticeable participation of the Western dialect. A special group of Crimean Tatars stands out (21.3 thousand people; in Ukraine, mainly in the Crimea, about 270 thousand people), who speak a special, Crimean Tatar language.

Bashkirs (1345.3 thousand people) live in Bashkiria, as well as in the Chelyabinsk, Orenburg, Perm, Sverdlovsk, Kurgan, Tyumen regions and in Central Asia. Outside of Bashkiria, 40.4% of the Bashkir population lives in the Russian Federation, and in Bashkiria itself, this titular people is the third largest ethnic group after the Tatars and Russians.

Chuvashs (1773.6 thousand people) linguistically represent a special, Bulgar, branch of the Turkic languages. In Chuvashia, the titular population is 907 thousand people, in Tataria - 134.2 thousand people, in Bashkiria - 118.6 thousand people, in the Samara region - 117.8

thousand people, in the Ulyanovsk region - 116.5 thousand people. However, at present, the Chuvash people have a relatively high degree of consolidation.

Kazakhs (636 thousand people, the total number in the world is more than 9 million people) were divided into three territorial nomadic associations: Semirechye - Senior Zhuz (uly zhuz), Central Kazakhstan - Middle Zhuz (orta zhuz), Western Kazakhstan - Junior Zhuz (kishi zhuz). The zhuz structure of the Kazakhs has been preserved to this day.

Azerbaijanis (in the Russian Federation 335.9 thousand people, in Azerbaijan 5805 thousand people, in Iran about 10 million people, in total about 17 million people in the world) speak the language of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. The Azerbaijani language is divided into eastern, western, northern and southern dialect groups. For the most part, Azerbaijanis profess Shiite Islam, and Sunnism is widespread only in the north of Azerbaijan.

Gagauz (in the Russian Federation 10.1 thousand people)

People) live in the Tyumen Region, Khabarovsk Territory, Moscow, St. Petersburg; the majority of the Gagauz live in Moldova (153.5 thousand people) and Ukraine (31.9 thousand people); separate groups - in Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Canada and Brazil. The Gagauz language belongs to the Oguz branch of the Turkic languages. 87.4% of the Gagauz consider the Gagauz language as their native language. By religion, the Gagauz are Orthodox.

Meskhetian Turks (9.9 thousand people in the Russian Federation) also live in Uzbekistan (106 thousand people), Kazakhstan (49.6 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (21.3 thousand people), Azerbaijan ( 17.7 thousand people). The total number in the former USSR is 207.5 thousand people, they speak Turkish.

Khakasses (78.5 thousand people) - the indigenous population of the Republic of Khakassia (62.9 thousand people), also live in Tuva (2.3 thousand people), Krasnoyarsk Territory (5.2 thousand people) .

Tuvinians (206.2 thousand people, of which 198.4 thousand people live in Tuva). They also live in Mongolia (25 thousand people), China (3 thousand people). The total number of Tuvans is 235 thousand people. They are divided into western (mountain-steppe regions of western, central and southern Tuva) and eastern, or Todzha Tuvans (mountain-taiga part of northeastern and southeastern Tuva).

Altaians (self-name Altai-Kizhi) are the indigenous population of the Altai Republic. 69.4 thousand people live in the Russian Federation, including 59.1 thousand people in the Altai Republic. Their total number is 70.8 thousand people. There are ethnographic groups of northern and southern Altaians. The Altai language is divided into northern (Tuba, Kumandin, Cheskan) and southern (Altai-Kizhi, Telengit) dialects. Most of the believing Altaians are Orthodox, there are Baptists, etc. At the beginning of the 20th century. Burkhanism, a kind of Lamaism with elements of shamanism, spread among the southern Altaians. During the 1989 census, 89.3% of Altaians called their language their native language, and 77.7% indicated that they were fluent in Russian.

Teleuts are currently distinguished as a separate nation. They speak one of the southern dialects of the Altaic language. Their number is 3 thousand people, and the majority (about 2.5 thousand people) live in rural areas and cities of the Kemerovo region. The main part of believing Teleuts are Orthodox, but traditional religious beliefs are also widespread among them.

Chulyms (Chulym Turks) live in the Tomsk region and the Krasnoyarsk Territory in the basin of the river. Chulym and its tributaries Yaya and Kiya. Number - 0.75 thousand people. Believing Chulyms are Orthodox Christians.

Uzbeks (126.9 thousand people) live in the diaspora in Moscow and the Moscow region, in St. Petersburg and in the regions of Siberia. The total number of Uzbeks in the world reaches 18.5 million people.

Kirghiz (in the Russian Federation about 41.7 thousand people) - the main population of Kyrgyzstan (2229.7 thousand people). They also live in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang (PRC), Mongolia. The total number of the Kyrgyz population of the world exceeds 2.5 million people.

Karakalpaks (6.2 thousand people) in the Russian Federation live mainly in cities (73.7%), although in Central Asia they make up a predominantly rural population. The total number of Karakalpaks exceeds 423.5

thousand people, of which 411.9 live in Uzbekistan

Karachays (150.3 thousand people) - the indigenous population of Karachay (in Karachay-Cherkessia), where most of them live (over 129.4 thousand people). Karachays also live in Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Turkey, Syria, and the USA. They speak the Karachay-Balkarian language.

Balkars (78.3 thousand people) - the indigenous population of Kabardino-Balkaria (70.8 thousand people). They also live in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Their total number reaches 85.1

thousand people The Balkars and their kindred Karachais are Sunni Muslims.

