In the history of the early feudal states of Europe in the X-XII centuries. are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rules of law. "There is no land without a lord." The peasants found themselves for the most part in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords.

Having received a monopoly on land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to litigate and mint money, the maintenance of their own military force, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society is now taking shape, which has legal consolidation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which was inferior in size to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, had only formal suzerainty, and the big lords behaved completely independently. Thus began to take shape the foundations of feudal fragmentation.

It is known that on the territory that collapsed in the middle of the 9th century. In the empire of Charlemagne, three new states arose: French, German and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the base of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration embraced each of these new formations. So, in the territory of the French kingdom at the end of the 9th century. there were 29 possessions, and at the end of the tenth century. - about 50. But now they were for the most part not ethnic, but patrimonial seigneurial formations.

The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by the royal power to the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from the peasants and their lands. As a result of this, the feudal lord (secular or ecclesiastical), who received such an award, becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The private property of the feudal lords grew, they became economically stronger and sought greater independence from the king.

The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Duke of Normandy William the Conqueror. As a result, the country, moving towards feudal fragmentation, turned into a cohesive state with strong monarchical power. This is the only example on the European continent in this period.

The point was that the conquerors deprived many representatives of the former nobility of their possessions, carrying out mass confiscation of landed property. The king became the actual owner of the land, who transferred part of it as fiefs to his warriors and part of the local feudal lords who expressed their readiness to serve him. But these possessions were now in different parts of England. The only exceptions were a few counties, which were located on the outskirts of the country and were intended for the defense of the border areas. The dispersion of feudal estates (130 large vassals had land in 2-5 counties, 29 - in 6-10 counties, 12 - in 10-21 counties), their private return to the king served as an obstacle to the transformation of the barons into independent landowners, as it was, for example, in France.

The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain originality. Until the 13th century it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then the process of internal political fragmentation begins to develop rapidly here, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state consolidation. The fact is that the German emperors, in order to maintain their power over dependent countries, needed the military assistance of the princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, if in other countries of Europe the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, then in Germany the process of legislative consolidation of the highest state rights for the princes developed. As a result, the imperial power gradually lost its positions and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords.

In addition, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the tenth century. cities (the result of the separation of craft from agriculture), did not develop, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and the cities. Therefore, the German cities were unable to play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And, finally, Germany has not formed, like England or France, a single economic center that could become the core of political unification. Each principality lived separately. As the princely power strengthened, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.

In Byzantium at the beginning of the XII century. the formation of the main institutions of feudal society was completed, a feudal estate was formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, presenting wide privileges to secular and church feudal lords, contributed to their transformation into all-powerful patrimonials, who had an apparatus of judicial and administrative power and armed squads. It was the payment of the emperors to the feudal lords for their support and service.

The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to the fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of the state, which did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve self-government, like Western European cities. The townspeople, subjected to cruel fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the positions of feudal lords in the cities, establishing their control over trade and marketing of their products, undermined the well-being of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became absolute masters in the cities.

Increasing tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin Empire and several other states were formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization of state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In its content, it was a natural and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, the expansion of the area of ​​cultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of labor tools, the use of animal draft power and the transition to three-field cultivation, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be cultivated - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, and not make them themselves.

The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of handicraft production improved. The craftsman turned into a small commodity producer working for trade. Ultimately, these circumstances led to the separation of craft from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of crafts and trade.

As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably submitted to him. The townspeople, most of whom were mainly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of the townspeople to free themselves from such dependence led to a struggle between cities and lords for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the X-XIII centuries. went down in history under the name of "communal movement". All rights and privileges won or acquired for a ransom were recorded in the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities achieved self-government, became commune cities. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and court. The inhabitants of such cities in England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A fugitive peasant who lived in the cities of these countries for a year and one day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new estate appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its own status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in the countries of Western Europe. This became possible thanks to the strengthening of the central government, first in England, then in France.

