KEK) which means Zemsky Sobor - the highest estate-representative institution Russian kingdom from the middle of the XVI to the end of the XVII century, a meeting of representatives of all segments of the population (except serfs) to discuss political, economic and administrative issues... in places); subsequently, such cathedrals began to be called Zemsky (as opposed to church cathedrals - “consecrated”). The word "zemsky" could mean "nationwide" (that is, the case of "the whole earth"). [source not specified 972 days](The apparent logical connection between the Novgorodian class of Svoezemtsev and the Zemsky Sobor in a single centralized Russian state has not yet been confirmed.) The Council of 1549 lasted two days, it was convened to resolve questions about the new royal Code of Laws and about the reforms of the Chosen Rada. In the process of the council, the tsar, the boyars spoke, and later a meeting of the Boyar Duma took place, which adopted a provision on the lack of jurisdiction (except in major criminal cases) of the boyar children to the governors. According to I. D. Belyaev, elected representatives from all estates participated in the first Zemsky Sobor. The tsar asked the saints who were at the cathedral for a blessing to correct the Sudebnik “in the old days”; then he announced to the representatives of the communities that throughout the state, in all cities, suburbs, volosts and churchyards, and even in the private estates of boyars and other landowners, elders and tselovalniks, sots and courtiers, should be elected by the inhabitants themselves; charters will be written for all regions, with the help of which the regions could govern themselves without sovereign governors and volostels.

The earliest council, the activity of which is evidenced by the sentencing letter (with signatures and a list of participants in the Duma Council) and news in the annals, took place in 1566, at which the main issue was the continuation or termination of the bloody Livonian War.

V. O. Klyuchevsky defined zemstvo sobors as "a special type of popular representation, different from Western representative assemblies." In turn, S. F. Platonov believed that the Zemsky Sobor was “the council of the whole earth”, consisting of “three necessary parts”: 1) “the consecrated cathedral of the Russian church with the metropolitan, later with the patriarch at the head”; 2) boyar duma; 3) "zemstvo people, representing various groups of the population and various localities of the state."

Such meetings were convened to discuss the most important issues of the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian state, also on urgent matters, for example, the issues of war and peace (on the continuation of the Livonian War), taxes and fees, mainly for military needs. Zemstvo councils of 1565 were devoted to the fate of the political structure of the country, when Ivan the Terrible left for Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda;

The history of Zemsky Sobors is the history of the internal development of society, the evolution of the state apparatus, the formation of social relations, and changes in the estate system. In the 16th century, the process of formation of this public institution was just beginning, initially it was not clearly structured, and its competence was not strictly defined. The practice of convocation, the order of formation, the composition of Zemsky Sobors for a long time were also not regulated.

As for the composition of zemstvo sobors, even during the reign of Mikhail Romanov, when the activity of zemstvo sobors was most intense, the composition varied depending on the urgency of the issues being resolved and on the very nature of the issues. The clergy occupied an important place in the zemstvo councils, in particular, the zemstvo councils of February - March 1549 and the spring of 1551 were at the same time church councils in full force, and only the metropolitan and the higher clergy participated in the rest of the Moscow cathedrals. Participation in the councils of the clergy was intended to emphasize the legitimacy of the decisions taken by the monarch. B. A. Romanov believes that the Zemsky Sobor consisted, as it were, of two “chambers”: the first was made up of boyars, roundabouts, butlers, treasurers, the second - governors, princes, boyar children, great nobles. Nothing is said about who the second “chamber” consisted of: from those who happened to be in Moscow at that time, or from those who were specially summoned to Moscow. The data on the participation of the townspeople in the zemstvo sobors are very doubtful, although the decisions made there were often very beneficial to the top of the township. Often the discussion took place separately among the boyars and the clergy, service people, that is, each group separately expressed its opinion on this issue.

In February 1549, on the initiative of Ivan IV, the central class-representative legislative body, the Zemsky Sobor, was convened for the first time. Subsequently (until the middle of the 17th century), the use of zemstvo sobors to resolve the most important state issues became a common practice. This body of power cannot be identified with Western European estate-representative institutions (parliaments, states general, cortes, diets), since zemstvo councils were convened irregularly, solely at the will of the sovereign, they did not have a legislative initiative and, therefore, did not limit the autocratic power of the tsar.

The Council of 1549, called the "Council of Reconciliation", was attended by the Boyar Duma, church hierarchs and representatives of the nobility. At the very first meeting, the sovereign accused the boyars of “untruths”, abuses and “negligence”. The boyars obeyed and tearfully begged for forgiveness, the tsar forgave them and called on everyone to live in peace and harmony. During the Council, decisions were made on judicial reform, on preparations for a war with the Kazan Khanate, and on the “organization” of local self-government.

Sudebnik 1550

In 1550, by decision of the Zemsky Sobor of 1549, a new Sudebnik was adopted. It largely repeated the provisions that already existed in the Sudebnik of Ivan III, but took into account the accumulated legal practice and was significantly expanded.

At the expense of butlers, treasurers, clerks and all sorts of clerks, the composition of the judiciary expanded. The landowners were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the boyars and governors. Nobles and merchants could elect special people - kissers, who participated in the governor's court. The rights of the governors were also curtailed by the fact that the duty of levying taxes was transferred to elected people - favorite heads (headmen), which prepared the abolition of the feeding system. A procedure for filing complaints against governors and volostels was established. Service people, who were the backbone of the royal power, defended themselves from falling into servitude. The judicial privileges of the specific princes were also sharply reduced.

New in Sudebnik was the concept of anti-state activity - "sedition", which included serious criminal offenses, conspiracies, rebellions. The first articles of this code of laws established severe penalties for bribery and deliberate injustice.

Sudebnik also touched upon the position of dependent peasants. Their attachment to the land intensified, since, despite the fact that the right of St. George's Day was preserved, the payment for the elderly increased.

order system

The system of central state authorities that began to take shape under Ivan III received a relatively finished look in the middle of the 16th century. The order system became the core of the administrative apparatus. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries. orders were called orders given by the sovereign to his confidants - orders to "be in charge" of one or another matter. But the orders of the middle of the XVI-XVII centuries. These are permanent departments responsible for certain areas of state activity. The first orders of this kind arose in the system of palace administration: Treasury and Stable orders, the order of the Grand Palace, etc. Foreign policy was handled by the Ambassadorial order, the distribution of land among service people was in charge of the Local order, the collection of the noble militia and the appointment of the governor - Discharge, the capture of criminals - Rogue, etc. In addition to branch orders, the jurisdiction of which extended throughout the country, there were also regional orders that controlled certain territories: the Novgorod Chet, the Vladimir court order, Kazan, Astrakhan, Zemsky (Moscow management) orders, etc.