Kumyks (277.2 thousand people, of which in Dagestan - 231.8 thousand people, in Checheno-Ingushetia - 9.9 thousand people, in North Ossetia - 9.5 thousand people; total number - 282.2

thousand people) - the indigenous population of the Kumyk plain and the foothills of Dagestan. For the most part (97.4%), they retained their native language - Kumyk.

The Nogais (73.7 thousand people) are settled within Dagestan (28.3 thousand people), Chechnya (6.9 thousand people) and the Stavropol Territory. They also live in Turkey, Romania and some other countries. The Nogai language breaks up into the Karanogai and Kuban dialects. Believing Nogais are Sunni Muslims.

The Shors (the self-designation of the Shors) reach the number of 15.7 thousand people. The Shors are the indigenous population of the Kemerovo region (Gornaya Shoria), they also live in Khakassia and the Altai Republic. Believing Shors are Orthodox Christians.

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TURKIC LANGUAGES

Turkic languages- a family of languages ​​spoken by numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR, Turkey, part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania. The question of the genetic relationship of these languages ​​to the Altaic languages ​​is at the level of a hypothesis that involves the unification of the Turkic, Tungus-Manchu and Mongolian languages. According to a number of scientists (E.D. Polivanov, G.J. Ramstedt and others), the scope of this family is expanding to include the Korean and Japanese languages. There is also the Ural-Altaic hypothesis (M.A. Kastren, O. Betlingk, G. Winkler, O. Donner, Z. Gombots and others), according to which the Turkic languages, as well as other Altaic languages, together with the Finno-Ugric languages Ural-Altai macrofamily. In the Altaic literature, the typological similarity of the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungus-Manchu languages ​​is sometimes mistaken for a genetic relationship. The contradictions of the Altai hypothesis are connected, firstly, with the fuzzy application of the comparative historical method in the reconstruction of the Altai archetype and, secondly, with the lack of precise methods and criteria for differentiating primordial and borrowed roots.

The formation of individual Turkic languages ​​was preceded by numerous and complex migrations of their speakers. In the 5th c. the movement of Gur tribes from Asia to the Kama region began; from the 5th-6th centuries Turkic tribes from Central Asia (Oghuz, etc.) began to move into Central Asia; in 10-12 centuries. the range of settlement of the ancient Uighur and Oghuz tribes expanded (from Central Asia to East Turkestan, Central and Asia Minor); there was a consolidation of the ancestors of Tuvans, Khakasses, mountain Altai; at the beginning of the 2nd millennium, the Kyrgyz tribes from the Yenisei moved to the current territory of Kyrgyzstan; in the 15th century consolidated Kazakh tribes.

Subsequently, new schemes were proposed, in each of them there was an attempt to clarify the distribution of languages ​​into groups, as well as to include the ancient Turkic languages. So, for example, Ramstedt distinguishes 6 main groups: the Chuvash language, the Yakut language, the northern group (according to A.M.O. Ryasyanen - northeastern), which includes all Turkic languages ​​and dialects of Altai and adjacent regions; the western group (according to Ryasyanen - northwestern) - Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Karakalpak, Nogai, Kumyk, Karachay, Balkar, Karaim, Tatar and Bashkir languages, the dead Kuman and Kypchak languages ​​are also assigned to this group; the eastern group (according to Ryasyanen - southeastern) - the New Uighur and Uzbek languages; the southern group (according to Ryasyanen - southwestern) - Turkmen, Azerbaijani, Turkish and Gagauz languages. Some variations of this type of schemes are represented by the classification proposed by I. Benzing and K.G. Menges. The classification is based on S.E. Malov is based on the chronological principle: all languages ​​are divided into "old", "new" and "latest".

The classification of N.A. is fundamentally different from the previous ones. Baskakova; according to its principles, the classification of the Turkic languages ​​is nothing more than a periodization of the history of the development of the Turkic peoples and languages ​​in all the diversity of small tribal associations of the primitive system that arose and disintegrated, and then large tribal associations, which, having the same origin, created communities that were different in composition of the tribes and, consequently, the composition of tribal languages.

The considered classifications, with all their shortcomings, helped to identify the groups of Turkic languages ​​that are genetically related most closely. The special allocation of the Chuvash and Yakut languages ​​is substantiated. To develop a more accurate classification, it is necessary to expand the set of differential features, taking into account the extremely complex dialect division of the Turkic languages. The most generally accepted classification scheme for describing individual Turkic languages ​​remains the scheme proposed by Samoylovich.

Typologically, the Turkic languages ​​are classified as agglutinative languages. The root (basis) of the word, not being burdened with class indicators (there is no class division of nouns in the Turkic languages), in it. n. can act in its pure form, due to which it becomes the organizing center of the entire declension paradigm. The axial structure of the paradigm, i.e. such, which is based on one structural core, influenced the nature of phonetic processes (the tendency to preserve clear boundaries between morphemes, an obstacle to the deformation of the very axis of the paradigm, to the deformation of the stem of the word, etc.). The companion of agglutination in the Turkic languages ​​is synharmonism.

The presence of vowel harmony and the associated opposition of front-lingual consonants to back-lingual ones, the absence in the original Turkic words of combinations of several consonants at the beginning of a word, at the junctions of morphemes or in the absolute outcome of a word, a special typology of syllables determine the relative simplicity of the distributive relations of phonemes in the Turkic languages.