The development of commodity-money relations and the involvement of the countryside in this process undermined the subsistence economy and created conditions for the development of the domestic market. The feudal lords, seeking to increase their income, began to transfer land to the peasants for hereditary holding, reduced the lord's plowing, encouraged internal colonization, willingly accepted fugitive peasants, populated uncultivated lands with them and provided them with personal freedom. The estates of the feudal lords were also drawn into market relations. These circumstances led to a change in the forms of feudal rent, the weakening, and then the complete elimination of personal feudal dependence. Quite quickly this process took place in England, France, Italy.

The development of social relations in Kievan Rus is probably following the same scenario. The onset of a period of feudal fragmentation fits into the framework of the all-European process. As in Western Europe, tendencies towards political fragmentation in Russia appeared early. Already in the tenth century after the death of Prince Vladimir in 1015, a struggle for power breaks out between his children. However, a single ancient Russian state existed until the death of Prince Mstislav (1132). Since that time, historical science has been counting down the feudal fragmentation in Russia.

What are the reasons for this phenomenon? What contributed to the fact that the unified state of the Rurikovich quickly disintegrated into many large and small principalities? There are many such reasons.

Let's highlight the most important of them.

The main reason is the change in the nature of relations between the Grand Duke and his warriors as a result of the settlement of warriors on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other requisitions. As the combatants received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that the income from military robbery booty is less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the XI century. the process of "settlement" of the squad on the ground intensified. And from the first half of the XII century. in Kievan Rus, the votchina becomes the predominant form of ownership, the owner of which could dispose of it at his own discretion. And although the possession of a fiefdom imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to perform military service, his economic dependence on the Grand Duke was significantly weakened. The incomes of the former feudal combatants no longer depended on the mercy of the prince. They made their own existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence also weakens.

A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Russia was played by the developing institution of feudal immunity, which provides for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the boundaries of his patrimony. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and administered court. As a result, a state apparatus, a squad, courts, prisons, etc., are formed in independent principalities-patrimonies, and specific princes begin to dispose of communal lands, transfer them on their own behalf to boyars and monasteries. Thus, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. Of great importance in this process was the introduction of the institution of heredity on the earth and the people inhabiting it. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between the local principalities and Kiev changed. Service dependence is being replaced by relations of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.

All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This disintegration, as it was in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: Vladimir-Suzdal principality (North-Eastern Rus), Galicia-Volyn principality (South-Western Rus) and Novgorod land (North-Western Rus). Both within these principalities and between them, fierce clashes took place for a long time, destructive wars that weakened the power of Russia, led to the destruction of cities and villages.

Foreign conquerors did not fail to take advantage of this circumstance. The uncoordinated actions of the Russian princes, the desire to achieve victory over the enemy at the expense of others, while maintaining their own army, the lack of a unified command led to the first defeat of the Russian army in the battle with the Tatar-Mongols on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223. Serious disagreements between the princes, which did not allow them to act as a united front in the face of the Tatar-Mongol aggression, led to the capture and destruction of Ryazan (1237). In February 1238, the Russian militia on the Sit River was defeated, Vladimir and Suzdal were captured. In October 1239, Chernigov was besieged and taken; in the fall of 1240, Kyiv was captured. Thus, from the beginning of the 40s. 13th century the period of Russian history begins, which is usually called the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted until the second half of the 15th century.

It should be noted that the Tatar-Mongols during this period did not carry out the occupation of Russian lands, since this territory was of little use for the economic activity of nomadic peoples. But this yoke was very real. Russia found itself in vassal dependence on the Tatar-Mongol khans. Each prince, including the Grand Duke, had to receive permission from the khan to rule the "table", the khan's label. The population of the Russian lands was subject to heavy tribute in favor of the Mongols, there were constant raids of the conquerors, which led to the devastation of the lands and the destruction of the population.

At the same time, a new dangerous enemy appeared on the northwestern borders of Russia - in 1240 the Swedes, and then in 1240-1242. German crusaders. It turned out that the Novgorod land had to defend its independence and its type of development under pressure from both the East and the West. The struggle for the independence of the Novgorod land was led by the young prince Alexander Yaroslavich. His tactics were based on the struggle against the Catholic West and concession to the East (Golden Horde). As a result, the Swedish troops that landed in July 1240 at the mouth of the Neva were defeated by the retinue of the Novgorod prince, who received the honorary nickname "Nevsky" for this victory.

