- (lat. projectio throwing forward): Wiktionary has the article "projection" ... Wikipedia

projection- The classic form of defense, consisting in attributing to another or others one's own feelings, emotions, thoughts, problems (See also: proflection, deflection and retroflection). Brief explanation… Great Psychological Encyclopedia

psychology i- PSYCHOLOGY I (ego psychology) is one of the areas of psychoanalytic psychology that arose in the middle of the 20th century, reflected in the works of A. Freud, X. Hartmann and focused on the study of the defense mechanisms of the I, as well as their connections and ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

The science of psychic reality, of how an individual senses, perceives, feels, thinks and acts. For a deeper understanding of the human psyche, psychologists are exploring the mental regulation of animal behavior and the functioning of such ... ... Collier Encyclopedia

PSYCHOLOGY I (EGOPSYCHOLOGY)- - one of the areas of psychoanalytic psychology, focused on the study of the protective mechanisms of the Self, as well as their connections and relationships with other processes that take place in the human psyche. Psychology I am characterized by a shift in emphasis ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

Analytical psychology is one of the psychodynamic directions, the founder of which is the Swiss psychologist and culturologist C. G. Jung. This direction is related to psychoanalysis, but has significant differences. His ... ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Identification. This article is about the relatively passive defense mechanism. For a defense mechanism that includes unconscious manipulation, see Projective Identification. ... ... Wikipedia

Articles on the topic Psychoanalysis Concepts Metapsychology Psychosexual development Psychosocial development Consciousness Preconscious Unconscious Mental apparatus It Self Super Self Libido Repression Dream analysis Defense mechanism Transference ... Wikipedia

This is one of the areas of psychoanalysis, the author of which is the Swiss psychologist, psychiatrist and culturologist, theorist and practitioner of depth psychology Jung (Jung C. G., 1875 1961). Jung was born in the family of a pastor of the Swiss Reformed ... ... Psychotherapeutic Encyclopedia

The cumulative designation of various directions in modern. psychology, which is characterized by the study of motives as Ch. regulators of the psyche as a holistic ext. process. The term was first used in 1918 by Amer. psychologist R. Woodworth for ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

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Psychologists argue that all defense mechanisms have two characteristics in common: 1) they operate at an unconscious level and are therefore a means of self-deception, and 2) they distort, deny, or falsify the perception of reality in order to make anxiety less threatening to the individual. Psychotherapist also notice that people rarely use any single defense mechanism - usually they use various defense mechanisms to resolve conflict or reduce anxiety. Some basic defensive strategies will be discussed below.

Crowding out. Freud viewed repression as the primary defense of the self, not only because it is the basis for the formation of more complex defense mechanisms, but also because it provides the most direct way to escape anxiety (in a situation stress or outside of it). Sometimes described as "motivated forgetting," repression is the process of removing painful thoughts and feelings from consciousness, unconscious. As a result of the action of repression, individuals are unaware of their anxiety-producing conflicts and also have no memory of traumatic past events. For example, a person who suffers from horrendous personal failures may become unable to talk about this difficult experience due to repression.

Releasing anxiety by repression does not go unnoticed. Freud believed that repressed thoughts and impulses do not lose their activity in unconscious and to prevent their breakthrough into consciousness, a constant expenditure of psychic energy is required. This relentless waste of self resources can severely limit the use of energy for more adaptive, self-developmental, creative behavior. However, the constant striving of the repressed material for open expression can receive short-term satisfaction in dreams, jokes, slips of the tongue, and other manifestations of what Freud called "the psychopathology of everyday life." Moreover, according to his theory psychoanalysis, repression plays a role in all forms of neurotic behavior (with neurosis and not only), in psychosomatic diseases (such as, for example, peptic ulcer), psychosexual disorders (such as obsessive (pathological) masturbation, impotence and frigidity) - that is, in those cases when it becomes necessary professional psychological help - psychologist consultation, help of a psychotherapist. This is the main and most commonly encountered defense mechanism.

Projection. As a defense mechanism in its theoretical significance in psychology projection follows repression. It is the process by which an individual attributes their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to other people or environments. Thus, projection allows a person to place the blame on someone or something for their shortcomings or blunders. A golfer criticizing his club after a bad shot shows a primitive projection. On another level psychologist, psychotherapist may observe the projection of a young woman who is unaware that she is struggling with her strong sex drive, but suspects everyone who meets her of intent on seducing her. Finally, a classic example of projection is a student who has not prepared well for an exam, attributing his low grade to dishonest testing, cheating other students, or blaming the professor for not explaining this topic in a lecture. Projection also explains social prejudice and the scapegoat phenomenon, since ethnic and racial stereotypes are a convenient target for attributing negative personality characteristics to someone else. Discussion of manifestations of the projection mechanism is a frequent topic in psychologist's office and in practice psychotherapy.

Substitution. In a defense mechanism called substitution, the manifestation of the instinctive impulse is redirected from the more threatening, defiant fear object or person to a less threatening one. A common example, known not only psychoanalysts- a child who, after being punished by his parents, pushes his younger sister, kicks her dog or breaks her toys. Substitution also manifests itself in the increased sensitivity of adults to the slightest annoying moments. For example, an overly demanding employer criticizes an employee, and she reacts with outbursts of rage to minor provocations from her husband and children. She does not realize that, being the objects of her irritation, they are simply replacing the boss. In each of these examples, the true object of hostility is replaced by a much less threatening one for the subject. Less common is this form of substitution when it is directed against oneself: hostile impulses addressed to others are redirected to oneself, which causes a feeling of depression or condemnation of oneself (up to depression), which may require counseling and assistance of a psychologist.

Rationalization. Another way for the self to deal with frustration and anxiety is to distort reality and thus protect self-esteem. Rationalization refers to false reasoning by which irrational behavior is presented in such a way that it looks quite reasonable and therefore justified in the eyes of others. Stupid mistakes, bad judgments, and blunders can be justified through the magic of rationalization. One of the most commonly used types of such protection is rationalization according to the "green grapes" type. This name originates from Aesop's fable about the fox, which could not reach the bunch of grapes and therefore decided that the berries were not yet ripe. People rationalize in the same way. For example, a man who was humiliated by a woman when he asked her out on a date consoles himself with the fact that she is completely unattractive. Similarly, a student who fails to get into the dental department of a medical school may convince herself that she doesn't really want to be a dentist.

Reactive education. Sometimes the ego can defend itself against forbidden impulses by expressing opposite impulses in behavior and thoughts. Here we are dealing with jet formation, or vice versa. This protective process is carried out in two stages: first, the unacceptable impulse is suppressed; then, on the level of consciousness, the opposite is manifested. The resistance is especially noticeable in socially approved behavior, which at the same time looks exaggerated and inflexible. For example, a woman who experiences anxiety (and sometimes panic) in connection with his own pronounced sexual desire, can become in his circle an adamant fighter against pornographic films. She may even actively picket film studios or write letters of protest to the film company, expressing her strong concern about the degradation of modern cinema. Freud wrote that many men who make fun of homosexuals are actually defending themselves against their own homosexual urges.

Regression. Another well-known defense mechanism used to protect against anxiety and fear, - This regression. Regression is characterized by a return to childish, childish patterns of behavior. It is a way of alleviating anxiety by returning to an earlier period of life that is safer and more enjoyable. Easily recognizable manifestations of regression in adults include intemperance, dissatisfaction, as well as features such as "puffing up and not talking" with others, baby talk, resisting authority, or driving a car at a recklessly high speed - manifestations that indicate the appropriateness of receiving psychological consultation.

Sublimation. According to Freud, sublimation is a defense mechanism that enables a person, for the purpose of adaptation, to change his impulses so that they can be expressed through socially acceptable thoughts or actions. Sublimation is seen as the only healthy, constructive strategy for curbing unwanted impulses because it allows the self to change the purpose and/or object of the impulses without inhibiting their manifestation. The energy of instincts is diverted through other channels of expression - those that society considers acceptable. For example, if over time masturbation causes the young man more and more anxiety, he may sublimate his impulses into socially approved activities such as football, hockey or other sports. Similarly, a woman with strong unconscious sadistic tendencies can become a surgeon or a first-rate novelist. In these activities, it can demonstrate its superiority over others, but in a way that will produce a socially useful result.

Freud argued that the sublimation of sexual instincts was the main impetus for great achievements in Western science and culture. He said that the sublimation of the sex drive was a particularly salient feature of the evolution of culture - it alone made possible the extraordinary rise in science, art and ideology, which play such an important role in our civilized life.

Negation. When a person refuses to admit that an unpleasant event has occurred, this means that he turns on such a defense mechanism as negation. Imagine a father who refuses to believe that his daughter has been raped and brutally murdered; he acts as if nothing like this ever happened (which protects him from devastating grief and depression) or a wife who denies treason husband. Or imagine a child denying the death of a beloved cat and stubbornly believing that she is still alive. Reality denial also occurs when people say or insist, "This just can't happen to me," despite obvious evidence to the contrary (as happens when a doctor tells a patient that he has a terminal illness). According to Freud, negation is most typical of psychology young children and older individuals with reduced intelligence (although mature and normally developed people can also sometimes use denial in highly traumatic situations).

Denial and other described defense mechanisms represent the paths used by the psyche in the face of internal and external threats. In each case, psychological energy is expended to create protection, as a result of which the flexibility and strength of the self is limited. Moreover, the more effective the defense mechanisms are, the more distorted the picture of our needs, fears and aspirations they create. Freud noticed that we all use defense mechanisms to some extent, and this becomes undesirable only if we rely on them excessively. The seeds of serious psychological problems fall on fertile ground only when our methods of protection, with the exception of sublimation, lead to a distortion of reality and subsequent psychological suffering when a person needs psychological help and psychotherapist consultation.

Projective methods are a group of specific methods aimed at measuring personality. These techniques are aimed at revealing the content of the inner world of the individual.

Specific features of the methods.

Carl Jung was the first to discover the phenomenon underlying projective techniques. It is possible, through indirect influence on significant areas of the subject's experience, to cause changes in experimental activity.

By doing something, any person shows his attitude towards it. His statements, perceptions, motor acts are a projection of his personality.

The term "projection" was first used by Lawrence Frank to refer to a group of techniques in 1939.

He described the basic principles of projective diagnostics.

In 1896, Freud introduced the term "projection" - the attribution to other people of socially unacceptable drives and desires that a person denies himself.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Freud uses "projection" in a different sense - a symbolic transfer to the outside - the inner world of man. Observing the process of exteriorization of anxiety, fear.

Projection then began to be understood as a normal natural mental process involved in the perception of a healthy person.

Groups of projective methods.

First identified by Frank.

I. Constitutive methods (structuring methods).

Presentation of disordered unstructured material. The subject must be given a subjective meaning, something must be seen in him.

For example:

Rorschach inkblot technique.