More consistently manifested in the Turkic languages ​​is harmony on the basis of palatality - non-palatality, cf. tour. ev-ler-in-de "in their houses", Karachay-balk. bar-ay-ym "I'll go," etc. Lip voicing in different Turkic languages ​​is developed to varying degrees.

There is a hypothesis about the presence of 8 vowel phonemes for the early common Turkic state, which could be short and long: a, k (reduced), o, u, c, i, s, i. It is debatable whether there was a closed /e/ in the Turkic languages. A characteristic feature of the further change in the ancient Turkic vocalism is the loss of long vowels, which covered most of the Turkic languages. They are mainly preserved in the Yakut, Turkmen, Khalaj languages; in other Turkic languages, only their individual relics have been preserved.

In the Tatar, Bashkir and Old Chuvash languages, /a/ in the first syllables of many words has changed into a labialized, pushed back /e/, cf. *kara "black", other Turkic, Kazakh. Kara, but tat. kera; * no "horse", other Turkic, Tur., Azeri, Kazakh. at, but tat., head. no, etc. There was also a transition from /a/ to labialized /o/, typical of the Uzbek language, cf. *bash "head", Uzbek. Bosch The umlaut /a/ is noted under the influence of /and/ of the next syllable in the Uighur language (eti "his horse" instead of ata); a short k has been preserved in the Azerbaijani and New Uighur languages ​​(cf. *kkl- "come", azerb. gkl"-, Uighur. kkl-, etc.). Tatar, Bashkir, Khakass and partly Chuvash languages ​​are characterized by the transition to > and, cf. *kt "meat", Tat.It. In the Kazakh, Karakalpak, Nogai and Karachay-Balkar languages, a diphthongoid pronunciation of some vowels at the beginning of a word is noted, in the Tuvan and Tofalar languages ​​- the presence of pharyngealized vowels.

The consonantism of the Turkic languages ​​can be presented in the form of a table:

so-called. the Oghuz languages ​​allow voiced stops in anlaut; the Kipchak languages ​​allow occlusions in this position, but voiceless occlusions predominate.

In the process of changing consonants in the Turkic languages, sounds with more or less complex articulation were simplified or turned into sounds of a different quality: bilateral /l/ and interdental /z/ disappeared; the velar /q/ in a number of languages ​​has turned into the usual Middle language /k/ or /х/ (cf. *qara "black", Orkhon kara, Kazakh, Karakalp., Karachay-Balk., Uighur qara, but Tur. kara, Chuvash . khur). There are common cases of voicing of consonants in an intervocalic position (characteristic of the Chuvash language and especially of the Turkic languages ​​of Siberia), numerous assimilation of consonants, especially in affixes, transition to > h and t > h before front vowels (cf. dialects of Azeri, Tur. , Uighur languages: Chim< ким "кто"). Наблюдаемое во многих тюркских языках изменение начального й- в аффрикату также объясняется внутренними закономерностями развития тюркских языков. Ср. *йкр "земля", азерб. йкр, кирг. жер (где /ж/ обозначает звонкую аффрикату, хакас. чир, тув. чер. В других случаях изменения звуков могут возникать под воздействием соседних неродственных языков: таковы радикальные изменения тюркского консонантизма в якутском, а также в известной мере в чувашском, появление придыхательных смычных в некоторых тюркских языках Кавказа и Сибири.

The name category in all Turkic languages, except for Yakut, has 6 cases. Them. n. not marked, genus. p. is made out by indicators -yn / -in, wines. n. -s / -i, -ny / -ni, in some languages ​​there are affixes genus. p. and wine. n. with initial -n, dat.-direct. p. -ka / -gk -a / -k, local p. -ta / -tk, -yes / -dk, original p. -tan / -tkn, -dan / -dkn; in languages ​​where assimilation processes are developed, there are variants of the affix genus. n. -tyn / -dyn, wine affix. n. -ty / -dy, etc. In the Chuvash language, as a result of rotacism -з-, variants of the original and local cases -ra and -ran appeared in the intervocalic position; data-vin. n. in this language is combined in one indicator -a / -e, -on / -not.

In all Turkic languages, the plural is expressed with the affix -lar/-lkr, with the exception of the Chuvash language, where the affix -sem has this function. The category of belonging is transmitted using a system of personal affixes attached to the base.

The numerals include lexical units for designating the numbers of the first ten, for the numbers twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, one hundred, one thousand; for the numbers sixty, seventy, eighty and ninety, compound words are used, the first part of which is the phonetically modified names of the corresponding units of the first ten. In some Turkic languages, a different system for designating tens was formed according to the scheme "the name of the unit of the first ten + he" ten ", cf. Khakass. Alt-on "sixty", Yakut. Tsrtyaon "forty".

Demonstrative pronouns in the Turkic languages ​​reflect 3 plans for the arrangement of objects in space: the closest to the speaker (for example, Tur. bu, Chuvash.ku "this"), more distant (Turk. su, Kirg. oshol "that one"), the most remote (tur. o, kirg. al "that").

The paradigm of personal pronouns includes forms of three persons singular. and many others. hours, with their declension in a number of languages, changes in the vowel of the stem occur in dat.-direct. p. units h., Wed. tour. ben "I", but: bana "me", Kirg. men "I", but magica "me", etc.