The order administration included order judges, order clerks and clerks. The order judge is a courtier or boyar, appointed by the tsar at the head of the department. The name of this post indicates that its owner had not only administrative, but also judicial functions. Prikazny clerk - an official who received a monetary, and sometimes a local salary, who was responsible for organizing all the activities of the department (each order had several clerks). Clerks are the lowest order rank, ordinary clerks.

Stoglavy Cathedral

In 1551, a church council was held (with the participation of secular representatives of the ruling class), which issued a collection of its decisions - the “Council Code”, which consisted of one hundred chapters. Therefore, the cathedral itself began to be called Stoglav. This Church Council adopted the following main decisions: 1) on the unification of church rites and duties throughout Russia; 2) on the creation of an all-Russian pantheon of saints; 3) on the adoption of a single monastic charter; 4) on determining the norms of behavior of the clergy and toughening the punishment for their violation; 5) on the regulation (creation of canons) of church art - icon painting and book writing; 6) on the establishment of schools for priests; 7) about methods of combating heresies; 8) on the approval of the structure of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Under the influence of his confessor Sylvester, Ivan IV proposed to limit the monastic land ownership. However, this idea did not find support among the majority of those who participated in the Council. In addition, the clergy were henceforth under the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical court. The Stoglavy Cathedral played a big role in strengthening the spiritual authority of the Russian Orthodox Church, and Stoglav became one of the most important ecclesiastical legal documents.

02/27/1549 (03/12 in 2018). - The first Zemsky Sobor in Russia

- the highest estate-representative institutions in Russia from the middle of the 16th to the end of the 17th centuries. In the literary monuments of the XVII century. such a cathedral is often called "the council of all the earth". The appearance of Zemsky Sobors was the result of the unification of Russian lands into a single state, the growth of the political significance of the nobility and the upper tenants.

In its structure, the Zemsky Sobor in Russia approaches the class representation of Western Europe, but unlike the latter, it had only an advisory value, and not a legislative one (with rare extraordinary exceptions). The decisions of the Zemsky Sobor only took the force of law when the Boyar Duma, headed by the Tsar, took part in its work.

The convocation of the first Zemsky Sobor on February 27, 1549 coincides with the beginning of the reform period in the government. The Zemsky Sobor arose as a nationwide analogue of the city councils that existed in large county towns before. The first Zemsky Sobor included members of the Consecrated Cathedral (higher clergy), the Boyar Duma (specific princes, boyars), the sovereign's court, elected from the provincial nobility and wealthy citizens. The meetings of the council were held according to the ranks, the decisions were recorded as unanimous. The cathedral consisted, as it were, of two chambers: the first was made up of boyars, courtiers, butlers, treasurers, the second - governors, princes, boyar children, great nobles. The meeting went on for two days. There were three speeches of the king, the performance of the boyars, and finally, a meeting of the boyar duma took place.

This first Zemsky Sobor was called the "Council of Reconciliation" and marked the transformation of the Russian state into a class-representative monarchy through the creation of a central class-representative institution, in which the nobles played a significantly increased role. At the same time, the feudal aristocracy had to give up a number of their privileges in favor of the bulk of the service people. The council decided to draw up a new Sudebnik(confirmed in June 1550).

Due to the fact that in February 1549 it was decided to "give judgment" if a person applied with a petition to the boyars, treasurers and butlers, a special petition hut was created. Petitions addressed to the Sovereign were received in it, and decisions were made on them here. The petition hut was a kind of supreme appellate agency and control body that oversaw another government agency.

Simultaneously with the "Council of Reconciliation" there were meetings of the Church Council, which established the church celebration of 16 saints and examined their lives.

Subsequently, representatives of black-eared peasantry and trade and craft townsman population.

The convocation of the Council was carried out by a draft letter, which indicated the issues on the agenda, the number of elected ones. If the number was not determined, it was decided by the population itself. Elections of representatives to the Zemsky Sobors (the number of members was not determined and ranged from 200 to 500 people) were held in county towns and in the province camps in the form of meetings of certain ranks. Elected were convened by sending letters to the cities, which - with their counties - constituted electoral districts. Only those who paid taxes to the treasury, as well as people who served, could participate in the elections held by estates. At the end of the elections, a protocol of the meeting was drawn up, which was certified by all those participating in the elections. The protocol was sent to the Ambassadorial or Discharge Order. The elected took with them the necessary supply of food or money, which the electors supplied them with. Electoral salaries were not paid. Meetings of the Councils could take years, so it was extremely important for the elected to stock up on everything necessary.

Each Zemsky Sobor was opened with a solemn service in, sometimes there were religious processions, after which a solemn meeting of the Council took place in full force. The king made a speech and set tasks. After that, deliberative meetings of the electives were held among themselves. Each class met separately. Voting on major issues took place in special chambers. Often, at the end of the Zemsky Assembly, a joint meeting of the entire Council was held. Decisions were usually taken unanimously. At the closing of the Cathedral, the Tsar gave a solemn dinner for the elected.

The competence of Zemsky Sobors was very extensive. The role of Zemsky Sobors in matters of codification of law is known (Sudebnik 1550,). The councils were also in charge of issues of war and peace, internal and tax administration, church dispensation in the years. The Councils also had the formal right of legislative initiative, but until 1598 all Councils were deliberative, after death "selective" Councils began to be convened. On February 14, 1598, the Zemsky Sobor elected, in 1613 -, in 1682 (at the last council) was approved by the Tsar together with his elder brother.

In the first decades of the 17th century Zemsky Sobors sat almost continuously. Then the Councils began to be convened less frequently, mainly in connection with foreign policy events. So, on October 1, 1653, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a resolution on. Cathedrals stopped collecting at . Instead of Zemsky Sobors, single-class commissions begin to assemble.

During its existence, 57 Zemsky Sobors were convened.