Three-dimensional apperception test (not used by us)

Created by the Americans in 1947. Stimulus material - 28 standard three-dimensional objects of various shapes.

Two stages of examination:

1. from all choose those that he would like to use to compose a story. Items are selected by touch.

2. The subject focuses on kinesthetic internal sensations, on tactile sensations.

II. Constructive methods (design methods).

They require from certain details to create a meaningful whole, to assemble something, which is carried out in accordance with one's own experience, taste, and personal characteristics.

Create the whole story from individual fragments of the story. Example: in 1939 - the Peace test (Lovenfeid). Stimulus material: 232 models of different objects, which are divided into 15 categories (animals, people...). Models are small, made of wood or metal, have a bright color. The subject must create his own small world (time is not limited).

The following is used as an evaluation criterion:

1. number of people

3. which models are selected first

4. the occupied space is estimated, the forms of the structure are taken into account

5. Observation of the activity of the subject gives a lot of information.

Depending on the approaches (practical, aesthetic, logical ...) they evaluate the type of personality, its orientation.

Make a picture-story (in 1947 Shneidman).

Stimulus material: 21 tables showing the background (bedroom, landscape, living room) and 67 figures corresponding to the background.

Background pictures are presented one at a time, the subject must select the appropriate figures, arrange them and tell a story about the situation he created.

III. Interpretive techniques

Something needs to be interpreted: situations, stories.

1. TAT - thematic apperception test

2. Rosenzweig's pictorial frustration technique

3. Method of Szondi (1939), 48 standard cards with portraits of mentally ill people for 8 diseases:

o epilepsy

o hysteria

o catatonia

o schizophrenia

o depression

o Homosexuality

They are divided into 6 series, each time 8 portraits, one for the disease.

It is necessary to choose two of the most liked and two of the least (each series was repeated 6 times).

If 4 or more portraits with one disease are selected, then this diagnostic area is significant for the subject.

The choice of portraits was determined by the needs of the subject, the lack of choice - the satisfaction of the need.

Negative choices - repressed, repressed needs; positive choices are recognized needs.

Genetic determinism - the existence of a generic unconscious.

IV. Catactic techniques

Implementation of gaming activities in specially organized conditions.

Example: psychodrama. Designed by Jacob Moreno in 1946. In the form of an impromptu theatrical performance, in which specially trained persons participate - auxiliary "I", which create special stimulus conditions.

Certain situations are played out, if they are consonant with the experiences of the subject, then the process of projection of his personality takes place and, as a result of the game catharsis, a therapeutic effect occurs.

Catharsis is effective response.

Doll test technique (we do not use it).

Voltman, Gaworth - 50s of the 20th century. Designed for children under 10 years old, stimulus material - dolls.

Play with puppets various scenes in which he participates in society (rivalry with brothers, sisters ...)

V. Expressive techniques.

Drawing on a free or given topic.

"House-tree-man", "Non-existent animal", "Kinetic drawing of a family".

The myokinetic method of Mir and Lopez - in 1940, consists of 7 subtests, each uses a table where lines of different configurations are drawn. Parallels, circles, stairs, chains, zigzags...

It is necessary to trace the lines with a pencil several times, then perform the same work blindly with the right and left hands. First horizontally, then vertically.

The main indicators evaluate the length of the line and the nature of their deviation (when tracing blindly).

The interpretation is based on the fact that any mental manifestation is associated with muscle movement.

The dominant half of the body is more developed and more controlled by consciousness. Motor manifestations of the dominant half of the body reveal the actual attitudes of the person. The opposite half of the body is associated with instinctive attitudes.

Depending on the type of deviations, the conclusion about the manifestations of a person's attitudes. If the upward deviation is a high degree of arousal, etc.

VI. Impressive techniques.

Preference for some stimuli more desirable than others.

Luscher's color technique (created in 1948), stimulus material - cut out squares of a certain size in different colors. A total of 73 squares, 25 different colors and shades (more often incomplete - 8 squares, 4 primary colors: blue, green, red and yellow; 4 additional colors: purple, brown, black and gray).

All 8 squares are laid out on a white background, you need to choose the most pleasant square in color, in relation to the remaining ones.

A series of squares is formed according to the degree of attractiveness.

The first 2 colors are clearly preferred, 3 and 4 colors are also preferred, 5 and 6 are neutral colors, 7 and 8 are disliked colors.

The interpretation is based on the symbolism of colors: red - the desire for power, green - perseverance, stubbornness. The first 2 choices determine the goals and ways to achieve them in the subject, the last 2 - suppressed needs.

For practical purposes, it is extremely rarely used, since the mental state of the subject is diagnosed.

Color shades are of utmost importance.

VII. additive methods.

Techniques for completing a sentence, story, story. Examples: used to diagnose values, attitudes, anxiety, fears, motives of the subject.

Questionnaires.

Questionnaires are a type of methodology in which tasks are given in the form of questions or statements. To obtain information from the words of the subject himself.

Features of the use of questionnaires.

1. Questionnaires are similar to projective methods, since answers are not evaluated according to the criterion of correctness. Points are awarded for matching the key, not for correctness.

2. Questionnaires are similar to tests: a clear instruction that determines the way the task is performed, preferably a clear content of questions or statements.

3. Questionnaires - a kind of self-observation, indirect self-assessment.

Questionnaires are designed to obtain information about personal characteristics from the words of the subject.

To answer is to show the ability of reflection, introspection, introspection, which not all people possess.

Questionnaires are not used to diagnose young children of preschool age, only from 8 years old.

Stand out:

Questionnaires-questionnaires - to obtain information about the subject, which does not have a personal character (biographical data, to assess the features of the cognitive sphere).

Personality questionnaires - provide information about the personality:

1. typological, which allow you to find out the degree of coincidence of the personality of the subject with a particular type of personality.

2. questionnaires for individual personality traits - for the diagnosis of individual character traits:

Multifactorial (about many traits), such as Cattell (14-, 12-, 16-factor)

Single factor

Two-factor

3. questionnaires of motivation

4. interest questionnaires

5. value questionnaires

6. attitude questionnaires

In the 1950s, the possibility of using personality questionnaires was denied.

In the 60s - begin to use.

By the 60-70s, well-known foreign questionnaires begin to be translated (they are used without checking reliability).

80s - test for reliability and validity on our subjects.

80-90s - the emergence of domestic questionnaires in large numbers.

The main problems associated with questionnaires:

I. Construction

In psychodiagnostics, a lot of questionnaires have been created. They are easy to use. But this simplicity has a downside - they are difficult to design.

You need to understand the content of the question very well, the wording of the question affects the answer. Consequently, the clarity and accuracy of the wording of questions (the use of ambiguous words and expressions is not allowed). Leading questions are dangerous. Stereotyped wording of questions that lead to stereotyped answers is dangerous.

Each question should contain one thought. Should give information about the characteristic that the psychologist should diagnose.

When composing questions, the number of "yes" answers should be approximately the same as the number of "no" answers for which points are awarded.

In the form of questions:

Closed - have answer options

Open - do not have answer options, the subject himself formulates the answer. Difficult to interpret.

Three types of closed questions:

Dichotomous (two possible answers)

Alternative (selection of one answer from several possible options), each question is accompanied by a number of answer options that can be selected.

Restaurant

They are difficult to develop, since the respondent cannot express his own opinion, he can only join

II. Interpretation

The problem of interpretation of the results.

The psychodiagnostic cannot be completely sure of receiving reliable information from the subject. Can the respondent's answers be trusted?

People tend to give socially desirable answers, to present themselves in a more favorable light.

It may be an unconscious tendency.

Ainvords investigated this tendency - the "facade effect", which may be associated with the subject's not very good knowledge of himself.

Sometimes connected - with the unwillingness to accept their limitations in something. The desire to protect one's own "I". The desire to attract attention to themselves, to get help from others. The desire to deliberately distort information about yourself.

Methods for identifying the reliability of answers:

1. the use of duplicate questions (several questions 4-5 are formulated, addressed to the same content in different forms). If the subject answers inconsistently, then this information should not be considered.

2. Control scales. Four types of control scales exist, all of which are present in the Minnesota Multidimensional Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Neurotic defenses of the psyche.

- Defense mechanisms of the psyche. Characteristics of the main defenses (displacement, projection, sublimation, etc.)

- Resistance - as a factor of personal growth.

Let us briefly consider the defense mechanisms common in the human psyche. These defenses are: repression, projection, identification, introjection, reactive formation, self-restraint, rationalization, annulment, splitting, denial, displacement, isolation, sublimation, regression and resistance.

crowding out

Repression is the process of exclusion from consciousness of thoughts, feelings, desires and drives that cause pain, shame or guilt. The operation of this mechanism can explain many cases of a person forgetting the performance of some duties, which, as it turns out, on closer examination, are unpleasant for him. Memories of unpleasant incidents are often suppressed. If any segment of a person's life path is filled with especially difficult experiences, amnesia can cover such segments of a person's past life.

Projection

During projection, a person attributes his own unwanted traits to others, and in this way protects himself from the awareness of these traits in himself. The projection mechanism allows you to justify your own actions. For example, unfair criticism and cruelty towards others. In this case, such a person unconsciously ascribes cruelty and dishonesty to those around him, and since those around him are like that, then in his mind his similar attitude towards them becomes justified. As a matter of fact, they deserve it.

Identification

Identification is defined as identifying oneself with someone else. In the process of identification, one person unconsciously becomes like another (the object of identification). Both individuals and groups can act as objects of identification. Identification leads to imitation of the actions and experiences of another person.

introjection

The traits and motives of persons to which a certain person forms various attitudes can be introjected. Often the object that is lost is introjected: this loss is replaced by the introjection of the object into one's self. Freud (2003) gave an example when a child who felt unhappy due to the loss of a kitten explained that he was now a kitten himself.

Jet formation

In the case of this defensive reaction, a person unconsciously translates the transformation of one mental state into another (for example, hatred into love, and vice versa). In our opinion, this fact is very important in assessing the personality of a person, because it indicates that real human actions, because they can only be the result of a veiled distortion of his true desires.

For example, excessive anger in other cases is only an unconscious attempt to veil interest and good nature, and ostentatious hatred is the result of love that frightened a person who unconsciously decided to hide it behind an attempt to openly splash out negativity.

Self-restraint as an adaptation mechanism

The essence of the self-restraint mechanism is as follows: when a person realizes that his achievements are less significant compared to the achievements of other people working in the same field, then his self-esteem falls. In such a situation, many simply stop working. This is a kind of departure, a retreat in the face of difficulties. Anna Freud called this mechanism "self-limitation". She drew attention to the fact that such a process is characteristic of mental life throughout the development of personality.

Rationalization

Rationalization as a defensive process consists in the fact that a person unconsciously invents logical judgments and conclusions to explain his failures. This is necessary to maintain your own positive self-image.