Following the Swedes, German knights attacked the Novgorod land, which at the beginning of the 13th century. settled in the Baltics. In 1240 they captured Izborsk, then Pskov. Alexander Nevsky, who led the fight against the crusaders, managed to liberate Pskov in the winter of 1242, and then on the ice of Lake Peipsi in the famous battle on the ice (April 5, 1242) inflicted a decisive defeat on the German knights. After that, they no longer made serious attempts to seize Russian lands.

Thanks to the efforts of Alexander Nevsky and his descendants in the Novgorod land, despite the dependence on the Golden Horde, the traditions of Western orientation were preserved and the features of allegiance began to form.

However, in general, by the end of the XIII century. North-Eastern and Southern Russia fell under the influence of the Golden Horde, lost ties with the West and the previously established features of progressive development. It is difficult to overestimate the negative consequences that the Tatar-Mongol yoke had for Russia. Most historians agree that the Tatar-Mongol yoke significantly delayed the socio-economic, political and spiritual development of the Russian state, changed the nature of statehood, giving it the form of relations characteristic of the nomadic peoples of Asia.

It is known that in the fight against the Tatar-Mongols, the princely squads took the first blow. The vast majority of them died. Together with the old nobility, the traditions of vassal-druzhina relations left. Now, with the formation of the new nobility, the relationship of allegiance was established.

Relations between princes and cities changed. Veche (with the exception of the Novgorod land) has lost its significance. The prince in such conditions acted as the only protector and master.

Thus, Russian statehood begins to acquire the features of oriental despotism with its cruelty, arbitrariness, complete disregard for the people and the individual. As a result, a peculiar type of feudalism was formed in Russia, in which the “Asian element” is quite strongly represented. The formation of this peculiar type of feudalism was facilitated by the fact that, as a result of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Russia developed for 240 years in isolation from Europe.

The period of feudal fragmentation is a natural stage in the progressive development of feudalism. The dismemberment of the early feudal grandiose empires (Kievan Rus or the Carolingian empire in Central Europe) into a number of de facto sovereign states was an inevitable stage in the development of feudal society.

Even in the IV century. (395) The Roman Empire broke up into two independent parts - Western and Eastern. The capital of the Eastern part was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium. Byzantium was able to withstand the storms of the so-called "great migration of peoples" and survived after the fall of Rome (in 1410, the Visigoths took Rome after a long siege) as the "empire of the Romans." In the VI century. Byzantium occupied vast territories of the European continent (even Italy was conquered for a short time). Throughout the Middle Ages, Byzantium maintained a strong centralized state.

The overthrow of Romulus Augustine (1476) is generally considered to be the end of the Western Roman Empire. Numerous “barbarian” states arose on its ruins: the Ostrogothic (and then Lombard) in the Apennines, the kingdom of the Visigoths in the Iberian Peninsula, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Britain, the state of the Franks on the Rhine, etc.

The Frankish leader Clovis and his successors expanded the borders of the state, pushed back the Visigoths and soon became hegemons in Western Europe. The position of the empire was strengthened even more under the Carolingians (VIII-IX centuries). However, behind the external centralization of the empire of Charlemagne, its internal weakness and fragility were hidden. Created by conquest, it was very diverse in its ethnic composition: it included Saxons, Frisians, Alamans, Thuringians, Lombards, Bavarians, Celts and many other peoples. Each of the lands of the empire had little connection with the others and, without constant military and administrative coercion, did not want to submit to the power of the conquerors.

This form of empire - externally centralized, but internally amorphous and fragile political association, gravitating towards universalism - was characteristic of many of the largest early feudal states in Europe.

The collapse of the empire of Charlemagne (after the death of his son Louis the Pious) in the 40s of the IX century. and the formation of France, Germany and Italy on its basis meant the beginning of a new era in the development of Western Europe.