In the 1990s, he created the All-Russian Movement for the preparation of a new Zemsky Sobor and held several local Sobors: in Novocherkass, Kursk, Crimea, and St. Petersburg. , why this movement gradually faded away, giving way to re-creation, designed first to carry out its self-organization and mobilization.

Discussion: 4 comments

National forces must come to power, and not only Orthodox ones. Yes, and the Russian people, who are in deep sleep, are not ready (yet!) To convene the Zemsk. Sobor. Of course, the Russian Orthodox Church could do a lot in rebuilding and organizing the Z. Sobor But the spinelessness of its leadership - the Church -, its remoteness from the people and its greed nullify all the good impulses of the true patriots of Russia.

TEN COMMANDMENTS FOR RUSSIA. You have one natural Russian Tsar and may you have no other kings, the crown of the Tsar Autocratic and Orthodox. Do not create for yourself chiefs from the Jews of the Poles and other foreigners in any department, do not bow to them and do not serve them. 3. Treasure Russian culture and the Russian name, do not humiliate them in vain, spread the glory of them throughout the earth. 4. Remember the Russian People, use everything, measures to enlighten it, provide everything you need, and then take care of the foreigners. 5. Honor and support those foundations that created the great Russian state, and you will benefit, and you will exist for a long time. 6. Stop killing your loyal subjects.7. Prohibit Orthodox Christians from committing adultery, i.e. to marry Jews, wet and unwashed. 8. Forbid the bureaucratic government to steal from the Russian treasury with foreign loans and wasteful spending on useless enterprises 9. Do not condemn or punish Russian people for telling the truth about foreigners, mediocre rulers, robbers and about all your open and secret enemies. 10. Do not want foreign constitutions, do not introduce Masonic-Jewish teachings, parliamentary talking shops and all that is bad with your neighbors. Moses Novosinaysky ("Sea wave"). Autocracy and Orthodoxy are the greatest gifts of the Russian people. They can neither rot nor be outlived by "time". You can refuse gifts, yes. You can throw them into the mud, following unkind suggestions, you can become stupid enough to change the noble, natural Russian Tsar for rootless political crooks, sadists and murderers ... And will we really continue to listen more to the heirs of the murderers of our fathers and mothers, these ideologists "historical science", pouring mud on our history and our Leaders and saints, nobles and priests, peasants and merchants for decades. And do we really not see that today we are slipped instead of outright Bolsheviks - secret, but with the same thirst for destruction? There is not even a thought today about touching the healthy stream of Russian national thought. So the gift tramples in the mud with its hooves. Meanwhile, much can be done with prayer today. And it is necessary. This is the duty of every Russian person. Whether he wants it or not. One can renounce sonship, but one cannot renounce... [Ostretsov.V.M. Autocracy and the people] Lord, forgive and have mercy on us sinners. Give, Lord, a saving thought.

Zemsky Sobors - in-sti-there is a general-go-su-dar-st-ven-no-go with-words-no-pre-sta-vi-tel-st-va with mo-nar-he with for-co-but-communicative functions in the Russian state in the middle of the 16th-17th centuries.

In the period from 07/17/27/1610 to 02/21/03/03/1613, in the date of le-gi-tim-no-go and generally th go-su-da-rya, - for-to-but-dative and supreme executive body. Co-zy-va-lis not-re-gu-lyar-but, according to the ini-tsia-ti-ve of the king, in some cases - pat-ri-ar-ha and Bo-yar-ska du-we or co-words. For-se-da-tion of the Zemsky Sobors pro-ho-di-li mainly in the Mo-s-kov-sky Kremlin. The number of Zemsky Sobors (tra-di-qi-on-but is-sle-to-va-te-whether on-count-you-va-yut more than 50), the character of the pre-st vi-tel-st-va, pro-tse-du-ra you-bo-ditch de-pu-ta-tov, composition and circle of times-bi-equal-shih-sya problems on them (for is -key-che-no-eat a number of important issues of external and internal po-li-ti-ki) os-ta-yut-sya in science dis-kus-si -he-us-mi. In the source-no-kah-no-va-lis "so-bo-ra-mi", "so-ve-ta-mi", "with-ve-ta-mi of the whole earth" (t i.e. co-in-kup-no-sti of right-in-spo-of co-words and co-word groups), “zem-ski-mi co-ve-ta-mi”. Ter-min "Zemsky so-bor" was introduced into is-to-rio-graphy in the middle of the 19th century; in part-no-sti, he uses-pol-zo-val-sya in le-mi-ke K. S. Ak-sa-ko-va and S. M. So-lov-yo-va .

Pre-references for the emergence of the Zemsky Sobors were co-created according to the measure: for-mi-ro-va-nia of a single ter-ri-to-rii of the Russian state in the XV - the first half of the XVI centuries; warehouses from the end of the 15th century tra-di-tions of co-together for-se-da-ny co-bor-ditches of churches (re-gu-lyar-but co- bi-ra-lis from the middle of the 15th century) with the Bo-yar-sky du-mine (sta-no-viv-shey-sya in the 16th century the representative organ of the Russian ari-hundred-kratia ); rise-nick-but-ve-niya prak-ti-ki co-ve-shcha-ny mo-nar-ha with your own yard and row-do-you-mi children-mi bo-yar-ski- mi (October 1445, May 1471, etc.).

The core of the Zemsky Sobors in the overwhelmingly large-shin-st-ve of the case-cha-ev was the members of Os-vya-shchen-no-go so-bo-ra, Bo-yar- du-we and Go-su-da-re-va dvor-ra (in the representations of the 16th-17th centuries they represented the “best” part of society and in this sense le would it be, as it were, “choose-bor-us-mi” from no-go). In co-bo-rah teaching-st-in-va-whether so before-hundred-vi-te-whether tor-go-in-re-mes-len-no-go on-se-le-niya, pre-g-de of all-gross-no-go ku-pe-che-st-va (state-ty, state-ty-noy hundred and soo-horse-noy hundred), as well as , as right-vi-lo, in-garden-on-se-le-niya Mo-sk-you and county-no-go noble-ryan-st-va, in exceptional cases -yah - black-but-sosh-nyh kre-st-yan. Since the beginning of the 17th century, the principle of re-al-no-go pre-sta-vi-tel-st-va of the city-ro-dov (county-dov) and re-al- noy choice-bor-no-sti de-pu-ta-tov Zemsky cathedrals from the county cor-po-ra-tions of the nobility-ryan-st-va, white city-rod-sko-go-du- ho-ven-st-va, draft-lykh city-ro-zhan, etc.