Cancellation

Cancellation is a mental mechanism that is designed to destroy thoughts or actions that are unacceptable to a person. When a person asks for forgiveness and accepts punishment, then an unacceptable act for him is canceled, and he can continue to live in peace.

Split

In the case of splitting, a person divides his life into the imperatives "good" and "bad", unconsciously removing everything indefinite, which may subsequently make it difficult for him to analyze the problem (a critical situation that causes mental discomfort as a result of development, for example, anxiety). Splitting is a kind of distortion of reality, as, in fact, other defense mechanisms, through the action of which a person seeks to escape from reality, replacing the true world with a false one.

Negation

In the case of the action of this protective reaction of the psyche, if any information negative for him arises in the zone of perception of a person, he unconsciously denies its existence. The presence of the fact of denying any events, etc., allows you to find out about the true intentions and causes of concern of this person, since often he unconsciously denies not something that does not exist in reality, but something important for him, but that according to a number of known to him reasons for such a person is unacceptable. Those. a person denies what he tries to hide in the first place.

Bias

Such a protective function is expressed in the unconscious desire of a person to switch attention from an object of real interest to another, extraneous, object.

Insulation

In this case, there is an unconscious abstraction from any problem, excessive immersion in which can lead to the development of neurosis symptoms (for example, increase anxiety, anxiety, guilt, etc.) the nature of such activity, then such a thing may lead to a failure in the implementation of this activity. (If a boxer thinks all the time that the opponent's blows can cause pain and various kinds of injuries, or even lead to death as a result of a strong blow, then such a boxer will initially lose due to the inability to fight due to fear, etc.)

Sublimation

Sublimation is an unconscious switching of negative mental energy to socially useful work. Sublimation is expressed in the fact that a person experiencing some kind of neurotic conflict finds a replacement for internal anxiety by switching to another activity (creativity, chopping firewood, cleaning an apartment, etc.)

Regression

Such a protective reaction of the psyche as regression is manifested in the fact that a person, in order to avoid a neurotic conflict, unconsciously returns to that period of the past, when everything was fine with him.

Resistance

Such a mechanism for protecting the psyche as resistance is very important both for understanding the specifics of defensive reactions in general, and it serves as an opportunity to move to a new stage in the development of an individual as a person, which, in favorable situations, helps him rise to the next step in the hierarchical ladder of social relations.

First of all, remember that the human psyche is divided into such components as consciousness (the left hemisphere of the brain; about 10% of the volume), the subconscious (the unconscious, about 90% of the volume, the right hemisphere), and the censorship of the psyche (Super-I, Alter-ego). The censorship of the psyche is between the conscious and the unconscious; censorship of the psyche is a barrier of criticality on the way of information from the outside world and the psyche (brain) of a person, i.e. censorship of the psyche is given the role of critical analysis in assessing information coming from the outside world. Censorship lets some of this information into consciousness (which means that a person is able to be aware of this information), and some of it, encountering obstacles in the psyche, the Super-I (Alter-Ego, mental censorship), passes into the subconscious. From there, in consequence, to influence consciousness through emerging thoughts and the implementation of actions (actions - as a result of thoughts or unconscious, reflex, desires, instincts). Resistance, being one of the protective functions (censorship) of the psyche, prevents the entry of information that is undesirable for consciousness into consciousness, being forced out into the unconscious. This becomes possible when the new information, its semantic part, does not find a response in the individual's soul, that is, at the initial level of perception, it becomes impossible to correlate this information - with information that already exists in the unconscious of a particular person, information that, being in the individual's memory - begins to clearly oppose the flow of new information. To the question: how the information coming from the outside world is fixed in the psyche, it should be answered that, most likely, there is a kind of coincidence of encodings (of newly received and previously existing) information, i.e. new information correlates with earlier information of similar content and direction, which by the time the new information arrived was already in the unconscious mind (formed in patterns of behavior after preliminary dominant fixation in attitudes).

When information influences the brain, it should be said that any kind of such influence becomes possible due to the suggestibility of the psyche. Suggestion in this case is a conscious change in a person's existing psychological attitudes through the activation of the archetypes of the unconscious psyche. Archetypes, in turn, involve early formed patterns of behavior. If we consider this from the standpoint of neurophysiology, then the corresponding dominant is activated in the human brain (focal excitation of the cerebral cortex), which means that the part of the brain that is responsible for consciousness slows down its work. In this case, the censorship of the psyche (as a structural unit of the psyche) is temporarily blocked or semi-blocked, which means that information from the outside world freely enters the preconscious, or even immediately into consciousness. Sometimes, bypassing consciousness, it passes into the subconscious. The personal unconscious of the psyche (subconsciousness) is also formed in the process of information displacement by the censorship of the psyche. At the same time, not all information coming from the outside world is forced out unconsciously into the subconscious. Part goes into the subconscious on purpose. For example, to feed the information already available in the unconscious and complete the formation of archetypes, or specifically for the purpose of forming new archetypes, patterns of the individual's future behavior. And this, in our opinion, must be properly understood and distinguished. If we talk about how this or that information is displaced by the censorship of the psyche, going to the subconscious, then we should say that such information has not passed verification, i.e. did not receive a proper “response” in the soul of a person whose psyche evaluates such information. As Z. Freud (2003) pointed out, any situations that are painful for the psyche of the individual, circumstances of life, i.e. everything that he unconsciously does not want to let into consciousness. In this case, the unwanted moments of life are forgotten, that is, deliberately repressed. Moreover, we recall that both resistance and repression are the ability of the psyche to get rid of neurosis. At the same time, new information, finding a “response in the soul”, will also strengthen the information of similar content that previously existed in the brain (the unconscious mind, the right hemisphere of the brain). As a result, it is quite possible that for some time a kind of information vacuum will arise, during which the brain will absorb any information coming from the outside world. This also occurs if special techniques manage to break a person's will to perceive information by overcoming resistance. Then any incoming information is directly deposited in the subconscious, and subsequently affects the consciousness. Psychotechnologies of hypnotic influence in the waking state of consciousness of a person (object of influence) are built on this principle. In other words, if we manage to break the resistance of another person on the way of receiving new information, then this new information will not only be deposited in his subconscious, but the person will also be able to perceive it in a cognitive (conscious) way. Moreover, by the strength of its own impact, such information can have an incomparably greater impact in comparison with the modality of the information that existed earlier in the psyche. If the modality coincides, then in this case the state of rapport comes easier, i.e. a secure connection is established whereby the person becomes receptive to receiving information from the other person.

Attention should be paid to the fact that the psyche almost always protests everything new, unknown. And this happens because, as it were, initially (when new information arrives), as we have already noticed, the individual components of such information are looking for “some kindred relationships” with information that existed in the subconscious before (“coding match”, as we define it). That is, when new information begins to be evaluated by the brain, the brain looks for something familiar in this information, through which it will either fix such information in the mind or force it out into the subconscious. If the codes of the new and previously existing information coincide, an associative connection arises between the new and existing information, which means that a certain contact is established, as a result of which the new information, as it were, falls on fertile ground, and having some basis under it, serves as an opportunity adapting new information, enriching it with symbolic, emotional and other components of already existing information, and then through transformation (without this, in any way, a person’s memory cannot but be updated), some new information is born, which already passes into consciousness, and therefore through the emerging in the unconscious of the psyche of thoughts - it is projected onto actions that, although in most cases (in the absence of altered states of consciousness) are the result of the activity of consciousness, taking their basis in the unconscious of the psyche, forming there. At the same time, we must say that resistance allows us to reveal the unconscious impulses of a person, his unconscious desires, attitudes that were previously laid down (by society, the environment or another person) in the psyche of this individual, and already in one way or another began to influence his real or future activity. In this case, it should be said that the subordination of the psyche of another person occurs by programming his psyche by introducing various settings into his subconscious, which can later be demanded by the manipulator (and then he activates them with the help of code signals of an auditory-visual-kinesthetic nature); moreover, the role of such a manipulator can be played by both specific individuals and society, the social environment, any natural factors, etc. Thus, we must say that any kind of information that is involved in any representational or signaling system of a person - either immediately deposited in the unconscious of the psyche or finds confirmation from the existing early information, thereby enriching and strengthening due to this - turns out to be able to influence consciousness, i.e. on the process of human life.

Note that overcoming resistance, a person opens the psyche for the perception of new information. Moreover, there is a high probability of obtaining radically new information. After all, if earlier, as we said, some information was already present in the memory, then when new information is received, the censorship of the psyche unconsciously seeks confirmation of the newly received information in the storehouses of memory. Probably the psyche in this case should react in a certain way, and it reacts. Visually, this is noticeable by external changes that occur with a person in the “here and now” parallel (reddening or blanching of the skin of the face, dilated pupils, variants of catalepsy (stiffness of the body), etc.). At the same time, such changes can occur and not necessarily so noticeable, but still be caught by the eye of an experienced observer. Such changes indicate the onset, the possibility, of rapport (information contact) with the object of manipulation. And the probability that in this state the object will accept the information supplied to it without cuts is up to one hundred percent. Another question is that individuals are possible who cannot be brought into a state of rapport in the transcription "here and now", but this, for example, can be done later. Anyway, everyone has states when he is maximally susceptible to informational and psychological influence, to manipulation of his psyche, intrusion into his psyche and control of the psyche of this person. Moreover, it is also possible to trace the choice of the right moment to the end, but for this it is necessary to have experience, knowledge, and a predisposition to this kind of realization of opportunities. Those. though relative, but abilities, and even better - talent. In this case, the probability of achieving the programming result is significantly increased.

As a result of the fact that the barrier of criticality is broken, the psyche begins to perceive new information with unprecedented force. Such information is deposited in the subconscious, and is reflected in the preconscious and consciousness. That is, in this case, we can say that the attack is being carried out, as it were, on several “fronts” at once. As a result, an unusually strong programming of the psyche is observed, the emergence of powerful, stable mechanisms (patterns of behavior) in the unconscious. In addition, after the creation of a similar one, the initiation of the emergence of more and more new mechanisms of a similar direction in the unconscious of the psyche is observed. However, now they find constant reinforcement both in the consciousness and in the preconscious. This means that not only the process of fixing the information once received in the subconscious is possible (not any information, but precisely the one that caused such a process, the information that, as a result of the receipt of which patterns began to form in the unconscious), but already such information begins to be activated , soon subordinating the thoughts and desires of the individual in the key indicated by the semantic load of this kind of information. At the same time, a very important factor in the processing of such information is the characteristics of the psyche of an individual. It is known that the same information may have no effect on one individual, and force another to almost radically change life.