X-XII centuries are a period of feudal fragmentation in Western Europe. There is an avalanche-like process of fragmentation of states: The feudal state in Western Europe in the X-XII centuries. exists in the form of small political formations - principalities, duchies, counties, etc., which had significant political power over their subjects, sometimes completely independent, sometimes only nominally united under the rule of a weak king.

Many cities of Northern and Central Italy - Venice, Genoa, Siena, Bologna, Ravenna, Lucca, etc. - in the IX-XII centuries. became city-states. Many cities in northern France (Amiens, Sussan, Laon, etc.) and Flanders also became self-governing commune states. They elected the council, its head - the mayor, had their own court and militia, their own finances and taxes. Often, commune cities themselves acted as a collective lord in relation to the peasants who lived in the territory surrounding the city.

In Germany, a similar position was occupied in the XII-XIII centuries. the largest of the so-called imperial cities. Formally, they were subordinate to the emperor, but in reality they were independent city republics (Lübeck, Nuremberg, Frankfurt am Main, etc.). They were governed by city councils, had the right to independently declare war, conclude peace and alliances, mint coins, etc.

A distinctive feature of the development of Germany during the period of feudal fragmentation was the predominance of the territorial principle over the tribal principle in its political organization. In place of the old tribal duchies, about 100 principalities appeared, of which over 80 were spiritual. The territorial princes took the place of the tribal dukes in the feudal hierarchy as well, forming an estate of imperial princes, the direct feudal lords of the crown. Many German imperial princes in the XII century. found themselves in vassalage from foreign sovereigns (sometimes even from several states).

In general, the period of feudal fragmentation was a period of economic growth in Europe. In the X-XII centuries. The feudal system in Western Europe took on a pan-European character and experienced a rise: the growth of cities, commodity production, and a deep division of labor turned commodity-money relations into the most important factor in social life. Clearing for arable land was accompanied by deforestation and reclamation work (Lombardy, Holland).

The secondary landscape has risen; swamp area has been reduced. A qualitative leap was experienced by mining and metallurgical production: in Germany, Spain, Sweden, and England, mining and metallurgical industries grew into independent, separate industries. Construction is also on the rise. In the XII century. the first water pipeline with sewage elements is being built in Troyes. Mirror production begins (Venice). New mechanisms are created in weaving, mining, construction, metallurgy and other crafts. So, in Flanders in 1131, the first loom of a modern type appeared, etc. There was an increase in foreign and domestic trade.

On the other hand, the increase in the needs of the feudal lords in connection with the development of the market not only led to an increase in the exploitation of the peasantry, but also increased the desire of the feudal lords to seize other people's lands and wealth. This gave rise to many wars, conflicts, clashes. Many feudal lords and states were drawn into them (due to the intricacy and interweaving of vassal ties). State borders are constantly changing. More powerful sovereigns sought to subjugate others, making claims to world domination, tried to create a universalist (comprehensive) state under their hegemony. The main bearers of universalist tendencies were the Roman popes, Byzantine and German emperors.

Only in the XIII-XV centuries. in the countries of Western Europe, the process of centralization of the state begins, which gradually takes the form of a class monarchy. Here, already relatively strong royal power is combined with the presence of class-representative assemblies. The most rapid process of centralization took place in the following Western European states: England, France, Castile, Aragon.

In Russia, the period of feudal fragmentation begins in the 30s of the XII century. (In 1132, the Grand Duke of Kyiv Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, died; under 1132, the chronicler wrote: “And the whole Russian land was torn apart ...”). In place of a single state, sovereign principalities began to live an independent life, equal in scale to Western European kingdoms. Novgorod and Polotsk separated themselves earlier than others; after them - Galich, Volyn and Chernihiv, etc. The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia continued until the end of the 15th century.

Within this more than three centuries of time there was a clear and difficult milestone - the Tatar invasion of 1237-1241, after which the foreign yoke sharply disrupted the natural course of the Russian historical process, greatly slowed it down.

Feudal fragmentation became a new form of statehood in the conditions of the rapid growth of productive forces and was largely due to this development. Tools of labor were improved (scientists count more than 40 types of them only from metal); plowed agriculture was established. Cities became a major economic force (in Russia there were then about 300 of them). Ties with the market of individual feudal estates and peasant communities were very weak. They sought to satisfy their needs as much as possible at the expense of internal resources. Under the dominance of natural economy, it was possible for each region to separate from the center and exist as independent lands.