In conjunction with the internal for-no-mer-no-stya-mi of the mills-nov-le-niya and the development of the Zemsky Sobors you-de-la-yut-sya 4 per-rio-yes their is-to-rii.

The first pen-ri-od (the end of the 1540s - the end of the 1590s) comes to the king-st-in-va-niya Iva-on IV Va-sil-e-vi-cha Groz-no-go and his son-on Fe-do-ra Iwa-no-vi-cha. Bol-shin-st-in-research-to-wa-te-lei is considered the first Zemsky Sobor of the so-called. So-bor pri-mi-re-niya (27-28.02.1549), on something with the participation of the mo-nar-ha, mi-tro-po-li-ta and other spirits -ny persons with-standing-elk symbol-in-personal adjunction of boy-yar and others before-hundred-vi-te-lei of power, os-sche-st-in-lyav-shih not-right court and on-si-lie in the years of bo-yar-sko-go-rule of the 1530-1540s, with a number of children-mi-bo-yar- ski-mi. Were there any decisions about not-under-court-no-sti of de-tey bo-yar-sky on-me-st-no-kam for more-shin-st-woo cases, about pre-o-ra-zo-va-nii or-ga-nov su-da and me-st-no-go administration and about under-go-tov-ke but-in-go Su-deb - no-ka (see Su-deb-ni-ki of the XV-XVI centuries). In the Zemsky Cathedral, convened on 06/28/1566 in the Kremlin by the decision of the tsar and at the go-in-ru of the Boyar Duma, teaching -whether, not counting before-hundred-vi-te-ley du-ho-ven-st-va (more than 30 people), only before-hundred-vi-te-whether zem-shchi-ny , moreover, persons, on-ho-div-shi-sya in Mo-sk-ve (in a number of cases, de-pu-ta-you, most likely, from- bi-ra-lis from among the noble nobles op-re-de-lyon-no-go district-yes, who were then in a hundred): about 270 members new Go-su-da-re-va dvor-ra (taking into account dum-persons and clerks), over 70 pre-hundred-vi-te-lei krup-no-go ku-pe- che-st-va and tor-go-th people, 9 rows of children of boyar-sky western counties; in total over 370 people.

About-su-zh-gave-sya the question of the continuation of the war with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (ON) or the acceptance of the conditions for-mi- re-tion with him. Ru-ko-vod-stvu-being various mo-ti-va-mi, teaching-st-ni-ki so-bo-ra re-ko-men-to-va-whether from-rejecting us-lo- viya mi-ra, pre-lo-wife of the Lithuanian side, and under op-re-de-lyon conditions-lo-vi-yah, continue to live military action -Wiya. Ak-ti-vi-za-tion of social-political life, connected with the Zemsky Sobor of 1566, brought of a human-bit-noy group of nobles about the cancellation of op-rich-ni-na (later ini-tsia-to-ry actions were-whether kaz-not-ny). Ucha-st-ni-ki about-ho-div-she-go in the us-lo-vi-yah on-ras-tav-she-th economic and so-qi-al-no-go kri-zi- sa Zemsky Sobors of the late 1580s, on some pre-ob-la-yes-whether pre-hundred-vi-te-whether in-en-but-service-ly-word groups, you -said for the key to the world with Re-whose Po-spo-li-that (there was no key).

Some scientists to the Zemsky Sobors from-but-syat with-hundred-yav-shie-sya in Moscow two so-word-so-b-ra-niya on-cha- la January 1565 (on one day-st-in-va-li members of Os-vya-shchen-no-go so-bo-ra, Bo-yar-sky du-we, Go-su -yes-re-va dvor-ra and pri-kaz-nye, on the second - large merchants and pre-hundred-vi-te-whether the Moscow garden-on-the-se-le -nia), to teaching-st-no-kami someone with various messages about-ra-til-sya from the Alek-san-d-rov-slo-bo-dy Ivan IV according to the way of the introduction of the op-rich-ni-na. To the special forms of the Zemsky Sobors from-no-syat how-so-so-b-ra-niya (so-bo-ry) in the course of the Kazan marches (1545- 1552 years) in January 1550 in Vla-di-mi-re (on the question of me-st-no-che-st-ve) and at the beginning of July 1552 in Ko-lom-ne ( by way of obes-pe-che-niya teaching-st-ni-kov in-ho-yes to Kazan); co-b-ra-niya pre-hundred-vi-te-lei de-tei of the bo-yar-sky southern counties (mainly in the frontier service), pro-is-ho-div -shie in the winter of 1571 and in September 1575 under the leadership of the au-ri-tet-nyh military waters and members of the Bo-yar-du-we, for some reason there were times ra-bo-ta-we measures for or-ga-ni-for-tion one hundred-ro-same-howl service, as well as fak-ti-che-ski fal-si-fi-qi- ro-van-nye so-bor-ny times-bi-ra-tel-st-va affairs of A.F. Ada-she-va (1560) and Metropolitan Mo-s-kov-sko-go and all Ru- si Phi-lip-pa (Ko-ly-che-va) (1568).

The second swarm of the su-sche-st-in-va-tion of the Zemsky Sobors (late 1590s - early 1620s) coincided with the system-dark crisis of the general -st-va and go-su-dar-st-va (co-being of Trouble-no-go-me-ni) and first-you-mi sha-ga-mi according to his pre-odo-le- niyu. Pre-kra-sche-nie di-na-stii of Moscow Ryu-ri-ko-vi-chey (1598) object-ek-tiv-but ras-shi-ri-lo pra-va and the sphere of action -no-sti of the Zemsky Sobors, at the same time, but about the political struggle at the convocation of the Zemsky Sobors and during their work. In 1605-1622, the Zemsky Sobors met almost every year, but sometimes they lasted 2-3 years (de-pu-ta-you co-bi-ra-lis for separate sessions on specific issues in 1610, 1613, 1618).