The right hemisphere of the brain, as we have already noticed, extends in the spectrum of activity of the unconscious psyche. Whereas the left one forms a conscious personality. The right hemisphere thinks in images, feelings, grasping the picture, the left hemisphere analyzes information received from the outside world, the prerogative of logical thinking is the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere realizes emotions, the left - thoughts and signs (speech, writing, etc.). There are individuals who, in a completely new environment, have the impression of "already seen." This is a typical example of the activity of the right hemisphere. As a result, we can say that the activity of the brain is provided by two hemispheres, the right (sensory) and the left (sign, that is, it integrates the objects of the external world with the help of signs: words, speech, etc.). The complementarity of the activity of the two hemispheres is often manifested by the simultaneous presence in the psyche of the individual of rational and intuitive, rational and sensual. Hence the high efficiency of directive instructions to the brain in the form of such mechanisms of suggestive influence as orders, self-hypnosis, etc. This is due to the specifics of the activity of the psyche, when, speaking or hearing a speech, a person also turns on his imagination, which in this case significantly enhances this kind of impact. In this case, one should once again pay attention to the need to break the resistance. It is known that resistance turns on when new information enters the brain (psyche), information that initially does not find a response in the human soul, does not find something similar to the information already in the memory. Such information does not pass the barrier of criticality and is forced out into the subconscious. However, if by an effort of will (that is, by using consciousness; will is the prerogative of the activity of consciousness) we can prevent repression, and force the brain to analyze the incoming information (the part of such information we need), then we will be able to overcome the resistance, which means that after some more at that time it will be possible to experience that state which we have called early satori, or illumination. Moreover, the effect of this will be incomparably higher than the information methodically and for a long time penetrated into the subconscious, later influencing the consciousness. In our case, in the event of a breakdown of the barrier of criticality, and hence resistance, we will achieve incomparably more, because in this case, for some time, the state of the so-called. "green corridor", when the incoming information passes almost completely and completely, bypassing the barrier of criticality. And just as quickly in this case there is a transition into consciousness both of their preconsciousness and from the unconscious. This means that we will no longer have to wait a long time, as in the case of the natural transition of information from the subconscious to consciousness, when such information begins its transition only when it finds a “response in the soul”, i.e. only when, clinging to similar information currently available in the mind (temporary information, because any information in the mind does not last long, and after a while, from the operative memory enters the long-term memory), it enters there. In the case of overcoming resistance, such information comes immediately, while changing the worldview of a person, because in this case consciousness is actively involved, and if something is realized by a person, then it is accepted as a guide to action.

It is also necessary to say that any kind of information that passes by the consciousness and subconscious of the individual, i.e. falling under the spectrum of action of his representational system (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic) and two signaling systems (feelings and speech) is invariably deposited in the subconscious. Resistance can be conscious, preconscious, subconscious, it can be expressed in the form of emotions, thoughts, ideas, attitudes, fantasies, and so on. One form of resistance is silence. Resistance also includes avoiding topics that are painful for the human psyche; a story in general phrases about what actually caused a storm of emotions at one time; a long story about something secondary, unconsciously avoiding what may be really important for a person. Resistance is any unconscious unwillingness to change any established order in the conduct of conversations, meetings, forms of communication, and so on. The manifestation of resistance includes lateness, omissions, forgetting, boredom, acting out (manifested in the fact that a person tells different people about facts important to him), deliberate gaiety or sadness, great enthusiasm or a long high spirits. In this case, resistance can manifest itself in different ways, i.e. be explicit or implicit. For example, when receiving any information, a person may not outwardly show any emotions, but this is precisely evidence of resistance, because, according to Professor R. Greenson (psychoanalyst Marilyn Monroe), the absence of affect is observed just when actions are considered, which "should be extremely loaded with emotion". But at the same time, the remarks of a person are “dry, boring, monotonous and inexpressive.” (R. Greenson, 2003). Thus, we have an erroneous idea that the person himself is not interested, and the information received does not touch him. Just not, he is actively experiencing, but he strives not to show his true attitude to this or that situation just by unconsciously turning on resistance.

So, we have considered a far from complete list of existing protection mechanisms, but the enumeration of the main protections, in our opinion, can bring us closer to understanding the possible features of interpersonal interactions. At the same time, the very fact of the existence of protective mechanisms in the psyche brings us closer to understanding the mechanisms of the influence of one person on another. Considering the issues of the inclusion of neurotic defenses (and any defense of the psyche is a defense against a developing neurosis), we must pay attention to the fact that, according to O. Fenichel (1945, 2005), anxiety and anger are the result of not receiving an outlet of mental energy as a result of traumatic psyche circumstances, and represent a discharge of mental excitation. At the same time, attention should be paid to the fact that the protective mechanisms of the psyche restrain an excess of mental energy, but in the case of a predominance or repetition of a situation that traumatizes the human psyche, an energy release is possible, resulting in the development of neuropsychic symptoms. At the same time, those who are predisposed to neurosis due to the constitution and infantile fixation will react with the development of neurosis even in response to minimal activation of infantile conflicts. And for someone, this will become possible only as a result of difficult life circumstances. By and large, we are dealing with psychoneuroses, i.e. with the reaction of the psyche to any conflict involving consciousness, subconsciousness and the world around. The basis of psychoneuroses is a neurotic conflict. Neurotic conflict is the result of a conflict between the tendency to discharge and the tendency to prevent it. (O. Fenichel, 2005). The severity of the desire for discharge depends both on the nature of the stimuli and, for the most part, on the physicochemical reactions of the organism. Tracing the psychoanalytic structure of the psyche, it should be noted that neurotic conflict is a conflict between the I (Id) and the Id (Ego). At the same time, it becomes clear that the motive for protecting the psyche is anxiety. It is with the help of defense mechanisms that the individual's psyche unconsciously escapes from the danger of external influence, i.e. from the impact of information from the outside world on the inner world of the individual. Moreover, a number of people in this case really have a conflict, because the incoming information has a negative impact, replacing the personality of the individual, and forcing him to commit actions that were not characteristic of him earlier. A person is saved from such an impact just by switching on the mechanisms of mental protection, which we briefly considered above. In some cases, anxiety is replaced by guilt. The feeling of guilt in this case acts as one of the defenses of the psyche. In itself, the feeling of guilt is a sure sign of neurosis, is characterized by a long state of stable anxiety, and actually replaces the true "I" - a false image with which the personality of this person is forced to reckon. Such a neurotic simply has no choice but to actually adjust his life to the feeling of guilt that exists in his psyche. And the situation in most cases has quite serious consequences, because. forces the neurotic individual to perform actions, if controlled by consciousness, then at best partially; because unconscious desires rise up, contributing to the “silencing” of guilt, causing the strongest provocations of neurosis in the psyche of a person who is forced to perform actions aimed at fulfilling someone else’s will and thereby eliminating anxiety. Guilt is a person's conscience. And in this case, there is a very significant conflict, rooted in the understanding of the issue, because the constant satisfaction of the urges of conscience in a neurotic ultimately leads to negative consequences, the consequence of which is difficult adaptation in society, i.e. such a neurotic individual has broken contacts with the outside world, because his inner world is forced all the time to come into conflict between what needs to be done in order to survive in this world, and the dictates of the inner state of the soul. At the same time, the negative aspects of the existence of a sense of guilt for the personality of a neurotic can manifest itself in internal destructive urges of a sadistic-masochistic nature, consisting in intentional (unconscious, for the most part) infliction of implicit harm to one's health (smoking, drinking alcohol, dangerous driving, parachuting and other extreme sports). Experiencing internal suffering from feelings of guilt, neurotics sometimes use some specific options for protecting themselves from feelings of guilt, which manifest themselves in the following: guilt can be repressed, projected (when someone else is accused of committing an undesirable act), or, for example, there is a censure , reproach to others for what they themselves could do; quite typical example with excessive obsession, sociability, sudden talkativeness. In this case, one should speak of a certain neurotic reaction, manifested in the neurotic's desire to drown out his own guilt by obtaining approval for what is internally experienced as forbidden. Isolation of feelings of guilt occurs when, for example, a neurotic commits some misdeed with a fairly noticeable emotional indifference, while for a completely harmless act he is quite sincerely remorseful.

It should be remembered that the protective mechanisms of the psyche for the psyche itself are a way to avoid neurosis. To establish contact and further influence on a person, it becomes possible to initially identify the protective mechanisms of his psyche (i.e., correctly interpret certain reactions of the body), so that later it becomes possible to establish rapport with a similar individual, and therefore after introducing him into a trance or a semi-trance state (depending on the individual characteristics of a particular psyche) to control such a person. It is also necessary to remember that rarely is anyone able to honestly and sincerely express their own feelings, thoughts, emotions, fantasies, desires, etc. Modern man, who is a child of society, has learned to hide feelings in the process of education necessary for adaptation in the world around him. Therefore, the task of influencing a person, on his psyche, is to reveal such mechanisms of concealment, and treat people as patients. And this is true, you just have to pay attention and observe the specifics of people's behavior. The nature of man already in itself forces him to be secretive. Moreover, this happens at an unconscious level and does not depend on the person himself. True, those individuals who, due to the geography of their residence (villages that are far from places of civilization, etc.) and their own moral preferences, have limited contact with the media, can still be as honest as possible, although civilization and culture put pressure on them. , and over time, in order to survive, they must make a choice: either to be like everyone else, i.e. lie, deceive, dodge, and in this case survive, become a full member of society, or remain honest and open to the end, which means becoming an outcast of society, and a follower of marginal positions, and as a result of this - to be deprived of the benefits of civilization. The choice is truly difficult, despite the fact that the majority is simply unconscious, since from the very birth their psyche is programmed by the mass media and information, which means that such people immediately begin to "play by the rules", i.e. live in accordance with the laws of society.

Resistance - as a factor of personal growth.

Having overcome such a protective mechanism of the psyche as resistance, the individual is able to move to a new level of his own perception of life, and therefore climb to the next step in the social ladder. This becomes possible in the following way. It is known that the psyche of an individual is divided into three important components: consciousness, subconsciousness (unconscious), and the so-called. mental censorship. The latter is assigned the role of critical analysis in assessing information coming from the outside world. Censorship lets some of this information into the consciousness (which means that a person has the ability to realize this information), and some of it, encountering obstacles in the psyche in the form of the Super-I (censorship of the psyche), passes into the subconscious. In order to still subsequently influence conscious actions through the preliminary emergence of thoughts of an unconscious and conscious orientation.

Resistance, as we have noted, is one of the defenses of the psyche. Without going into a too detailed analysis of resistance, let us consider resistance - in the concept of an individual's life growth, raising his social status, his intellectual abilities, life adaptation, and so on. And even then, we need to highlight the role of resistance - as a feature of the psyche that affects the memorization of new information. At the same time, for the most part, we will not consider any new information, but only that which causes a certain “protest” in the psyche after it encounters a barrier of criticality, and in some cases even initiating it. This becomes possible if the nature of the new information, its semantic part, does not find a response in the soul of the individual; that is, at the initial level of its perception, it becomes impossible to correlate this information - with information that already exists earlier in the unconscious of the individual, information that, being in the individual's memory, begins to clearly resist the flow of new information. Moreover, this kind of resistance is especially strong if either the general information-target orientation of the new and old information coincides, or if the new information is generally something new, perhaps even to some extent presented for the first time in the psyche of such an individual; which means that in assessing such information, an individual - unconsciously - will not refer only to that general idea of ​​​​a particular problem (question), which, as you know, is in the soul of almost every person, and characterizes life experience, the amount of knowledge, etc. P..