There are 2 bases of the interrogative pronoun: cf. Uzbek, Nogai kim "who", kimlar "who" (in relation to persons), nima "what", nimalar "what", Nogai not "what" (in relation to objects).

Reflexive pronouns are based on independent nouns. Eg. tsz "inside", "core" (in most languages), Azeri, Kirg. jiam "I myself"; in Shore, Khakass, Tuv, Alt. and tofalar. languages ​​use the word "body" accordingly, cf. shore call, tuv. bodum, Alt. bojym "I myself", in Yakut. language - the word beeyee "body", cf. Yakut. baem "myself", on tour. and Gagauz. languages ​​- the word kendi, cf. tour. kendim "myself", etc.

In the verb conjugation system, 2 types of personal endings are actualized.

The first type - phonetically modified personal pronouns - appear when the verb is conjugated in the present and future tenses, as well as in the perfect and pluperfect. The second type of endings, associated with possessive affixes, is used in the past tense with -dy and the conditional mood.

The most common form of the present tense is in -a, which sometimes has the meaning of the future tense (in Tatar, Bashk., Kumyk, Crimean Tatar languages, in the Turkic languages ​​​​of Central Asia, dialects of the Tatars of Siberia). All Turkic languages ​​have a form of the present-future tense in -ar/-yr. The Turkish language is characterized by the form of the present tense in -yor, for the Turkmen language in -yar. The present tense form of the given moment in -makta/-makhta/-mokda is found in Tur., Azerb., Uzbek, Crimean Tatar, Turkm., Uighur, Karakalp. languages. In the Turkic languages, there is a tendency to create special forms of the present tense of a given moment, formed according to the model "germs in -а or -ып + the present tense form of a certain group of auxiliary verbs".

The common Turkic form of the past tense ending in -dy is distinguished by its semantic capacity and aspectual neutrality. In the development of the Turkic languages, there was a constant tendency to create the past tense with specific meanings, especially denoting a long action in the past (cf. an indefinite imperfect like Karaim. alyr edim "I took"). In many Turkic languages ​​(mainly Kypchak) there is a perfect formed by adding personal endings of the first type (phonetically modified personal pronouns) to participles in -kan/-gan. An etymologically related form to -an exists in the Turkmen language and to -ny in the Chuvash language. In the languages ​​of the Oguz group, the perfect ending in -mysh is common, in the Yakut language, the etymologically related form is ending in -byt. The pluperfect has the same stem as the perfect combined with the forms of the stems of the past tense of the auxiliary verb "to be".

In all Turkic languages, except for the Chuvash language, there is an indicator -yr/-ar for the future tense (present-future). The Oguz languages ​​are characterized by the form of the future categorical tense in -adzhak/-achak, it is also common in some languages ​​of the southern area (Uzbek, Uighur).

In addition to the indicative in the Turkic languages, there is a desirable mood with the most common indicators -gai (for the Kypchak languages), -a (for the Oghuz languages), imperative with its own paradigm, where the pure stem of the verb expresses a command addressed to 2 lit. units h., conditional, having 3 models of education with special indicators: -sa (for most languages), -sar (in Orkhon, other Uyghur monuments, as well as in Turkic texts of the 10-13th centuries from East Turkestan, from modern languages ​​in a phonetically transformed form was preserved only in Yakut), -san (in the Chuvash language); the obligatory mood is found mainly in the languages ​​of the Oguz group.

Türkic languages ​​have real (coinciding with the stem), passive (indicator -l attached to the stem), reciprocal (indicator -sh) and coercive (indicators are diverse, the most frequent are -dyr / -tyr, -t, -yz, -gyz) pledges.

The verb stem in the Turkic languages ​​is indifferent to the aspect expression. Aspective shades can have separate tense forms, as well as special complex verbs, the aspectual characteristic of which is given by auxiliary verbs.

Negation in the Turkic languages ​​has different indicators for the verb (affix -ma< -ба) и имени (слово дейил "нет", "не имеется" для огузских языков, эмес - в том же значении для кыпчакских языков).

The models for the formation of the main types of phrases - both attributive and predicative - are the same in the Turkic languages; the dependent member precedes the principal. A characteristic syntactic category in the Turkic languages ​​is izafet: this type of relationship between two names permeates the entire structure of the Turkic languages.

The nominal or verbal type of a sentence in the Turkic languages ​​is determined by the nature of the grammatical expression of the predicate. The model of a simple nominal sentence, in which predicativeness is expressed by analogs of the link (predicate affixes, personal pronouns, various predicative words), is a common Turkic one. The number of types of verb sentences that unite the Turkic languages ​​with a morphological reference member is relatively small (the past tense form into -dy, the present-future tense into -a); most types of verbal sentences developed in zonal communities (cf. the type of verbal sentence with a formative member in -gan, which was fixed in the Kipchak area, or the type with a forming member in -mysh, characteristic of the Oguz area, etc.). The simple sentence in the Turkic languages ​​is the predominant syntactic structure; it tends to include such substitutes for subordinate clauses, the structure of which would not contradict the rules of its construction. Various subordinating relations are conveyed by participial, participle, verb-nominal constructions.

In the structure of the Turkic languages, conditions were laid for the development of allied proposals. In the development of complex sentences of the allied type, the influence of Arabic and Persian played a certain role. Constant contact of speakers of Turkic languages ​​with Russians also contributed to the development of allied means (eg, in the Tatar language).