In the last years of the existence of Kievan Rus, the many thousands of local boyars received the Long Russian Pravda, which determined the norms of feudal law. But the book on parchment, kept in the Grand Duke's archive in Kyiv, did not contribute to the real implementation of the boyars' rights. Even the strength of the grand-princely virniki, swordsmen, and governor could not really help the distant provincial boyars on the outskirts of Kievan Rus. Zemsky boyars of the XII century. they needed their own, close, local authorities, which would be able to quickly implement the legal norms of Pravda, help in clashes with the peasants, and quickly overcome their resistance.

Feudal fragmentation was (however paradoxical at first glance!) the result not so much of differentiation as of historical integration. There was a growth of feudalism in breadth and its strengthening on the ground (under the dominance of subsistence farming), feudal relations took shape (vassal relations, immunity, the right to inherit, etc.).

The optimal scales for the feudal integration of that time, the geographical limits were worked out by life itself, even on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus - "unions of tribes": glades, drevlyans, krivichi, vyatichi, etc. - Kievan Rus collapsed in the 30s. 12th century into one and a half dozen independent principalities, more or less similar to one and a half dozen ancient tribal unions. The capitals of many principalities were at one time the centers of tribal unions (Kyiv near the glades, Smolensk near the Krivichi, etc.). The unions of tribes were a stable community that took shape over the centuries; their geographical limits were determined by natural boundaries. During the existence of Kievan Rus, cities developed here that competed with Kiev; tribal and tribal nobility turned into boyars.

The order of taking the throne that existed in Kievan Rus, depending on seniority in the princely family, created an atmosphere of instability and uncertainty. The transition of the prince in seniority from one city to another was accompanied by the movement of the entire domain apparatus. Foreigners (Poles, Polovtsy, etc.) were invited by the princes to resolve personal strife. Temporary stay in this or that land of the prince and his boyars gave rise to increased, "hurried" exploitation of the peasants and artisans. New forms of political organization of the state were needed, taking into account the prevailing correlation of economic and political forces.

Feudal fragmentation became such a new form of state-political organization. In the centers of each of the principalities, their own, local dynasties developed: Olgovichi - in Chernigov, Izyaslavichi - in Volyn, Yuryevichi - in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, etc. Each of the new principalities fully satisfied the needs of the feudal lords: from any capital of the XII century. it was possible to ride to the border of this principality in three days. Under these conditions, the norms of Russian Truth could be confirmed by the ruler's sword in a timely manner. The calculation was also made on the interest of the prince - to transfer his reign to children in good economic condition, to help the boyars, who helped to settle here.

Each of the principalities kept its own chronicle; princes issued their statutory charters. On the whole, the initial phase of feudal fragmentation (before the factor of conquest intervened in normal development) is characterized by the rapid growth of cities and the bright flowering of the culture of the 12th - early 13th centuries. in all its manifestations. The new political form contributed to progressive development, created conditions for the expression of local creative forces (each principality has its own architectural style, its own artistic and literary trends).

Let's pay attention to the negative aspects of the era of feudal fragmentation:

A clear weakening of the overall military potential, facilitating foreign conquest. However, a caveat is needed here as well. Authors of the book “History of the Russian State. Historical and bibliographic essays” raises the question: “Would the Russian early feudal state be able to resist the Tatars? Who dares to answer in the affirmative? The forces of only one of the Russian lands - Novgorod - a little later turned out to be enough to defeat the German, Swedish and Danish invaders by Alexander Nevsky. In the face of the Mongol-Tatars, there was a collision with a qualitatively different enemy.

Internecine wars. But even in a single state (when it came to the struggle for power, for the grand prince's throne, etc.), princely strife was sometimes more bloody than during the period of feudal fragmentation. The goal of strife in the era of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not to seize power throughout the country, but to strengthen one's principality, expanding its borders at the expense of neighbors.