Ras-shi-ri-moose so-wordly pre-sta-vi-tel-st-in Zemsky cathedrals due to de-pu-ta-tov from pro-me-zhu-precise military-en-no- service co-word groups (including foreign-et-no-che-s), and in three cases (with the creation of the Zem-sko-th pr-vi-tel-st-va in 1612, at the Zemsky Sobors of 1613 and 1616) - due to the choice of black-but-solid kre-st-yan. On-a-row with the sta-tu-ny pre-st-vi-tel-st-vom at the Zemsky Sobors (in conjunction with a part-tych-noy choice-bor-no-stu) in th -ro-dah (uez-dah) on-lu-chil development-vi-tie (especially ben-but since 1610) the principle of direct choices from local co-words- groups. Zemsky Sobors became the right-to-urinary organ-ga-nom from the marriage of the new-in-the-go mo-nar-ha (in the ideas of the epoch, only through the right-vil-but sfor -mi-ro-van-ny Zemsky Sobor could manifest God's choice). On behalf of the Zemsky Sobors, they were re-re-go-in-ry with other go-su-dar-st-va-mi and pre-va-ri-tel-but for-key-cha-lis ak -you are about the future of the state structure of the Russian state (in 1610, 1611 Zemsky Sobors), so that they pri-ob-re-whether for-co-but-dative pre-ro-ga- ty-you and functions of the supreme executive power.

At a number of Zemsky cathedrals, from-bi-ra-lis-we-te-whether go-su-dar-st-va or Zemsky right-vi-tel-st-vo. At the Zemsky Sobors of 1598, called by ini-tsia-ti-ve pat-ri-ar-ha Job-va, there were about 600 de-pu-ta-tov , pre-ob-la-da-li pre-hundred-vi-te-li Go-su-da-re-wa dv-ra according to sta-tu-su (including teas of the choice of noble nobles 21 go-ro-yes), the first in-zi-tion for-no-ma-whether the faces of the Duma-nyh and Moscow chi-nov, as well as the members of Os-vya-shchen-no-go so-bo-ra, gos-ty teaching-st-in-va-li per-so-nal-no (with-about-times-but to his own hundred-tu-su), os-tal-nyh tor- go-y and in-sad-sky people from Mo-sk-you represent-be-la-whether old-ros-you and sot-sky. On February 17 (27) on it, Bo-ris Fedo-ro-vich Go-du-nov was elected king, and on March 9 (19) you decided to se-nii to him for-sya-gi and about the time of his wedding to the kingdom; in a-p-re-le Zemsky Sobor announced a walk-in-view of the entire army in Ser-pu-ho-ve. On the co-bo-re 19 (29) .05.1606, the tsar was elected Va-si-liy Iva-no-vich Shui-sky, among the students of the elders of the Zemsky Cathedral la-yes-whether his side-ron-no-ki, na-ho-div-shie-sya then in a hundred. In August 1610, on behalf of the Zemsky Sobor, a preliminary agreement was signed with Het-man S. Zhol-kevsky on the conditions of marriage Polish ko-ro-le-vi-cha Vla-di-sla-va (bu-du-sche-go Polish ko-ro-la Vla-di-sla-va IV) Russian tsar and oh bu-du- schema state device-swarm-st-ve of the Russian state.

Under the First militia of 1611, the Zemsky Sobor (“Council of the whole earth”) gathered not-half-a-hundred-va (from-day-st-in- va-li du-hov-nye chi-ns, pre-hundred-vi-te-whether like garden people, and pre-ob-la-yes-whether pre-hundred-vi-te-li county -nyh children of the bo-yar-sky and ka-zach-them from-rows), who formed the Zemsky pra-vi-tel-st-vo. Zemsky Cathedral of the Second Militia of 1611-1612 of the year: p-day-st-in-va-whether almost all co-word groups, including pre-hundred-vi-te-lei du-ho-ven-st-va, not- some members of the Bo-yar Duma, not a small number of persons from the Moscow ranks Go-su-da-re-va yard, a number of de -tey bo-yar-skikh, ka-za-kov, pre-hundred-vi-te-lei servants of the ta-tars (prince-zey and murz), as well as de-pu-ta-tov from a whole series of cities (including kre-st-yan). By the summer of 1612, the power of the sfor-mi-ro-van-no-go by this Zemsky Sobor. Zem-sko-go-vi-tel-st-va races-pro-country-ni-las on b. hours of the country, and it’s name-but it’s op-re-de-li-lo us-lo-via and the time you-bo-ditch de-pu-ta-tov on from-bi-ra-tel- ny Zemsky Cathedral.

The third re-ri-od of the activities of the Zemsky Sobors (early 1630s - mid-1650s) is also ha-rak-te-ri-zo-val-sya ost-ry-mi internal-ri-po-lytic and external-non-po-lytic cri-zi-sa-mi, during the time of some right-vi-tel-st-vo re-gu-lyar -but turned to co-words for supporting their actions and for “co-ve-ta-mi”. One-but-time-men-but in the 1630-1640s on-ras-ta-la so-qi-al-no-po-ly-tic activity of county children of boy-yar -sky and tor-go-in-re-mes-len-ny layers of cities. They are, yes, wa-whether collective-lec-tiv-nye-lo-bit-nye gra-mo-you during the Zemsky Sobors or before them on-cha-la. Co-bo-ry in November 1632 and January 1634, pro-ho-div-shie in the years of the Russian-Polish war of 1632-1634, approved additional additions ry ex-t-ra-or-di-nar-nyh na-lo-gov.

In 1637-42 Z. s. so-bi-ra-lised not-one-but-times-but in connection with the sharp ob-st-re-ni-em from-but-she-ny Rus. state-va with the Crimean khan-st-vom and the Os-man-sky im-pe-ri-her. On W. with. 1639 de-pu-ta-you-yes-wa-whether under-pi-san-by them according to ku-ri-yams me-nia according to the way you pay the Crimean-sky-mu-khan-st- wu and measures for or-ga-ni-za-tion ob-ro-ny south. county-dov. Z. with. in Jan. 1642; chi-nov Go-su-da-re-va yard, large merchants and garden people Mo-sk-you, teaching-st-in-wa-li 115 choice -nyh nobles and children of bo-yar-skys from 42 cities. On this Z. with. from-clo-not-to the possibility of including Azo-va in the composition of Rus. state-va in connection with his capture of don-ski-mi ka-za-ka-mi and "Azov si-de-ni-em" 1637-42; besides that, in the course of Z. s. would-we-yes-we-would-be for the severity of the-log-gov and services, the proposal-lo-zhe-tion about re-re-men-nah in the su-deb-noy sphere, ob-vi-non-niya in the address-res bo-yar and mosk. ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tion, given near the county cor-po-ra-tions of the nobility and merchant-tsa-mi. This is from-ra-zi-lo krep-nuv-neck in the us-lo-vi-yah kri-zi-sa "one-on-che-st-in" county-no-go noble-ryan-st-va and ku-pe-che-st-va, on-ras-ta-nie pro-ti-in-standing-niya me-zh-du-ni-mi, on the one hand-ro-na, and power, ari-sto-kra-tich. eli-toy, pre-kaz-noy ver-khush-koy, - with another.