At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the information received from the outside world (through any type of contacts: interpersonal, with the help of the mass media, etc.) does not fully and completely resonate in the soul of the individual. First of all, the influence is exerted by the information that seems to have fallen on a special wave, to which the psyche of the individual is tuned at the time of receiving such information. At the same time, we must also talk about the fact that at the next moment the same information may no longer be perceived. Even and in general, invisible barriers of criticality can stand in its way, which are the result of the activity of the censorship of the psyche. But if we say that the information that affects the psyche of the individual turned out to be involved in the "here and now" mode, if this information was not forced out into the subconscious like the other, but almost unhindered, or without losing its main essence, after which it is possible to restore in the future its components, having assembled a single whole, and so, if we say that such information has now penetrated into consciousness, then we should recognize that this is quite possible. And this happens as a result of the fact that a part of such information (its avant-garde) not only entered into its codes (any information, as is known, can be presented in a system of codes) correlates with the information already available in the psyche of the individual, but also as a result of such censorship the psyche weakened for a while and opened slightly (metaphorically speaking, the psyche opened a barrier on the way of new information). This means that other information supplied with information that has penetrated through the coincidence of codes can also penetrate into consciousness in the same way. Unless in this case, such information (information that has entered the consciousness by fraudulent means) does not linger for a long time, and soon turns out to be forced out into the subconscious. But if, as a result of censorship, information passes into the subconscious from the outside world, then in this case, this kind of information is forced out of consciousness. Although in both cases it turns out to be in the subconscious.

If we return to the issue of the receipt of information, which, through the unconscious selection of codes, turned out to be in demand in consciousness, then in this case it should be noted that such a mechanism of the psyche, which is able to skip some information, almost bypassing censorship, is well known to specialists in manipulating the psyche. Moreover, the word “manipulation”, which has received a somewhat negative aspect, as we have already noted earlier, can be replaced by a more neutral word “management”. Management, or, for example, programming the psyche. Permutations of words - the semantic impact does not change. And, probably, the word "management" does not cause too obvious provocation of the psyche, an explosion of emotions, and so on. barriers of the psyche, which, depending on the circumstances, can carry both positive and negative aspects as a result of voicing the word “manipulation”, and which involve one or another layer of the unconscious psyche, in the depths of which there are such deposits of sometimes invaluable material that the one who is able to extract from the subconscious at least an insignificant part of the information hidden there, is able to significantly outstrip other individuals in informational power. After all, it is quite clear that it is important not only to receive any information from the outside world, but also to remember it. Moreover, the memorization process is tested quite simply, and as one of the options, it includes such a component of the individual's psyche as memory. The process of remembering is similar to the process of extracting information from the subconscious, and getting such information into consciousness. Despite the rather limited volume of consciousness (in comparison with the subconscious), it is impossible to live without consciousness. Because if a person were to be unconscious all the time, this would mean that primary instincts, the desires of a savage - to kill, eat, rape - would take precedence. And they would be implemented everywhere. Which would lead to the actual destruction of civilization.

How does the information that enters the psyche from the outside world “resonates in the soul” of the individual? As we have already noted, in this case we should say that we have a kind of coincidence of the encoding of new information with information that was previously already in the unconscious of the psyche of such an individual. In this case, attitudes and patterns of behavior are involved, as a result of which new information, practically bypassing the censorship of the psyche (which recedes, recognizing “its own” after receiving certain “password-reviews”) immediately enters consciousness, and therefore has a direct effect on thoughts and human actions. At the same time, even if for some reason such information (or part of it) turns out to be displaced into the subconscious, most likely it will either not penetrate further than the preconscious (there is also such a structure of the psyche, which, according to Freud's metaphorical expression, means "hallway", that is something located between the front door (censorship of the psyche) and the living room (consciousness), or it will be in the unconscious, but with some positive mark. , which means we can talk (immediately or after some time) about the formation of full-fledged attitudes and patterns of behavior.

Answering the question of how this or that information is displaced by the censorship of the psyche, going to the subconscious, we assume that such information did not receive the proper “response” in the soul of the individual who evaluates such information. After all, it is known that almost any information from the outside world is evaluated by the psyche of the "receiving party". And it already depends on what information of what direction the psyche of the individual will let into the consciousness and immediately begin to work with such information, and displace some information. As pointed out by prof. Freud (2003), any situations that are painful for the psyche of the individual, circumstances of life, i.e. everything that he unconsciously does not want to let into consciousness. In this case, it is also appropriate to say that as a result of this, the resistance of the psyche is turned on, as a result of which unwanted moments of life are forgotten, that is, they are deliberately forced out. Or, for example, the censorship of the psyche stands in the way of information seeking to penetrate consciousness, which has various methods of protection, one of which is resistance, and as a result of the work of resistance - repression. Moreover, all this (both resistance and repression) is also nothing more than the ability of the psyche to get rid of neurosis, because any undesirable flows of information for the psyche can, after some time, lead to the appearance of symptoms of neurosis, and as a result - a disease of the psyche, disorders psyche. “... a prerequisite for the existence of a symptom,” wrote Z. Freud, “is that some mental process did not completely occur in a normal way, so that it could not become conscious. The symptom is a substitute for what has not been realized ... A strong resistance had to be directed against the fact that ... the mental process penetrated into consciousness; so he remained unconscious. As unconscious, he has the capacity to form a symptom. ... The pathogenic process, which manifests itself in the form of resistance, deserves the name of repression. Thus, we trace the emergence of repression through the resistance of the censorship of the psyche, which opposes that information that is undesirable, painful for the psyche, passes into consciousness, and therefore subjugates the thoughts, desires, and actions of the individual. While the fact that after a very short time, these same pathogenic microbes that have settled in the unconscious of the psyche, will begin to wander in search of "supporters" (information codes), and having found the latter, they will still be able to break through the defenses and be conscious, about This psyche, which initiated through the barrier of criticality obstacles in the way of information flows from the outside world, does not seem to think. Just as all those who erroneously believe that nothing exists but consciousness do not think, denying the subconscious under far-fetched pretexts, and thereby falling by their actions under the systematics of defense mechanisms described at one time by the Freud family (father and daughter Anna, professor psychology), and continued in the developments of modern scientists.

Before considering in more detail the role of resistance in the life of the individual, we note that prof. R. Greenson distinguished psychoanalysis from all other psychotherapeutic methods just by the fact that it considers the issue of resistance. According to R. Greenson (2003), resistance can be conscious, preconscious, subconscious, and can be expressed in the form of emotions, thoughts, ideas, attitudes, fantasies, and so on. Also, one form of resistance is silence. “Silence is the most transparent and frequent form of resistance encountered in psychoanalytic practice,” writes Prof. R. Greenson. - This means that the patient is consciously or unconsciously disinclined to communicate his thoughts or feelings to the analyst. …our task is to analyze the reasons for the silence. ...Sometimes, despite the silence, the patient may involuntarily reveal the motive or content of the silence by his posture, movements or facial expression.

Making a small digression, we would like to draw attention to the methodology of applied psychoanalysis, which, in our opinion, is one of the most effective systems for controlling the psyche of a person and the masses; at the same time, our use of such a technique is supported (enriched) with some other approaches in influencing the psyche, which, in our opinion, are also effective. We should also talk about a number of differences between classical psychoanalysis in the so-called. therapeutic aspect, and applied psychoanalysis, where theories of influence on the conscious-subconscious are developed not for a psychotherapeutic effect (in terms of treating a specific individual or group of patients), but with the aim of controlling a person, modeling his thoughts, desires, actions, etc., and their effectiveness are applicable both to the individual in particular and to society as a whole. In this case, we can already talk about the art of controlling the masses. On the preliminary modeling of the behavior of the masses by programming their psyche to fulfill the necessary installations. Those who give such installations are called manipulators. But they, as we have already noted, can also be called managers, managers, anyone, if we approach this issue in the context of management, the power of some people over others. And this, in our opinion, is an important feature of the general approach to the possibility of controlling the psyche. Yes, this is justified, especially considering the fact that the enemy is not asleep, developing more and more new methods of manipulating the mental consciousness and discovering new methods of influencing the subconscious in order to manipulate the personality. Therefore, the one who will not only be able to identify enemy encroachments, but also be able to defeat the enemy by his own methods, at best, forcing him to follow his lead, and at least avoiding his psychological attacks, will win.

Returning to the issue of resistance, one should pay attention to the fact that the psyche almost always protests everything new, unknown. And this happens because, as it were, initially (when new information arrives), the individual components of such information are looking for some kind of family ties (similar encoding in the process of afferent connections between brain neurons), that is, something similar, for which one could “cling to ". That is, when new information begins to be evaluated by the brain, it looks for something familiar in this information, through which it would be possible to gain a foothold. When the codes of new information and information already existing in the unconscious of the psyche coincide, in this case a certain associative connection between the new and existing information becomes possible, which means that a certain contact is established, as a result of which the new information, as it were, falls on fertile ground, and having under it some basis - it serves as the possibility of adapting new information, enriching its existing information, and through a certain transformation, new information is born, which already passes into consciousness, which means that through the thoughts that have arisen in the unconscious psyche - it is projected onto actions that, although they are in the majority cases as a consequence of the activity of consciousness, nevertheless, they take their basis in the unconscious of the psyche, it is there that they are born (formed). At the same time, we must say that resistance allows us to identify the unconscious impulses of the individual, his unconscious desires, attitudes that were previously embedded in the psyche of such an individual, and already in one way or another influence his current or future life. It can even be said that just the programming of the individual takes place partly by introducing into his subconsciousness various settings that can later be demanded by the manipulator (and then he activates them through code signals of an auditory-visual-kinesthetic nature); moreover, the role of such a manipulator can be played by both specific individuals and society, the social environment, any natural factors, etc. Thus, we must say that any kind of information that is involved in any representational or signaling system of a person is either immediately deposited in the unconscious of the psyche, or finds confirmation from the existing early information, thereby enriching and strengthening due to this, turns out to be able to influence on the life activity of the individual we are considering (i.e., either immediately forming full-fledged dominants in the cerebral cortex, or attitudes in the subconscious, or preliminarily forming semi-dominants and semi-attitudes, and then, upon receipt of new information of a similar encoding, forming full-fledged attitudes and patterns of behavior).