In the word-formation of the Turkic languages, affixation prevails. There are also ways of analytical word formation: paired names, reduplication, compound verbs, etc.

The oldest monuments of the Turkic languages ​​date back to the 7th century BC. The writing of all the Turkic languages ​​of the USSR since the late 30s - early 40s. based on Russian graphics. Turkish uses a Latin-based alphabet.

Turkish language

The Turkish language is also known under the names: 1) Ottoman or Ottoman-Turkish, the name "Ottoman" comes from Osman, the founder of the overthrown Sultan's dynasty; At present, Ottoman (osmanlica) is a pre-revolutionary literary language saturated with Arabisms and Farsisms, and 2) Anatolian-Turkish is a name that arose after the All-Union Turkological Congress in Baku (1926) in connection with the proposal of the Turkish delegation to remove the term "Ottoman" from use . About the place T. yaz. among other languages ​​of the same system, see "Turkic languages".

Distribution area T. yaz. - the entire territory of the Turkish Republic (Anatolia, the Turkish part of Rumelia), the northern part of Syria, small settlements on the Balkan Peninsula (Ada-Kale, etc.) and the Adigen and Akhaltsikhe regions of the SSR of Georgia.

T. yaz. over a wide area of ​​its distribution is divided into a number of dialects. These dialects have either not yet been studied at all, or have been studied to a far insufficient degree. Therefore, to talk about any linguistic map of T. yaz. until you have to. Nevertheless, there are descriptions of individual dialects (Erzurum, Trebizond, Kastamunian, Aydin, Karaman, Macedonian, Karamalitsky, Rumelian, Bosnian), produced mainly by European scholars. It can be seen that the dialects of Eastern Anatolia show convergence with Azerbaijani, while the dialects of Central and Western Anatolia gravitate towards the Istanbul dialect, which formed the basis of the literary Turkish language.

The unsatisfactory knowledge of the written monuments of the era of the emergence of the Ottoman Empire does not allow us to draw a complete picture of the origin and development of the written literary language. Its design began under the strong influence of the Arabic and Persian literature of Islam; gushing into T. yaz. A wave of Arabisms and Farsisms changed the face of literary Tajik language beyond recognition. So for example. in some monuments of the 17th, 18th and subsequent centuries, the Turkish layer occupies an insignificant place (approximately 10-15%). Arabic and Persian influences are not limited to numerous lexical data; morphological (Arabic and Persian plural forms, distinction of grammatical genders, etc.) and syntactic (Persian “izafet”, phrase structure) elements are also borrowed.

The volume of these borrowings to some extent can be an indicator of the social differentiation of the Turkish literary language. In the highly stylized language of feudal-clerical circles, we find the maximum number (80-90%) of Arabic-Persian words and whole phrases that are completely alien to the language of other strata of society. Fewer borrowings are observed in the language of the democratic intelligentsia, mainly of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the smallest number of these borrowings falls into the language of the masses.

On the other hand, the cultural, economic and political conditions of Turkey in the XIX-XX centuries. led to contact with Western European countries. These connections are reflected in the presence in the Turkish language of lexical layers of French (to a greater extent), Italian and other European languages.

In 1928, at the initiative of the republican government, a great reform in the field of language building was carried out in Turkey. The Arabic alphabet, completely unsuitable for the Turkish sound system, was replaced by the Latin one. This reform further strengthened the trend already outlined after the revolution to purify the Tajik language from the alien linguistic layers imposed on it. Under the direct leadership of President Kemal Atatürk, a society for the study of Tajik languages ​​was founded. (Türk dili arastirma kurumu), which has already held two congresses. At these congresses, which took place with the participation of Kemal Atatürk, questions about the liberation of the Turkish language were discussed. from unnecessary and hindering the introduction of culture into the broad masses of Arabisms and Farsisms and their replacement with Turkish equivalents, as well as questions of terminology, grammar, etc. The stubborn struggle, led by the authority of the President, for the implementation of the decisions of the congresses has already yielded results: at present, the use of Arabisms and Farsisms reduced to a minimum, in the newspapers there are articles written exclusively in Turkish and international words; there is reason to believe that the approximation of the Turkish literary language. to the language of the masses will be successfully completed.

Graphics T. lang. Until 1928, the Arabic alphabet was used in Turkish writing with those additional letters that were introduced in the Persian script, and in addition with an additional letter (sarirnun), introduced to denote the “n” of the posterior palate, which, however, coincided, however, in the Constantinople (literary) pronunciation with “n » front-lingual. After the reform of 1928 (cf. above), the Latin alphabet is used in Turkish writing with the following specific letter meanings: c=j, s=h, p=voiced fricative r, e (without a dot)=s, j=zh є=sh.

Uzbek language

The Uzbek language belongs to the languages ​​of the Turkic system and is the state language of the Ukrainian SSR. Uzbek speakers also live outside the Ukrainian SSR (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan).

Modern colloquial U. yaz. is divided into a number of dialects and sub-dialects, which can basically be divided into five groups (Tashkent, Fergana, Kipchak, Khiva or Khiva-Oguz, northern Uzbek). The differences between individual dialects are not so great as to prevent speakers of different dialects from completely understanding each other, and therefore all Uzbeks both inside Uzbekistan and outside it (with the exception of Afghanistan, of course) are successfully served by a single literary language.