Pro-ve-de-niya of the reforms of the court-yes, on-lo-go-about-lo-zhe-niya, management in the capital and in the places, co-zy-va Z. s. on-tre-bo-wa-li and teaching-st-ni-ki So-la-no-go bun-ta 1648 in Mo-sk-ve. Z. s. with the teaching of you-bor-nyh, for-se-give ok. 16 (26) .7.1648, confirmed the not-about-ho-di-bridge of the creation of the Code of Practice, co-zy-va for this new Z. with. (you-bo-ry have been still since the end of July-la and co-pro-in-well-da-lied in a number of cases, an acute swarm in a li-tich fight -fight, and in other cases - pass-siv-no-stu you-bor-shchi-kov). One-but-time-men-but by the decree of Tsar Aleksey Mi-hi-lo-vi-cha in co-ot-vet-st-vii with pri-go-vo-rum Os-vya- puppy-no-go co-bo-ra and Bo-yar-sky du-we were issued a special order headed by the book. N. I. Odo-ev-skim for compiling the Code of Practice. In Z. s., pro-ho-div-shem in October. 1648 - Feb. 1649, teaching-st-in-wa-whether ca. 350 people from 116 cities - 14 ie-rar-hov and spiritual persons, 34 people. from the Bo-yar-sky Du-we and Moscow. chi-nov Go-su-da-re-va dvor-ra, 178 - from the county nobles and children of the bo-yar-skys, 15 people. - from archers, 3 state and 12 bor-nyh - from tor-go-in-re-month-len-no-go on-se-le-niya Mo-sk-you, 89 people. - from other cities and gardens. On W. with. after de-tal-no-go and after-to-va-tel-no-go about-su-zh-de-nia in two pa-la-tahs, the text of So-bor-no was adopted 1649, udov-le-tvo-riv-shiy row of kar-di-nal-nyh ma-te-ri-al-nyh tre-bo-va-niy uyezd-no-go-dvoryan -st-va and in a garden-go-on-se-le-niya. Za-se-da-niya Z. s. were also related to the consideration of collectives and groups of people, not directly related to the current stoma So-bor-no-go ulo-same-tion Ra-bo-ta on this Z. s. ras-smat-ri-va-las as “go-su-da-re-va service-ba” (“by guilt”) and at the same time as a fact of pre-sta-vi -tel-st-va de-pu-ta-ta-mi me-st-nyh in-te-re-owls before go-su-da-rem. Duration and intensity for-se-da-ny "com-pen-si-ro-va-lis" de-gentle sting-lo-van-em and decomp. easy-ta-mi.

To the author-ri-te-tu Z. s. pra-vi-tel-st-in again you-well-di-lo about-ra-tit-sya Pskov-s-sta-tion 1650. At the first for-se-da-nii 4 (14). 7.1650 would-la for-chi-ta-on the speech of Tsar Alek-sei Mi-hi-lo-vi-cha, in some-swarm in-li-ti-ka on from-but-she-niyu to psko-vi-cham ha-rak-te-ri-zo-va-las as “mi-lo-sti-vaya”, and resurrection - as a state. from-me-on, on the second for-se-da-nii on July 26 (Aug. 5) in the presence of the tsar, go-in-ri-elk about new “vi -nah "psko-vi-whose, in-en. me-rah pra-vi-tel-st-va and doesn’t-mean-chit. soften-che-nii tre-bo-va-ny to the rebels. So-boron sfor-mi-ro-val and right-fork in Pskov de-le-ga-tion of 15 people, someone managed to elk at the end of the av-gu-hundred-thread psko-vi-whose to in-cor-no-sti and with-not-se-niyu with-sya-gi. On the new Z. with. (or the 3rd for-se-da-nii pre-dy-du-sche-co-bo-ra) 8 (18). dek-la-ra-tion about not-se-nii psko-vi-cha-mi tsa-ryu “in wine-che-lo-bit-noy”, his forgiveness and “mi- lo-sti.

On co-bors in 1653 (at least two), the request of the het-ma-na B. M. Khmel-nit-ko-go and the Cossack old- shi-ny about accepting in Russian. sub-dan-st-in Uk-rai-ny. Teaching-st-in-va-li de-pu-ta-you no less than 55 cities, as well as Os-vya-shchen-ny so-boron, pre-hundred-vi- those doom-nyh chi-nov, Moscow. chi-nov Go-su-da-re-wa of the courtyard, guests and garden people. On the basis for-se-da-nii on May 25 (June 4-nya) would-la for-chi-ta-on de-la-ra-tion of right-vi-tel-st-va, in some ak- prices-ti-ro-va-lis Polish "not-truths" in from-but-she-nii of Uk-rai-ny, new "not-is-right-le-niya" ko-ro -la Re-chi In-spo-li-that according to-no-she-tion to Rus. state-woo (including vra-zh-deb-nye me-zh-du-nar. actions), go-in-ri-moose about the community of su-deb of Uk-rai-ny and Russia (from the day-st-vie of the world at B. M. Khmel-nits-ko-go with Jan II Ka-zi-mir recognized times-ry-woo of the world from-no-she-niy Russian state with Re-whose Po-li-that). In the ob-su-zh-de-tion of these questions-of-owls, the eyes-were in-vle-chen-us-mi not only de-pu-ta-you Z. s., but also “plo - sparing people. Pri-go-thief Z. s. was one-but-soul-nym - to accept in the sub-dan-st-in Uk-rai-well and declare war-well Re-chi Po-spo-li-toy. Windows-cha-tel-but acceptance and execution of the act - when-go-in-ra about the acceptance of the UK-rai-ny in the sub-dan-st-in-pro- isosh-lo on the second Z. s. 1(11).10.1653. In the do-ku-ment, in my own-st-ven-but "with-go-in-ra" duma chi-nov, there are two more text-hundreds, co-der-zhav- the opinions of the rest of the de-pu-ta-tov: in-en-but-servant-living persons were obliged to be impeccable military. service-battle, and merchants and re-mes-len-ni-ki pry-ny-whether fi-nan-co-vuyu support the coming war. Then Z. s. you-de-lil in salty de-le-ga-tion on Uk-rai-well for bringing her zhi-te-lei to pri-sya-ge.