R. Greenson (2003), considering the role of resistance, drew attention to the fact that resistance can be explicit or implicit, but it almost always exists and manifests itself in different ways. For example, when receiving any information, a person may not outwardly show any emotions, but this is precisely where resistance can be seen, because the absence of affect is observed just when actions are considered that “should be extremely loaded with emotions.” But at the same time, the remarks of a person are “dry, boring, monotonous and inexpressive.” Thus, we have an erroneous idea that the person himself is not interested, and the information received does not touch him. Just not, he is actively experiencing, for example, but he strives not to show his attitude to this or that situation just by unconsciously turning on resistance. “In general, the inconsistency of affect is the most striking sign of resistance,” notes R. Greenson. - the patient's statements seem strange when the content of the statement and the emotion do not correspond to each other. In addition, R. Greenson draws attention to postures that can serve as a sure non-verbal sign of resistance. “When the patient is rigid, motionless, curled up in a ball, as if protecting himself, this may indicate protection. In addition, any postures that are adopted by the patient and do not change at times during the session and from session to session are always a sign of resistance. If the patient is relatively free of resistance, his posture will somehow change during the session. Excessive mobility also shows that something is discharged in movement and not in words. The tension between posture and verbal content is also a sign of resistance. The patient who talks calmly about some event while writhing and writhing himself is telling only part of the story. His movements retell another part of it. Clenched fists, arms tightly folded across the chest, ankles pressed together indicate concealment... Yawning during a session is a sign of resistance. The way the patient enters the office without looking at the analyst, or having a small conversation that does not continue on the couch, or the way he leaves without looking at the analyst, are all indications of resistance. R. Greenson also pointed to resistance if a person always tells something consistently about the present, without diving into the past, or about the past, without jumping into the present. “Attachment to a certain time period is an avoidance, analogous to rigidity, fixation of emotional tone, posture, etc. » . Resistance is also indicated by the fact that a person, when telling something, talks about superficial and unimportant events for a long time, as if unconsciously avoiding what may be really important for him. “When there is a repetition of content without its development or affect, or without deepening of understanding, we are forced to assume that some kind of resistance is at work. If the story about the little things does not seem superfluous to the patient himself, we are dealing with "escape". Lack of introspection and completeness of thought is an indicator of resistance. In general, verbalization that can be exuberant but does not lead to new memories or new insights or greater emotional awareness is an indicator of defensive behavior.

Avoidance of any - painful for the psyche of this person - topics should also be attributed to resistance. Or a story in general phrases about what actually caused a storm of emotions in the soul of a given individual at one time. In addition, any unconscious unwillingness to change any established order in the conduct of conversations, meetings, forms of communication, and so on, should be guessed in resistance. At the same time, we can also say that the performance of the same type and established actions is, among other things, one of the forms of protection against neurotic addiction. At one time, O. Fenichel (2004) drew attention to the fact that in all psychoneuroses the control of the Ego is weakened, but during obsessions and compulsions, the Ego continues to control the motor sphere, but does not completely dominate it, and only in accordance with the circumstances. In this case, there may be a clear transition of any phobia into an obsession. “First, a certain situation is avoided, then, in order to ensure the necessary avoidance, attention is constantly strained. Later, this attention becomes obsessive, or another "positive" obsessive attitude develops, so incompatible with the initially frightening situation that its avoidance is guaranteed. The taboos of touch are replaced by rituals of touch, fears of contamination by washing compulsions; social fears - social rituals, fears of falling asleep - ceremonies of preparing for sleep, inhibition of walking - mannered walking, animal phobias - compulsions when dealing with animals. According to R. Greenson, “the use of cliches, technical terms or sterile language” is also an indicator of resistance, which indicates that such a person, in order to avoid personal self-disclosure, avoids figurativeness of his speech. For example, he says "I felt dislike", when in fact he was furious, thereby "avoids the image and feeling of fury, preferring the sterility of" dislike ". “From my clinical experience with patients in such situations, I concluded,” writes R. Greenson, “that “actually” and “to be honest” usually mean that the patient feels his ambivalence, is aware of the inconsistency of his feelings. He wants what he said to be the whole truth. "I really think so" means that he really wants to think so. "I'm truly sorry" means that he would like to be truly sorry, but he is also aware of the opposite feeling. "I think I was angry" means: I'm sure I was angry, but I'm reluctant to admit it. "I don't know where to start" means: I know where to start, but I'm hesitant to start like this. A patient who says to the analyst several times, "I'm sure you really remember my sister..." usually means: I'm not at all sure, dummy, if you really remember her, so I remind you of that. All this is very subtle, but usually the repetitions show the presence of resistances and must be seen as such. The most frequently recurring clichés are manifestations of character resistances and are difficult to deal with before the analysis is in full swing. Isolated clichés can be easily accessed at an early stage of analysis."

Lateness, omissions, forgetting, boredom, acting out should also be attributed to various manifestations of resistance (it can manifest itself in the fact that a person tells different people about the same facts; in this case, by the way, unconscious evidence is also manifested, confirming the importance of such information for a person), deliberate gaiety or sadness. "...great enthusiasm or prolonged high spirits indicate that there is something that is disgusted - usually something of the opposite nature, some form of depression."

Speaking of resistance, we must also say that if we manage to break down such a protective reaction of the psyche on the way to receiving new information, then in this case, by weakening the censorship of the psyche, we will be able to achieve an effect incomparably greater than if new information , through associative links and the emergence of empathic attachment, passed through the barrier of the psyche and would remain in consciousness. And the greater effect is achieved just due to the fact that the psyche, as if wanting to "justify" for the former impregnability, is almost maximally revealed on the path of new information. Moreover, such information can fill the depths of the psyche and be projected (later) onto consciousness in at least two directions. In the first, she can - even initially in the unconscious - create those stable formations there, on which she can subsequently rely if she wants to take power into her own hands for the time of introjecting information stored in the unconscious into consciousness. Such a period can be, depending on the time, or short and intense; or noticeably distributed over time, and how to prepare for a performance, i.e. to the transfer of information from the unconscious to consciousness. Whereas in the second option, we can say that for some time such information (newly received information) will not only be inactive, but there will also be an assumption that it lies exclusively in those depths of the psyche from which it is not so it will be easy to take it out when the time is right. Moreover, such a time (such a suspicion may arise) may not come.

Actually it is not. And it is in the second case, more often than in the first, that we are witnessing that such information, information that has previously entered the subconscious, is activated in such a strong way that it will literally pull other information stored in the unconscious with it, if only it finds it in such a any similarity information. Moreover, the newly formed stream of such information, information to some extent not having a personal historical unconscious experience associated with the psyche of a particular individual, will not only fill the void that has formed, but will also obviously lead to the fact that it will pull this entire stream along with it, and as a result for a long time he will be able to subordinate to his perception almost any other information that will then enter the psyche, and thus it will really turn out that in terms of its effectiveness it is much higher. Moreover, in our opinion, this is closely related to the specifics of upbringing and education. For if in this way we manage to break the resistance of another individual on the way of receiving new information, then it is quite likely that such information will not only be deposited in the subconscious, but the individual will also be able to perceive it in a cognitive (conscious) way. Moreover, we repeat once again that by the strength of its own impact on the psyche of an individual, such information can have an incomparably greater impact in comparison with the modality of the information that existed earlier in the psyche. Yes, if the modality coincides, then in this case the state of rapport comes easier, i.e. a reliable connection is established, whereby one individual (or group) becomes receptive to receiving information from another individual (group). The state of rapport also turns out to be very effective in manipulative influence, i.e. when managing one person - the psyche of another. At the same time, it is necessary for such an impact, for its effectiveness, to find something in the information supplied that will be confirmed with the information that already exists in the psyche. A.M. Svyadoshch (1982) noted that the processes of probabilistic forecasting proceed in the brain, accompanied by the processes of verification of all incoming information, i.e. there is an unconscious determination of its reliability and significance. In this connection, if it is necessary to inspire something to another person, then it is necessary to ensure the introduction of information that is accepted by a person without critical evaluation and that has an impact on neuropsychic processes. At the same time, not all information has an irresistible inspiring effect. Depending on the forms of submission, the source of income and the individual characteristics of the individual, the same information may or may not have a suggestive effect on the individual. The state of rapport is generally considered invaluable in using all the possibilities of trance influence. We do not need to put the object to sleep for this. More precisely, he falls into a dream, but it will be the so-called. a dream in reality. And just such a state, in our opinion, turns out to be the most effective and extremely effective in realizing the possibilities of information-psychological influence on an individual, on an object, in order to inspire the latter to perform certain actions that we need.

Returning to the topic of resistance, let us highlight once again the important function of such a defensive reaction of the psyche. And then we will notice that overcoming resistance, we most surprisingly open our psyche to perceive new information. Moreover, there is a high probability of obtaining radically new information. After all, if earlier, as we said, some information was already present in the memory, then when new information is received, the censorship of the psyche unconsciously seeks confirmation of the newly received information in the storehouses of memory. Probably the psyche in this case should react in a certain way, and it reacts. Visually, this is noticeable by external changes that occur with a person in the “here and now” parallel (reddening or blanching of the skin of the face, dilated pupils, variants of catalepsy (stiffness of the body), etc.). At the same time, such changes can occur and not necessarily so noticeable, but still be caught by the eye of an experienced observer. Such changes indicate the onset, the possibility, of rapport (information contact) with the object of manipulation. And the probability that in this state the object will accept the information supplied to it without cuts is up to one hundred percent. Another question is that individuals are possible who cannot be brought into a state of rapport in the transcription "here and now", but this, for example, can be done later. Anyway, everyone has states when he is maximally susceptible to informational and psychological influence, to manipulation of his psyche, intrusion into his psyche and control of the psyche of this person. Moreover, it is also possible to trace the choice of the right moment to the end, but for this it is necessary to have experience, knowledge, and a predisposition to this kind of realization of opportunities. Those. though relative, but abilities, and even better - talent. In this case, the probability of achieving the programming result is significantly increased.

Let's get back to resistance. So, as a result of the fact that the barrier of criticality is broken, the psyche begins to perceive new information with unprecedented force. Such information is deposited in the subconscious, and is reflected in the preconscious and consciousness. That is, in this case, we can say that the attack is being waged, as it were, on several fronts at once. As a result, an unusually strong programming of the psyche is observed, the emergence of powerful, stable mechanisms (patterns of behavior) in the unconscious. In addition, after the creation of a similar one, the initiation of the emergence of more and more new mechanisms of a similar direction in the unconscious of the psyche is observed. However, now they find constant reinforcement both in the consciousness and in the preconscious. This means that not only the process of fixing the information once received in the subconscious is possible (not any information, but precisely the one that caused such a process, the information that, as a result of the receipt of which patterns began to form in the unconscious), but already such information begins to be activated , soon subordinating the thoughts and desires of the individual in the key indicated by the semantic load of this kind of information. At the same time, a very important factor in the processing of such information is the characteristics of the psyche of an individual. It is known that the same information may have no effect on one individual, and force another to almost radically change life.