The forerunner of modern literary U. yaz. The Chagatai language is rightfully considered, the traditions of which reached the Great October Socialist Revolution and which, to the detriment of the development of the literary Uzbek language, were supported by bourgeois nationalists until the early 1930s.

In its historical development U. yaz. (both literary and colloquial) was influenced by Iranian (Persian, Tajik) and Arabic languages. If this influence, on the one hand, led to an exorbitant clogging of the literary language with Iranianisms and, especially, Arabisms and made it incomprehensible to the broad masses, then, on the other hand, it nevertheless enriched the language with the necessary vocabulary (“school”, “book”, “paper”, “city”, etc.) and, most importantly, conjunctions and subordinate clauses and the form of the adjective.

In the first years of the revolution, the bourgeois nationalists tried to use the past connections of U. yaz. with Arabic in order to combat the penetration into U. yaz. Sovietisms and internationalisms. Even such terms as "communist", "party", "council", "proletarian" and others, firmly established in the language of the broad masses from the very first days of the revolution, were replaced in the literary language by Arabic ones. There were also attempts of the opposite order: to indiscriminately decry and expel Arab-Persian terms. Recently, a correct attitude towards the Arabic-Persian linguistic elements has been outlined: everything contrived, imposed on the language, is discarded, and everything that has grown into the language and is socially valuable is carefully guarded and skillfully used. International terminology no longer meets obstacles and every year it enriches the Uzbek language more and more.

Alphabet and spelling. Before the revolution, the Uzbeks used the Arabic alphabet, which was hardly suitable for transmitting the sounds of the U. language, and Chagatai spelling, far from living pronunciation. Literacy of the population hardly reached 2%. After the revolution, when literacy was to become the property of the masses, there was a need for a reform of writing, for its democratization. The question of the advantages of the Latin alphabet over the Arabic alphabet was fundamentally resolved back in 1922 at the 2nd conference of Uzbek teachers in Tashkent. The Latinized alphabet was finally developed and approved by an act of the government of Uzbekistan in 1926. Its mass practical application began in 1928. With the transition to the new alphabet, printed matter and the literacy of the population began to grow rapidly. To date, according to official figures, literacy reaches 80%. The transition to the Latinized alphabet at first did not lead to fundamental changes in spelling. In 1929, a new spelling was adopted at a language conference in Samarkand. This orthography, built on the consistent implementation of synharmonism, directed the literary language. towards the dialects of remote, backward regions and tore it away from the dialects of the leading centers, where vowel harmony has long been lost. To express synharmonism, three additional letters for vowels were introduced, and their number is as follows. arr. was brought to nine (with six vowel phonemes in the leading Tashkent dialect). This spelling, imposed by bourgeois nationalists, turned out to be extremely inconvenient and was radically changed in 1934 at a language conference in Tashkent. The conference abandoned synharmonic orthography and reduced the number of characters for vowels to six, as was the case in the reformed Arabic alphabet. The current spelling in the Uzbek language is a big step forward compared to the spelling of 1929, but it also has very significant shortcomings.

Currently, preparations are underway for the transition to the Russian alphabet. Despite the mistakes made in the matter of language construction, it can be said that the literary U. yaz. has already taken shape and has become a powerful tool for raising the cultural level of the masses. It is taught in schools, books, magazines, newspapers are published. See "Uzbek Literature".

Tatar languages

Tatar languages ​​is an obsolete term for some Turkic languages. The word "Tatars" is a Mongolian tribal name that historically denoted the Mongolian military leaders of the troops of different tribes during the so-called "invasion of the Tatars" in Russia. At the same time, apparently, this term was transferred to the Turkic people, who were part of these troops and settled in the Middle and Lower Volga region. Now under T. yaz. is understood ch. arr. Volga-Tatar (see below); in addition, there are: Crimean Tatar, Lithuanian-Tatar, Tobolsk-Tatar. In medieval Russia, "Tatars" called all the peoples that were part of the state of the Golden Horde or those that replaced it (Crimean Khanate, Kazan Khanate), hence such a broad understanding of the term. The name is Azeri-Tatar language. was discarded (existed in the 19th and 20th centuries) and replaced successively by the terms: Turkic, Azerbaijani-Turkic and Azerbaijani. The term Astrakhan-Tatar did not hold out either, since this is essentially not a language, but one of the dialects of the Volga-Tatar. The term Kasimov-Tatar (essentially one of the dialects of the Meshcheryatsky, or Misher language) is sometimes used even now.

Tatar language. The Volga region, more precisely - the Volga-Tatar, historically goes back to the language of the so-called Dzhuchiev Ulus or the Golden Horde. Until the beginning of the 20th century. colloquial Volga-Tatar language. masses was very different from the feudal bookish language, which was oriented towards Chagatai and Turkish and was supported by the Muslim school; among the population was known under the name "Turks". At one time, clerical correspondence of the Volga Tatars with the Russian authorities was conducted on it. At the end of the XIX century. Kayum Nasyri, studying folklore and ethnography, for the first time raises the question of the approach of the Volga-Tatar literary language. to the masses. In 1905, in the Volga-Tatar language. a fairly significant literature was created, the language of which, compared with the previous period, approaches the colloquial.