For-shchi-ta in-te-re-owls of co-word groups of the county-no-th noble-ryan-st-va and tor-go-in-re-mes-len-no-go on-se- le-niya, in my opinion, participation in Z. s. -tsi-al-ny-mi and ma-te-ri-al-ny-mi tre-bo-va-niya-mi (1635, 1637, 1639, 1641, 1642, etc.).

In the fourth pe-ri-od su-sche-st-in-va-niya Z. s. (1660-80s) their activity is for-tu-ha-la, but at the same time with-ob-re-ta-la and new features. Reviving-le-nie in the activity of Z. s. fell on the crisis years (late 1670s - early 1680s), especially from me-cha-elk when trying to enter -niya means. no-vacation in the state. management. In the “general con-voice co-ve-te” in the “royal pa-la-tah” 12 (22) .1.1682 teaching-st-vo-va-lo St. 170 people: tsar, Os-vyaschen-ny council (12 people), duma ranks (98 people), room so-no-ki (23 people) and 39 electives (among them there were only 4 city-ro-do-out courts-rya-ni-na; all the rest were representatives of Moscow. chi- us Go-su-da-re-wa dvor-ra). There was a “So-bor-noe deed” about from-me-not-me-st-no-che-st-va [pro-from-ve-de-on by decree of the tsa- rya Fe-do-ra Alek-see-vi-cha dated 24.11 (4.12).1681]. So-time-men-no-ki assessed whether as "co-boron" activity of commissions of "military" and "zem-sky" affairs (February - March 1682 ). After the death of Tsar Fe-do-ra Alek-see-vi-cha on ini-tsia-ti-ve pat-ri-ar-ha Io-a-ki-ma on co-b-ra- research institutes on-ho-div-shih-sya in the Kremlin of persons representing-becoming-lyav-shih ch. arr. Bo-yar-sky Du-mu, Moscow. chi-ny Go-su-da-re-va dv-ra and others (among them pre-ob-la-da-whether sides-no-ki Na-rysh-ki-nyh), tsa -rem 27.4 (7.5).1682 Peter I was proclaimed. nya) the first (“old-shim”) tsar pro-exaltation Ivan V Alek-see-vich, the second (“younger”) - Peter I, and on May 29 (June 8 -nya) the re-gent-shey with them declared-le-na tsa-rev-na Sofya Alek-se-ev-na. In all these cases, with-time-men-no-ki before-by-chi-ta-whether they talk about the royal selection on co-bo-re. Decree on co-zy-ve after-not-go co-b-ra-niya you-bor-nyh de-pu-ta-tov from city-ro-to-vyh nobles and children bo- yar-sky after-after-to-shaft 18 (28). la (you-bo-ry passed in 102 cities). De-pu-ta-you, someone-eye-was-to-stand-to-look at the question of concluding the eternal world with Re-whose Po-spo- whether that, began to arrive in Mo-sk-vu in January. 1684. But the first time the Russian and Polish embassies would have been interrupted, and on March 8 (18) 1684 a decree was issued on the me-not this-go co-bo-ra.

Is-th-riya Z. s. with raz-vi-vav-shim-sya you-bor-ny on-cha-scrap, with me-nyav-she-she-sya (expanded-she-she-sya, and then su-zhav-she-she) with the word structure-tu-swarm, with the ras-shi-ryav-she-sya pro-ble-ma-ti-koy ob-su-zh-de-niy, with the for-mi-ro-vav-shi -mi-sya pro-tse-du-ra-mi co-zy-va and pro-ve-de-niya for-se-da-niy vo-la-et op-re-de-pour Rus. state ser. 16th - 17th centuries as a mo-nar-chia with a co-word pre-sta-vi-tel-st-vom. In the conditions of the evolution of the state-po-li-tich. building Russia to sa-mo-der-ja-viu Z. s. pe-re-sta-whether co-zy-vat-.

WHAT IS THE COUNCIL OF COUNCILS

Zemsky Sobors - the central class-representative institution of Russia in the middle of the 16-17th century. The appearance of zemstvo sobors is an indicator of the unification of Russian lands into a single state, the weakening of the princely-boyar aristocracy, the growth of the political significance of the nobility and, in part, the top tenants. The first Zemsky Sobors were convened in the middle of the 16th century, during the years of exacerbation of the class struggle, especially in the cities. Popular uprisings forced the feudal lords to rally to pursue a policy that would strengthen state power and the economic and political position of the ruling class. Not all zemstvo sobors were properly organized class-representative assemblies. Many of them were convened so urgently that there could be no question of choosing representatives from the localities to participate in them. In such cases, in addition to the “consecrated cathedral” (higher clergy), the Boyar Duma, the capital’s service and commercial and industrial people, persons who happened to be in Moscow on official and other business spoke on behalf of the county service people. Legislative acts that determined the procedure for choosing representatives to councils did not exist, although the thought of them arose.

The Zemsky Sobor included the tsar, the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral in full force, representatives of the nobility, the upper classes of the townspeople (trading people, large merchants), i.e. candidates of the three estates. Zemsky Sobor as a representative body was bicameral. The upper chamber included the tsar, the Boyar Duma and the Consecrated Cathedral, who were not elected, but participated in it in accordance with their position. Members of the lower house were elected. The order of elections for the Council was as follows. From the Discharge Order, the governors received an order on elections, which was read to the inhabitants of the cities and the peasants to us. After that, estate electoral lists were drawn up, although the number of representatives was not recorded. The voters gave their elected orders. However, elections were not always held. There were cases when, during the urgent convocation of a council, representatives were invited by the king or local officials. In the Zemsky Sobor, a significant role was played by the nobles (the main service class, the basis of the royal army), and especially merchants, since the solution of monetary problems depended on their participation in this state body to provide funds for state needs, primarily defense and the military. Thus, in the Zemsky Sobors, the policy of compromise between the various strata of the ruling class was manifested.