Considering the impact of information on the psyche, let's pay attention to the role of resistance in assessing information coming from outside, both from the directly surrounding world (buildings, architectural monuments, landscape, infrastructure, etc.), and from other individuals (as a result of interpersonal contacts) , as well as the transportation of information over long distances using the means of mass communication and information (QMS and the media). As we have already noted, the same information can either have or not have an impact on the individual. In the first case, we should talk about the establishment of rapport (contact), as a result of which the barrier of criticality of the psyche weakens (censorship of the psyche according to Freud), which means that such information is able to penetrate into consciousness, or from the subconscious (where all information is deposited) to have an impact on consciousness, i.e. in the process of initial encoding of the psyche, control of it is achieved, because it has long been proven by various scientists (Z. Freud, K. Jung, V. M. Bekhterev, I. P. Pavlov, V. Reich, G. Le Bon, Moscovici, C. Horney , V.A. Medvedev, S.G. Kara-Murza, I.S. Kon, L.M. Shcheglov, A. Shchegolev, N. Blagoveshchensky, and many others) that it is the subconscious that controls the thoughts and actions of the individual , unconscious. But we must pay attention to the fact that if attempts are made to break the barrier of criticality, then it becomes possible to achieve as a result of this step (we note that it is very dangerous, and necessary to be carried out under the guidance of specialists of the appropriate profile) something like “enlightenment”, satori. Just such states were the goal of martial arts and meditative practice in martial arts and Eastern philosophy (religion), or the state of enlightened consciousness in Russian pagan practices, or similar states in other systems of the world. Moreover, it should be noted that the state of satori is a temporary state that passes over time (lasts from several seconds to several minutes, for someone a little more or less); moreover, it is not an eternal state, i.e. not a state in the “once and for all” paradigm, therefore, after some time, it is necessary to plunge again into the depths of consciousness or overcome resistance - in order to achieve a similar effect. Unless in this case we can notice that most likely for the majority after the first achievement of such a state, the subsequent invocation of the state of "enlightenment" will be easier. Although in this case it is also necessary to take into account the greater predictability of achieving this for “artists” (in the context of the division of the psyche proposed at the time by Academician I. P. Pavlov, who divided the psyche of individuals into "thinkers" and "artists"). Pavlov referred to the first ones those who memorize logical information well, and to the second ("artists") visual information. According to academician I.P. Pavlov (1958), in the introduction of the left hemisphere are speech, reading, writing, counting, solving problems requiring logic (rational, analytical, verbal thinking). In the introduction of the right - intuition and spatial-figurative thinking (i.e. visual and auditory figurative memory). We add that consciousness (10% of the brain) belongs to the introduction of the left hemisphere, and the subconscious, or the unconscious (90% of the brain) belongs to the right hemisphere. Moreover, the mechanisms of the brain are the result of the functioning of the psyche of the individual, and hence the methods of subsequent influence on the psyche of the object of manipulation, so let's dwell a little more on the activity of the cerebral hemispheres.

The developed left hemisphere of the brain predisposes a person to speech, logical thinking, abstract reasoning, has external and internal verbal speech, as well as the ability to perceive, verify, memorize and reproduce information and individual life experience of a particular individual. In addition, there is a relationship between the work of the left and right hemispheres of the brain, since the left hemisphere perceives reality through the corresponding mechanisms (images, instincts, feelings, emotions) of the right hemisphere of the brain. As, however, through their analytical and verification psycho-physiological mechanisms (life experience, knowledge, goals, attitudes). The right hemisphere of the brain, as we have already noticed, extends in the spectrum of activity of the unconscious psyche. Whereas the left one forms a conscious personality. The right hemisphere thinks in images, feelings, grasping the picture, the left hemisphere analyzes information received from the outside world, the prerogative of logical thinking is the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere realizes emotions, the left - thoughts and signs (speech, writing, etc.). There are individuals who, in a completely new environment, have the impression of "already seen." This is a typical example of the activity of the right hemisphere. As a result, we can say that the activity of the brain is provided by two hemispheres, the right (sensory) and the left (sign, that is, it integrates the objects of the external world with the help of signs: words, speech, etc.). The complementarity of the activity of the two hemispheres is often manifested by the simultaneous presence in the psyche of the individual of rational and intuitive, rational and sensual. Hence the high efficiency of directive instructions to the brain in the form of such mechanisms of suggestive influence as orders, self-hypnosis, etc. This is due to the specifics of the activity of the psyche, when, speaking or hearing a speech, a person also turns on his imagination, which in this case significantly enhances this kind of impact. In more detail, we consider the specifics of brain activity when processing information coming from the outside world separately, therefore, without dwelling on the mechanisms of the brain, we will return once again to the state of enlightenment, satori, insight, illumination, etc. numerous names denoting the essence of the same thing - the establishment from now on (from the beginning of the activation of such a mechanism) of a stable connection between the manipulator and the object on which the manipulative influence is directed.

Any kind of manipulation is a suggestion, i.e. conscious change of the object's existing attitudes through the activation (activation) of the archetypes of the unconscious psyche; archetypes, in turn, involve early formed patterns of behavior. If we consider this from the standpoint of neurophysiology, then the corresponding dominant is activated in the brain of the object (focal excitation of the cerebral cortex), which means that the part of the brain that is responsible for consciousness slows down its work. In this case, the censorship of the psyche (as a structural unit of the psyche) is temporarily blocked or semi-blocked, which means that information from the outside world freely enters the preconscious, or even immediately into consciousness. Sometimes, bypassing consciousness, it passes into the subconscious. The personal unconscious of the psyche (subconsciousness) is also formed in the process of information displacement by the censorship of the psyche. But not all information coming from the outside world is forced out unconsciously into the unconscious. A part, nevertheless, seems to pass into the subconscious intentionally (for example, to feed the information already available in the unconscious and complete the formation of archetypes, or specifically and exclusively for the purpose of forming new archetypes, patterns of the individual's future behavior). And this, in our opinion, must be properly understood and distinguished. At the same time, attention should once again be paid to the need to overcome resistance. It is known that resistance turns on when new information enters the brain (psyche), information that initially does not find a response in the human soul, does not find something similar to the information already in the memory. Such information does not pass the barrier of criticality and is forced out into the subconscious. However, if by an effort of will (that is, by using consciousness; will is the prerogative of the activity of consciousness) we can prevent repression, and force the brain to analyze the incoming information (the part of such information we need), then we will be able to overcome the resistance, which means that after some more at that time it will be possible to experience that state which we have called early satori, or illumination. Moreover, the effect of this will be incomparably higher than the information methodically and for a long time penetrated into the subconscious, later influencing the consciousness. In our case, in the event of a breakdown of the barrier of criticality, and hence resistance, we will achieve incomparably more, because in this case, for some time, the state of the so-called. "green corridor", when the incoming information passes almost completely and completely, bypassing the barrier of criticality. And just as quickly in this case there is a transition into consciousness both of their preconsciousness and from the unconscious. This means that we will no longer have to wait a long time, as in the case of the natural transition of information from the subconscious to consciousness, when such information begins its transition only when it finds a “response in the soul”, i.e. only when, clinging to similar information currently available in the mind (temporary information, because any information in the mind does not last long, and after a while, from the operative memory enters the long-term memory), it enters there. In the case of overcoming resistance, such information comes immediately, while changing the worldview of a person, because in this case consciousness is actively involved, and if something is realized by a person, then it is accepted as a guide to action.

It is also necessary to say that any kind of information that passes by the consciousness and subconscious of the individual, i.e. falling under the spectrum of action of his representational system (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic) and two signaling systems (feelings and speech) is invariably deposited in the subconscious. So, in the end, it begins to influence the consciousness of the individual, because everything that is in the subconscious affects the consciousness, the emergence of the corresponding thoughts, desires, and actions in the individual. That is, in this case, we can talk about modeling a person's actions through the initial formation of the unconscious of his psyche. And this is a truly serious issue, attention to which would avoid many problems, incl. and in the education of children and adults. Moreover, in a situation with a child, it becomes possible to calculate his adult behavior, and in the case of an adult, it should be said that such an impact may begin to exert its influence, incl. and within a fairly short period of time. The presence of the object among other people especially strengthens the schemes originally laid down in the subconscious, i. when we talk about mass behavior. In the case of the latter, the mechanisms of the mass, the crowd are activated (in this case, we do not separate these concepts), which means that the effect is much more effective than in the case of a preliminary impact on one individual. At the same time, as a result of our impact on the object, we should achieve a state of empathy, when the inner world of the object is perceived by us as our own. Professor Carl Rogers wrote about empathy: “To be in a state of empathy means to perceive the inner world of another accurately, with the preservation of emotional and semantic shades. As if you become this other, but without losing the feeling of “as if”. So, you feel the joy or pain of another, as he feels them, and you perceive their causes, as he perceives them. But the shade “as if” must necessarily remain: as if I am happy or upset. If this shade disappears, then a state of identification arises ... The empathic way of communicating with another person has several facets. It implies entering into the personal world of another and staying in it "at home". It includes constant sensitivity to the changing experiences of the other - to fear, or anger, or emotion, or embarrassment, in a word, to everything that he or she experiences. This means a temporary life in another life, a delicate stay in it without evaluation and condemnation. This means capturing what the other is barely aware of. But at the same time, there are no attempts to open completely unconscious feelings, since they can be traumatic. This includes communicating your impressions of the other's inner world by looking with a fresh and calm eye at those elements of it that excite or frighten your interlocutor. This includes referring often to others to check their impressions and listening carefully to the responses they receive. You are a confidant for another. By pointing out the possible meanings of another's experiences, you help them experience more fully and constructively. Being with another in this way means putting aside your points of view and values ​​for a while, in order to enter the other's world without prejudice. In a sense, this means that you are leaving your "I". This can only be done by people who feel safe enough in a certain sense: they know that they will not lose themselves in the sometimes strange or bizarre world of another and that they can successfully return to their own world when they want.