Increasing fragmentation of princely possessions: in the middle of the XII century. there were 15 principalities; at the beginning of the thirteenth century. (on the eve of the invasion of Batu) - about 50, and in the XIV century. (when the unification process of the Russian lands had already begun) the number of great and specific principalities reached approximately 250. The reason for this fragmentation was the division of the possessions by the princes between their sons: as a result, the principalities became smaller, weakened, and the results of this spontaneous process gave rise to ironic sayings among contemporaries (“In the Rostov land - a prince in every village ";" In the Rostov land, seven princes have one warrior ", etc.). Tatar-Mongol invasion 1237-1241 Russia found itself a flourishing, rich and cultured country, but already affected by the “rust” of feudal specific fragmentation.

In each of the separated principalities-lands, at the initial stage of feudal fragmentation, similar processes took place:

The growth of the nobility (“lads”, “children”, etc.), palace servants;

Strengthening the positions of the old boyars;

The growth of cities - a complex social organism of the Middle Ages. The association of artisans, merchants in cities into “brotherhoods”, “communities”, corporations close to craft workshops and merchant guilds of cities in Western Europe;

The development of the church as an organization (dioceses in the 12th century geographically coincided with the borders of the principalities);

Strengthening of the contradictions between the princes (the title "Grand Duke" was worn by the princes of all Russian lands) and the local boyars, the struggle between them for influence and power.

In each principality, due to the peculiarities of its historical development, its own balance of forces developed; its own, special, combination of the above elements came to the surface.

Thus, the history of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia is characterized by the victory of the grand ducal power over the landed aristocracy by the end of the 12th century. The princes here were able to suppress the separatism of the boyars, the power was established in the form of a monarchy.

In Novgorod (and later in Pskov), the boyars were able to subjugate the princes and established boyar feudal republics.

In the Galicia-Volyn land, there was an extremely heightened rivalry between the princes and local boyars, there was a kind of "balance of power". The boyar opposition (besides, constantly relying on either Hungary or Poland) failed to turn the land into a boyar republic, but significantly weakened the grand ducal power.

A special situation has developed in Kyiv. On the one hand, he became the first among equals. Soon, some Russian lands caught up and even outstripped him in their development. On the other hand, Kyiv remained an "apple of discord" (they joked that there was not a single prince in Russia who did not seek to "sit" in Kyiv). Kyiv was "recaptured", for example, by Yuri Dolgoruky, Prince of Vladimir and Suzdal; in 1154 he achieved the throne of Kiev and sat on it until 1157. His son Andrei Bogolyubsky sent regiments to Kyiv, and so on. Under such conditions, the Kiev boyars introduced a curious system of "duumvirate" (co-government), which lasted the entire second half of the 12th century.

The meaning of this original measure was as follows: at the same time, representatives of two warring branches were invited to Kiev land (an agreement was concluded with them - a “row”); thus, a relative balance was established and strife was partly eliminated. One of the princes lived in Kyiv, the other - in Belgorod (or Vyshgorod). They acted jointly on military campaigns and carried out diplomatic correspondence in concert. So, co-rulers duumvirs were Izyaslav Mstislavich and his uncle - Vyacheslav Vladimirovich; Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Mstislavich.

What did the military reform of Charles Martel change in Frankish society?

Why did the empire of Charlemagne collapse? What is feudalism? one.

"There is no war without fires and blood." In

times of feudal fragmentation (IX-XI centuries), the possession of any large feudal lord became, as it were, a state within a state.

The feudal lord collected taxes from the subject population, judged him, could declare war on other feudal lords and make peace with them.

A feast at a noble lord. Medieval miniature

Peasants harvest.

Medieval miniature

2 - E. V. Agibalova

The battle of the Franks, led by Roland, with the locals in the Pyrenees. Miniature of the 14th century.

The gentlemen almost constantly fought among themselves: such wars were called internecine. During civil strife burned

Roland's death. Cathedral stained glass. 13th century On the right, a mortally wounded Roland blows his horn, calling for help. Left - he unsuccessfully tries to break the sword on the rock

villages, cattle were stolen, crops were trampled. The most affected by this

peasants. 2.