But the real flourishing of the Volga-Tatar language. was able to achieve only after the Great October Socialist Revolution. As a result of the implementation of the Leninist-Stalinist national policy, Tataristan took one of the first places among the republics and regions of the Union in terms of language building. According to the last division proposed by the researchers of the Turkish language, it is divided into three dialects: central, western and eastern. K T. yaz. adjoins Meshcheryatsky, or Mishersky, that is, the language of the Meshcheryaks living in the former Ryazan (this includes the "Kasimov Tatars"), Penza, Tambov, Ulyanovsk, Saratov provinces, in the former Buinsky, Chistopolsky and Spassky cantons of the TASSR, Gorky Territory and, partly in Bashkiria; The "Tatar" population of Moscow and Leningrad is also usually Meshcheryak. Outside this division, there remains a little-studied dialect of the Perm, or, more precisely, the Glazov Tatars. The differences between the dialects come down to the facts of the dictionary (for example, the Meshcheryatsky dialect before the revolution was distinguished by a larger percentage of borrowings from Russian than others), phonetics (cf. the presence of the sound ts in the Meshcheryatsky, which was absent in others, the indistinguishability of the phonemes q and k, p and g -- again, as opposed to others) and partly morphology (the formation of the 3rd person singular of the present tense in positive and negative forms: almas (he does not take) or almüs, etc.). The main features of the Volga-Tatar language, characteristic of both dialects and the literary language created after the revolution, and distinguishing it from other Turkic languages, lie in the field of vocabulary, morphology and phonetics. The Volga-Tatar language has a very special type of vocalism, which Radlov sometimes called a kind of "Turkic movement of sounds", chronologically placing the completion of this process in the 14th century. "Wide" vowels o and ts of other Turkic languages ​​in the Volga-Tatar language. correspond to "narrow" u and y (un - ten, kyz - eye - with Kazakh on and koz); "closed" e of other languages ​​in the Volga-Tatar language. corresponds to i (bir -- come on -- with Kazakh ber, kil -- come -- with Kazakh kel). Sounds u and y of other languages ​​in the Volga-Tatar language. correspond to specific vowels (there are still in the Bashkir language) o and o, the sound meaning of which is completely special, as you can see in the special literature listed below (toz - salt - in Kazakh tuz, ton - night - in Kazakh tyn ). The specific reduced vowel (conditional "e") corresponds to the sound i of other Turkic languages ​​(et - dog - in Kazakh it). At present, in connection with the assimilation of the sounds e and o in international words (in their usual pronunciation), the signs o and e perform a double function in Tatar orthography. The sound a in colloquial speech (especially the Ural-Tatar dialect) is pronounced with labialization (= e), which weakens as you move away from the 1st syllable and is absent in the final open syllable (balalaqa - “for children” - read beleleqa, etc.). d.). Recently, a new type of initial syllable (єkaf, stakan, etc.), stress (not at the end) (for example: trbktor), as well as some new morphological categories, have appeared. In the terminology and dictionary of the Volga-Tatar language. internationalisms now occupy a very important place.

The Tatar language of the Crimea, more precisely - the Crimean Tatar. Historically, it goes back to one of the local national languages ​​that originated on the territory of the Dzhuchiev ulus (otherwise the Golden Horde). In the XVI-XVII centuries. was subjected (especially in the southern Crimea) to the strong influence of the Turkish (Ottoman) language. Kipchak element of the Crimean Tatar language. due to the significant role of the steppe Turkic nomads (Nogais) in the life of the Crimean Khanate. The feudal language of the era of the Khanate (the former center - Stary Krym, the later - Bakhchisaray) differed sharply from the language of the masses. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. the nationalist Crimean Tatar I. Gasprinsky began publishing the newspaper Terdzhiman, in which he tried to develop (on the basis of Turkish and Crimean Tatar) a common language for the Muslims of "old Russia". This trend was liquidated after the Great October Socialist Revolution. After the Sovietization of Crimea, work began on the creation of a literary Crimean Tatar language, which was not an easy task, due to the strong differences in the dialects of individual regions where the influence of other languages ​​\u200b\u200bis felt (Greeks, Genoese, Armenians in the south, etc.). About the modern flourishing of the Crimean Tatar literary language - see "Tatar-Crimean Literature". To the linguistic features of the Crimean Tatar language. belong in the field of phonetics: the disappearance of h at the beginning and at the end of words (Asan instead of Hasan, saba instead of sabah) "hardening" of q and y after the middle language k and g (i.e. in this position q> o, a y> u, for example koj - village, kun - day) and others; in the field of morphology - the coincidence of the categories of predicate and belonging (for example, oza-m means: 1) “I am a teacher” and 2) “my teacher”, etc. Modern Crimean Tatar language. presents vivid examples of shifts as a result of the rapid restructuring of the economy and life: the dictionary is replenished due to internationalisms and sovietisms, which, displacing lexical Arabisms and Farsisms, simultaneously produce fundamental changes in grammar, such as: the assimilation of international phonemes (c, v, f) and a new type of stress in phonetics, the formation of a feminine category in morphology and the development of a new, freer word order in syntax (in the latter case, it is not so much about the influence of other languages, but about the result of an internal process in the Crimean Tatar language itself).

Tatar language of Western Siberia, otherwise - Tobolsk-Tatar. A little studied language of the Turkic system (see "Turkic languages"). It has rather significant linguistic features (for example, the presence of the sound ц in accordance with ћ of other Turkic languages) - and in particular, a kind of dictionary.

The Tatar language is so called. Lithuanian Tatars, otherwise - Lithuanian-Tatar language. Geographically refers to Poland, where the descendants of those who emigrated in the XIV-XV centuries live. Crimean Tatar clans to Lithuania. At present, the “Lithuanian Tatars” themselves and their language have completely assimilated with the surrounding population. Lithuanian-Tatar language. interesting only as a historical phenomenon.