Psychoanalysis understands resistance as everything that prevents the secret (deep, unconscious) thoughts of an individual from penetrating into consciousness. E. Glover singled out explicit and implicit forms of resistance. By the first in psychoanalytic work, he understood lateness, missed sessions, excessive talkativeness or complete silence, automatic denial or misunderstanding of all the statements of the psychotherapist, the game of naivety, constant absent-mindedness, interruption of therapy. He attributed everything else to the second (implicit forms), for example, when the patient formally fulfills all the conditions of work, but at the same time his indifference is clearly noticeable. Classification of types of resistance (according to Freud) includes: repression resistance, transference resistance, id and superego resistances, and resistance based on the secondary benefit of illness. Resistance arises when the individual's psyche resists the penetration into consciousness of any information that is painful for it from the subconscious. At the same time, according to J. Sandler, Dare and others, this type of resistance can be considered a reflection of the so-called. "primary benefit" from the disease of neurosis. As a result of the action of the method of free associations, information previously hidden in the unconscious can come out (pass into consciousness), therefore the psyche resists this - by engaging (activating) resistance mechanisms. Moreover, the closer the material ousted from consciousness (and passed into the subconscious) approaches consciousness, the more resistance increases. Transference resistance characterizes the infantile impulses and the fight against them. Infantile impulses are understood as impulses caused by the personality of the analyst and arising in a direct or modified form: the analytical situation in the form of a distortion of reality at a certain moment contributes to the recall of previously repressed material (material that, being in the unconscious, caused a neurotic symptom). Transference resistance differs depending on what kind of transference relations (positive or negative) underlie it. Erotic transference patients (eg, hysterical personality types) may seek sexual relations with the therapist or show resistance in order to avoid a strong sexual attraction in such transference of awareness. Patients with negative transference (for example, those with a narcissistic type of personality organization) are filled with aggressive feelings towards the therapist and may seek through resistance to humiliate him, make him suffer, or similarly avoid transference awareness of these feelings. Resistance to "It" is characteristic of cases where negative and eroticized forms of transference become an insoluble obstacle to continuing therapy. At the same time, Freud considered the resistance of the Super-Ego (“Super-I”) to be the strongest, since it is difficult to identify and overcome it. It comes from an unconscious sense of guilt and masks impulses that seem unacceptable to the patient (for example, sexual or aggressive). One of the manifestations of superego resistance is a negative therapeutic reaction. Those. the patient, despite the clearly successful result of the treatment, has a very negative attitude both to the therapist and to the manipulations performed on him. At the same time, from the realization of such nonsense, their mental health deteriorates, because it is known that for our psyche it is actually indifferent whether an event actually happens, in reality, or whether it scrolls only in a person’s thoughts. Impulses from such an impact the brain will receive the same and almost equivalent in terms of involvement and activation of neurons. As a result of psychotherapy, there may be resistance based on the so-called. "secondary" benefit, i.e. when the patient benefits from his “disease”. In this case, we have a clear trace of the masochistic accents of the psyche of the neurotic individual, because the patient likes to be pitied, and he does not want to get rid of the support provided to him “as a patient”.

The conditional scheme of working with resistance is as follows:

1) recognition (it is necessary that the resistance is noticed not only by the therapist, but also by the patient);

2) demonstration (any kind of resistance seen in the patient is verbally demonstrated in order to draw the attention of the patient to this);

3) clarification of resistance (which involves a confrontation with what the patient avoids, why he does it and how).

After clarifying the cause of resistance, its form is analyzed. The result of this stage is the discovery of an instinctive impulse, an attempt to satisfy which led to a conflict. After that, the history of the experience is clarified by the method of interpretation. At this stage, it becomes clear how the conflict arose, how it manifested itself and manifests itself during the life of the patient, what patterns of behavior and emotional response it generated, etc. The history of experience allows you to include the identified conflict in the broader context of obstacles at this stage of psychodynamic therapy. At the same time, the therapist must remember that criticism or disagreement with something of the patient does not always mean a manifestation of resistance. At the end of the therapy of working with resistance, a study of resistance is carried out, which is tracing the influence of an already conscious conflict on various life events in order to repeat, deepen, expand the analysis of resistance. Elaboration allows you to increase the understanding of the client by increasing the amount of material involved. This is also where the interpretation of emerging new resistances takes place, which further clarifies the basic problems and leads to more stable results. This stage is not limited in time, its duration depends on the individual characteristics of the patient, the form and content of resistance, the stage of psychotherapy, the state of the working alliance and many other factors.

And finally, I would like to once again draw attention to the fact that the activity of resistance is an unconscious act, and thus it turns out to be quite logical that if we want to unravel the nature of a person, the nature of his psyche, unravel the mechanisms of controlling the psyche, we will certainly in the first place turn should pay attention to his unconscious reactions, by analyzing and comparing various facts to reveal what a person is hiding, and therefore, as a result, such methods can bring us even closer to understanding the human psyche, help to reveal the mechanisms of the structure of the psyche, how to trace those or other reactions of a person, and to reveal the mechanisms of the emergence of impulses, the consequences of which are these reactions. That is, we are talking about the fact that analysis is certainly important, conducting analytical work, paying attention to every little thing, because in the end they will allow us to collect the most complete picture of the psyche of an individual, and therefore, later, to find out (develop, to identify, etc.) mechanisms of influence both on such an individual and on society as a whole, for society just consists of various individuals who, uniting in masses, collectives, meetings, congresses, processes, symposiums, crowds, etc. . forms of association of people are part of the environment. For the environment is just presented incl. and the constant unification-separation of people, this process is fluid like mercury, the mass is changeable and inconstant not only in its desires and interests, but also in the composition of participants, etc. Thus, the solution to the psyche of each individual person can bring us closer to the secrets and mysteries of society, and therefore to the development of a methodology for managing a person, modeling his thoughts and projecting such thoughts into actions.

© Sergey Zelinsky, 2010
© Published with the kind permission of the author

Projection in psychology is an erroneous perception of intrapersonal processes by individuals as arising and occurring from the outside. From lat. projectio - I throw ahead - endowing the surrounding objects with characteristics that the person has conditionally chosen for them inside himself, but perceives them as data received from the outside. Projection in psychology is a type of primary, primitive, psychological defenses classified by Nancy McWilliams.

The projection allows the individual to justify his own actions, behavior and motivation, with the explanation “everyone does it”, and he is a positive hero, forcedly placed in a situation. The functions and purpose of the defenses is to reduce the intrapersonal conflict (anxiety, tension) caused by the confrontation of the impulses of the unconscious with the learned requirements of the society that arise as a result of education and social communication. By weakening the conflict, the defense mechanism regulates the behavioral scenario of the individual, becoming a way through an unconscious distortion of reality.

Projection is the opposite. If the latter is the desire to psychologically appropriate an external object, placing it in the field of one's personality, then the projection, on the contrary, seeks to give the internal to the responsibility of the external. Psychoanalytically, this happens when the impulses of the ID are condemned by the Super-Ego (Super-I) and the personality ("I") needs a tool to resolve the confrontation. Paranoid tendencies are an example of an extreme manifestation of projection.

What is projection in psychology?

The projection mechanism is unconscious. It can manifest itself in paranoid tendencies, when the unconscious desire to control the environment is realized in the accusation of persecution, the desire to cause harm. The unwillingness to recognize one’s own and accept them due to self-condemnation or social unacceptability, often subjective, provokes an increase in internal tension, and in order to create the possibility of contact with one’s desire, it rewards an external object with this desire (for example, to allow oneself to behave in a certain way), and then condemnation is possible outside.

Projection in psychology examples appear in everyday communication. Various features, attitudes, beliefs that belong to one's own are attributed to external objects and then perceived as coming from outside.

Projection in psychology is an example of a primary unconscious defense. It was assumed that the mechanisms of introjection and projection are dependent on the separation of the self from the external. Rejection, thoughts from the world of the Self and their expulsion to the outside world have the potential to bring relief to the confrontation only when the Self distinguishes itself from the outside. According to Freud, the starting points for the work of these psychological defenses are extremely complex and the mechanism is not as simple as it seems. In accordance with the theory of the British school, which operates during the period of Freud's study of defenses, they are the very processes without which the differentiation of the individual from society could never be realized.

The projection scheme can be represented as a sequence of separate processes - understanding the nature of the impulse (not conscious understanding), stopping the impact on the environment necessary to satisfy this impulse, which is its only goal, excluding active action from the external activity of the Self, creates a conditional field around its personality , in which the necessary (because desired) impulse comes from outside, it seems. This, already subjectively emanating from an external impulse, is perceived by a person as aggressively and forcibly directed, forcing to react, because the I unconsciously, in the same way, forcibly stops its own contact with its own unconscious impulse.

This process is considered as an adequate element of mental development, not necessarily leading to neurotic tendencies. Projective defense is formed during the period when the child realizes his separation from the people around him. If the separation takes place adequately, a person is able to separate his desires from those of others.

The global work of mass projection is various forms of prejudice. Prescribing to a certain group the presence or absence of qualities (there are bad ones, there are no good ones) on the basis of subjective sensations leads to a distorted interpretation of facts and events in an effort to pay off one's own repressed impulses. Freud believed that the worldview of the religious (and the mythological in general), at least in part, is the result of the projection outward of the inner psychological content of people, creating powerful images.

There are such conditional types of projection:

- attributive - attributes one's motivation and behavior to others;

- autistic - one's own needs push one to interpret the attitude of one's neighbors in accordance with the expectations and requirements of unconscious impulses;

- rational - explaining their miscalculations by interference created by other people;

- Complementary - a person rewards himself with the qualities of strength, as opposed to weak others, denying in himself the characteristics that are subjectively perceived as manifestations of weakness of character.

Usually, the mechanism works in a complex way, using different types at the same time. The larger the participation of the projection in the work of the internal processes of the personality, the more responsibility is given to the outside, the more passive the individual, the psychic energy, instead of being directed to a productive channel of self-realization, is spent on creating an explanation of one's own lack of initiative.

Projection - psychological protection

Examples of projection from life are subjective views on the environment, which are characteristic of the individual. , in balance, are necessary for the psyche to compensate for traumatic events. But if the defense begins to prevail, captures the mental space and becomes the dominant way of communicating with the world, we are talking about neurotic behavior, and in extreme forms it manifests itself as psychotic disorders.

An example of a normal and successful use of projection is the actor's experience of the hero's drama, endowing him with his pain, re-experiencing emotion in a role. Thinking and planning actions from the angle of "what would I do, being in his place" also includes the conscious use of this defense, if it is understood that this is only an assumption. But even in this case, if you remove the element of understanding the assumption, situations arise “to judge by yourself”. This is a common situation in cases of suspicion and in personal relationships.

The same applies psychological protection also in relation to the characteristics of their own individuality. He separates from himself not only impulses, but even the physical parts of himself, the organs in which these impulses arise, endowing them with an objective, in some form, existence. They become responsible for the difficulties and help to ignore that these are parts of the person himself. For example, hunger can be explained by the peculiarities of the work of the stomach, and not by one's own natural desire. The projecting subject appears as a passive object of circumstances, and not as an active actor in the life of his own individuality.

Thus, in the projection, the line between the intrapersonal and the rest of the world shifts in favor of one's own benefit, which makes it possible to remove responsibility, denying the belonging of aspects of individuality that are perceived as unattractive, offensive.

Projection is a consequence of causing introjects in a person a feeling of contempt and a desire for alienation. A person who wants love but avoids close relationships because they believe others will betray is a classic example of projection. In everyday speech, psychological defense is manifested in wordings when the behavior of others causes indignation and condemnation, the replacement of the pronoun "I" with the pronoun "you\he\she\them". That "white coat". And the stronger the impulse pressure, the more aggressive external attacks.

- this is a more conscious projection, since a person already includes himself in the system of relationship with the projection. Psychological protection underlies the ability to personify inanimate objects (children are "friends" with toys), or animals, communication with which is built on an emotional level.