Seniors and vassals.

Each large feudal lord distributed part of the land with peasants to small feudal lords as a reward for their service, they also gave him an oath of allegiance. He was considered in relation to these feudal lords

(senior), and the feudal lords, who, as it were, "kept" lands from him, became his vassals (subordinates).

Vassals were required to

the order of the seigneur to go on a campaign and bring a detachment of soldiers with him, to participate in the buzz of the seigneur, to help him with advice, to redeem the seigneur from captivity. The lord defended “my vassals from attacks by other feudal lords and rebellious peasants, rewarded them for their service, and was obliged to take care of their orphaned children.

It happened that the vassals opposed their lords, did not follow their orders, or went over to another lord. And then only force could force them to obey. 3.

Feudal staircase. The king was considered the head of all the feudal lords and the first lord of the country: he was the supreme judge in disputes between them and led the army during the war. The king was a senior for the highest nobility (aristocracy) - dukes and gra-

An excerpt from "The Song of Roland"

In the 11th century, the French epic "Song of Roland" was recorded. In it, pI tells about the heroic death of the detachment of Count Roland during the retreat of Charlemagne from Spain and about the revenge of the King of the Franks for the death of his nephew:

The count felt that death overtook him,

Cold sweat trickles down the forehead.

The count says: “Our Lady, help me,

It's time for us, Durandal6, to say goodbye to you,

I don't need you anymore.

With you, we beat many enemies,

With you, we conquered large lands.

There, Charles the gray-beard rules now ... "

He turned his face to Spain,

So that Charles the King could see,

When he is here again with the army,

That the count died, but won the battle.

What qualities of a vassal were valued in the early Middle Ages?

fov. In their possessions there were usually hundreds of villages, they disposed of large detachments of warriors. Below were barons and viscounts - vassals of dukes and earls. Usually they owned two or three dozen villages and could put up a detachment of warriors. The barons were the lords of the knights, who sometimes no longer had their own vassals, but only dependent peasants. Thus, the same feudal lord was the lord of a smaller feudal lord and a vassal of a larger one. In Germany and France, the rule was: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal."

feudal stairs

king! Dukes and Counts Barons Historians call this organization of feudal lords the feudal ladder. Despite the frequent conflicts between the feudal lords, which even the kings themselves could not always cope with, vassal relations united the lords into a single class in terms of value, place in society (although it consisted of different layers and groups). This was a class of noble (from a good family) people who dominated the common people.

When a war broke out with another state, the king called for the campaign of dukes and counts, and they turned to the barons, who brought detachments of knights with them. This is how the feudal army was created, which is usually called knightly (from the German "ritter" - a rider, an equestrian warrior).

L. The weakness of royal power in France. The power of the last kings of the Carolingian dynasty in France was significantly weakened. Contemporaries gave the kings humiliating nicknames: Charles the Fat, Charles the Simple, Ludovic the Zaika, Ludoik the Lazy.

At the end of the 10th century, the great feudal lords of France elected the rich and influential Count of Paris, Hugo Capet, as king (the nickname is given by the name of his favorite headdress - the hood). From then until the end of the 18th century, the royal throne remained in the hands of the Capetian dynasty or its side branches - the Valois, the Bourbons.

The French kingdom then consisted of 14 large feudal estates. Many feudal lords had more extensive lands than the king himself. Dukes and counts considered the king only the first among equals and did not always obey his orders.

The king owned a domain (domain) in the northeast of the country with the cities of Paris on the Seine River and Orleans on the Loire River. In the rest of the lands towered the castles of recalcitrant vassals. According to a contemporary, the inhabitants of these "hornet nests"

"devoured the country with their robbery".

Having no power over the whole country, the king did not issue general laws, could not collect taxes from its population.

Therefore, the king had neither a permanent strong army, nor paid officials. His military forces consisted of detachments of vassals who received fiefs in his possession, and he ruled with the help of his courtiers.

Otto I. Image from the chronicle of the XII century. 5.

Formation of the Holy Roman Empire. In Germany, the power of the king was at first stronger than in France. A single state was necessary to protect against external enemies.