KYRGYZ LANGUAGE

The Kyrgyz language (Kyrgyz homey, Kyrgyzcha, Kyrgyz tili, Kyrgyzca) is the language of the Kyrgyz, one of the Turkic language. Along with Russian, it is the state language of Kyrgyzstan. Distributed in Kyrgyzstan and, partially, in China (Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region), Afghanistan, Turkey, Pakistan (Chitral), Russia, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan. The total number of speakers is about 3.5 million. It has several groups of dialects.

Phonetic features of the Kyrgyz language: the distinction of vowels according to the chasokilkist (long and short), consistent vowel harmony, at the beginning of the word the affricate w / j is characteristic, which corresponds to / w / d in other Turkic languages.

Morphology is typical for Turkic languages. Demonstrative pronouns have, as a rule, two forms - with and without final-l: bul / bu "this". The transcendental aspect of the verb is expressed with the affix -ba-, but in some cases the word emes can be used transcendentally.

The vocabulary of the literary language has a significant number of borrowings from Arabic, Farsi and Russian.

In 1924, writing was developed on the basis of the Arabic script, after 1926 - on the basis of the Latin alphabet, and from 1940 to the present, the Cyrillic alphabet has been used in Kyrgyzstan and the Arabic alphabet has been changed in China.

Place of the Kyrgyz language among the Turkic languages

The Kyrgyz language has much in common with the Ugrian-Altaic languages, possibly being an Eastern Turkic language in origin; but in its present state it is still closer to the Kypchak languages, forming within them a separate Kirghiz-Kypchak subgroup.

The emergence of written sources in the Kyrgyz language

Written sources of the Central Asian Mongol rulers have been known since the 15th century. Their language was Chagatai (davnyouzbekska), while local dialects were used in oral communication, some of which later formed the Kyrgyz language. Numerous folklore texts remained from this period, the processing of which is far from complete.

Although the Kyrgyz language is genetically part of the same branch as the Altaic and other languages ​​northeast of Kyrgyzstan, due to convergence with Kazakh in recent times, when the new language is partially similar to Kazakh, and both languages ​​are sometimes considered to be part of the Nogai group of the Kipchak and part of the Turkic languages. However, despite the Kazakh influence, Kyrgyz remains much closer to the Altaic languages ​​than to Kazakh.

The new Kirghiz language did not have a standardized written form in 1923, in which the Arabic alphabet was introduced. Then there was a change to the Latin alphabet, under the leadership of Kasym Tinistanov in 1928 and to the Cyrillic alphabet in 1940. During the years of independence, the subsequent alphabet was discussed, but the result is zero, perhaps because the Kyrgyz Cyrillic alphabet is relatively simple and especially appropriate for the language.

One important difference between Kyrgyz and Kazakh is that Kyrgyz is almost universal while Kazakh has no linguistic national identity. In the early 1990s, Askar Akaev pursued an aggressive policy of introducing Kyrgyz as the state language, forcing the European population left to use Kyrgyz in social situations themselves. 1992 threatening to resign to dramatize the pressure of "kyrgyzification" of the non-native population. The 1992 laws called for the transfer of all public business, which was converted entirely to Kyrgyz until 1997. But in March 1996, the Kyrgyz parliament passed a decision that makes Russian the state language on a par with Kyrgyz. Substantial pressure from Russia was a strong factor in this change, which was part of a general renewal of friendly relations with Russia.

Bibliography

Turkic language phrase written

1. Melioransky P.M. Arab philologist about the Turkish language. SPb., 1900.

2. Bogoroditsky V.A. Introduction to Tatar linguistics. Kazan, 1934; 2nd ed. Kazan, 1953.

3. Malov S.E. Monuments of ancient Turkic writing. M.-L., 1951.

4. Research on the comparative grammar of the Turkic languages. Ch. 1-4. M., 1955-1962.

5. Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages. M., 1962; 2nd ed. M., 1969.

6. Baskakov N.A. Historical and typological phonology of the Turkic languages. M., 1988.

7. Shcherbak A.M. Comparative phonetics of Turkic languages. L., 1970.

8. Sevortyan E.V. Etymological dictionary of Turkic languages. T. 1-3. M., 1974-1980.

9. Weil G., Grammatik der osmanisch-türkischen Sprache, B., 1917.

10. Deny J., Grammaire de la langue turque (dialecte osmanli), P., 1921 (with extensive bibliography).

11. Gordlevsky Vl., Grammar of the Turkish language, M., 1928.

12. Dmitriev N., Materials on Ottoman dialectology, Zap. College of Orientalists, vol. III (L., 1928) and vol. IV (L., 1930) (with an extensive bibliography).

13. Mukhlinsky A., Research on the origin and condition of the Lithuanian Tatars, St. Petersburg, 1857.

14. Alexandrovich J., Lithuanian Tatars (published by the Society of Explorers of Azerbaijan, 1926, No. 2).

15. Aristov N. A., Notes on the ethnic composition of the Turkic tribes and nationalities and information about their numbers (“Live Antiquity”, 1896, issue III and IV and ott., St. Petersburg, 1897).

16. Bogoroditsky, V. A., Introduction to Tatar linguistics in connection with other Turkic languages, Kazan, 1934.

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