Attacks by the Hungarians (Magyars) were very frequent. These tribes of nomadic pastoralists moved at the end of the 9th century from the foothills of the Southern Urals to Europe and occupied the plain between the Danube and Tisza rivers. From there, the light cavalry of the Hungarians raided the countries of Western Europe. She broke through the Rhine, reached Paris. But Germany suffered especially: the Hungarians ravaged and captured many of its inhabitants.

In 955, German and Czech troops led by the German king Otto I utterly defeated the Hungarians in a battle in southern Germany. Soon the Hungarian invasions ceased. At the beginning of the 11th century, the kingdom of Hungary was formed, where King Stephen introduced Christianity.

In 962, taking advantage of the fragmentation of Italy, Otto I marched on Rome, and the pope proclaimed him emperor. In addition to Germany, part of Italy fell under the rule of Otto I. So the Roman Empire was restored once again. Later, this political entity began to be called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.

This became possible because Germany and Italy at that time also did not

2* Dust united states. Like France, they consisted of many separate independent duchies, counties, baronies, principalities, etc., each of which had its main city, its sovereign, its own flag and coat of arms. Feudal fragmentation in these countries existed throughout the Middle Ages.

Crown and hold; emperors of the late Roman Empire

The emperor wanted to be considered the head of all the rulers of Europe. But real power was limited. Even the German dukes gradually gained independence from him. The population of Italy did not stop fighting the invaders. Each new German king, in order to be crowned with the imperial crown, had to make a campaign for the Alps and conquer Italy again.

1. Prove that every major feudal lord had such power in his possessions as the ruler of the state. Why was this possible? 2. What was the weakness of royal power in France in the 9th-11th centuries? 3. How was the Holy Roman Empire formed? 4. Explain why the German emperors sought to be crowned in Rome. 5. Calculate how many years there was not a single empire in Europe (how much time elapsed between the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne and the proclamation of Emperor Otto I).

S1. If the king, under feudal fragmentation, was considered only "first among equals", then why was royal power preserved at all? 2. Can one knight be a vassal of several lords? Justify your answer 3.

The laws of Germany in the 11th century say that a lord cannot take away a fief from you without guilt, but only if the vassal violated his duties: leave the lord in battle, attacked the lord or killed his brother. What role did this law play in the organization of medieval society? 4. Were peasants included in the feudal ladder? Why? 5. Pair up with one-kp. See the dialogue between the lord and his vassal, who are discussing the controversial situation about the breaking of the vassal oath. What arguments will both sides bring in p (asserting their innocence? How will the dispute end?

In the history of the early feudal states of Europe X-XII centuries. are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rules of law. The peasants found themselves for the most part in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords.

Having received a monopoly on land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to litigate and mint money, the maintenance of their own military force, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society is now taking shape, which has legal consolidation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which was inferior in size to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, had only formal suzerainty, and large lords behaved independently. Thus began to take shape the foundations of feudal fragmentation.

On the territory that collapsed in the middle of the IX century. Three new states arose in the empire of Charlemagne: French, German and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the base of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration embraced each of these new formations. So, in the territory of the French kingdom at the end of the 9th century. there were 29 possessions, and at the end of the X century. - about 50. But now they were for the most part not ethnic, but patrimonial-seniorial formations.

The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization of state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In its content, it was a natural and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, the expansion of the area of ​​cultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of labor tools, the use of animal draft power and the transition to three-field cultivation, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be cultivated - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, and not make them themselves.

The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of handicraft production improved. The craftsman turned into a small commodity producer working for trade. These circumstances led to the separation of craft from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of crafts and trade.

As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably submitted to him. The townspeople, most of whom were mainly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of the townspeople to free themselves from dependence led to a struggle between cities and lords for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the 10th-13th centuries, went down in history under the name of the "communal movement". All rights and privileges won or acquired for a ransom were recorded in the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities achieved self-government. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and court. The inhabitants of such cities in England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A fugitive peasant who lived in the cities of these countries for a year and one day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new estate appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its own status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in the countries of Western Europe. This became possible thanks to the strengthening of the central government, first in England, then in France.