The regularity and duration of meetings of Zemsky Sobors were not pre-regulated and depended on the circumstances and the importance and content of the issues discussed. In a number of cases, Zemsky Sobors functioned continuously. They solved the main issues of foreign and domestic policy, legislation, finance, state building. Questions were discussed by estates (by chambers), each estate submitted its written opinion, and then, as a result of their generalization, a conciliar verdict was drawn up, adopted by the entire composition of the Council. Thus, the government authorities had the opportunity to reveal the opinions of individual classes and groups of the population. But on the whole, the Council acted in close connection with the tsarist government and the Duma. Councils gathered on Red Square, in the Patriarch's Chambers or the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, later - the Golden Chamber or the Dining Hut.

It must be said that the zemstvo sobors, as feudal institutions, did not include the bulk of the population - the enslaved peasantry. Historians suggest that only once, at the council of 1613, was there, apparently, a small number of representatives of the black-skinned peasants.

In addition to the name "Zemsky Sobor", this representative institution in the Moscow State had other names: "Council of All the Earth", "Sobor", "General Council", "Great Zemstvo Duma".

The idea of ​​catholicity began to develop in the middle of the 16th century. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in Russia in 1549 and went down in history as the Cathedral of Reconciliation. The reason for its convocation was the uprising of the townspeople in Moscow in 1547. Frightened by this event, the tsar and the feudal lords attracted not only boyars and nobles, but also representatives of other segments of the population to participate in this Council, which created the appearance of involving not only gentlemen, but also of the third estate, thanks to which the dissatisfied ones were somewhat reassured.

On the basis of available documents, historians believe that about 50 Zemsky Sobors took place.

The most complex and representative structure had the Hundred-domed Cathedral of 1551 and the Cathedral of 1566.

At the beginning of the 17th century, during the years of mass popular movements and the Polish-Swedish intervention, the “Council of All the Earth” was convened, the continuation of which was essentially the Zemsky Sobor of 1613, which elected the first Romanov, Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-45), to the throne. During his reign, zemstvo sobors operated almost continuously, which did a lot to strengthen the state and royal power. After the return of Patriarch Filaret from captivity, they began to gather less frequently. Councils were convened at this time mainly in those cases when the state was threatened by the danger of war, and the question arose of raising funds or other questions of domestic policy arose. So, the cathedral in 1642 decided the issue of surrendering Azov to the Turks, captured by the Don Cossacks, in 1648-1649. after the uprising in Moscow, a council was convened to draw up the Code, the council of 1650 was devoted to the question of the uprising in Pskov.

The most important state issues were discussed at the meetings of the Zemsky Sobors. Zemsky sobors were convened for approval on the throne or the election of a king - councils of 1584, 1598, 1613, 1645, 1676, 1682.

The Zemsky Sobors of 1549 and 1550 are connected with the reforms of the reign of the Elected Rada, with the Zemsky Sobors of 1648-1649 (at this council there was the largest number of representatives from the localities in history), the conciliar decision of 1682 approved the abolition of parochialism.

With the help of Z. with. The government introduced new taxes and modified the old ones. Z. s. discussed the most important issues of foreign policy, especially in connection with the danger of war, the need to raise an army, and the means of its conduct. These issues were discussed constantly, starting with Z. s. 1566, convened in connection with the Livonian War, and ending with the councils of 1683-84 on "perpetual peace" with Poland. Sometimes on W. with. questions that were not planned in advance were also raised: at the 1566 council, its participants raised the question of the abolition of the oprichnina; 1642, convened to discuss issues about Azov - about the situation of Moscow and city nobles.

Zemsky Sobors played an important role in the political life of the country. The tsarist government relied on them in the fight against the remnants of feudal fragmentation, with their help the ruling class of feudal lords tried to weaken the class struggle.

From the middle of the 17th century, the activity of Z. with. gradually fades. This is explained by the establishment of absolutism, and is also due to the fact that the nobles and partially townspeople, by the publication of the Cathedral Code of 1649, achieved satisfaction of their demands, and the danger of mass urban uprisings weakened.

The Zemsky Sobor of 1653, which discussed the question of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, can be considered the last. The practice of convening zemstvo sobors ceased because they played their part in strengthening and developing the centralized feudal state. In 1648-1649. the nobility achieved the satisfaction of its basic requirements. The aggravation of the class struggle prompted the nobility to rally around the autocratic government, which ensured its interests.

In the second half of the XVII century. the government sometimes convened commissions from representatives of individual estates to discuss matters that concerned them most closely. In 1660 and 1662-1663. guests and elected representatives of the Moscow taxpayers were gathered for a meeting with the boyars on the issue of the monetary and economic crisis. In 1681 - 1682. one commission of service people considered the issue of organizing troops, another commission of merchants considered the issue of taxation. In 1683, a council was convened to discuss the question of "perpetual peace" with Poland. This cathedral consisted of representatives of only one service class, which clearly testified to the dying of class-representative institutions.

THE LARGEST ZEMSKAYA CATHEDRALS

In the 16th century, a fundamentally new body of state administration arose in Russia - the Zemsky Sobor. Klyuchevsky V. O. wrote about cathedrals like this: “a political body that arose in close connection with local institutions of the 16th century. and in which the central government met with representatives of local communities.”

Zemsky Sobor 1549

This cathedral went down in history as the "Cathedral of Reconciliation". This is a meeting convened by Ivan the Terrible in February 1549. His goal was to find a compromise between the nobility, supporting the state, and the most conscious part of the boyars. The Council was of great importance for politics, but its role also lies in the fact that it opened a "new page" in the system of government. The tsar's adviser on the most important issues is not the Boyar Duma, but the all-estate Zemsky Sobor.

Direct information about this cathedral has been preserved in the Continuation of the Chronograph edition of 1512.

It can be assumed that at the council of 1549, it was not specific disputes about lands and serfs between boyars and boyar children or the facts of violence perpetrated by boyars against petty employees that were dealt with. It was, apparently, about the general political course in Grozny's infancy. Favoring the dominance of the landowning nobility, this course undermined the integrity of the ruling class and aggravated class contradictions.

The record of the cathedral is protocol and schematic. It is impossible to catch from it whether there were debates, and in what directions they went.

The procedure of the council of 1549 can be judged to some extent by the charter of the zemstvo council of 1566, which is similar in form to the document underlying the chronicle text of 1549.

Stoglavy Cathedral 1551.

Klyuchevsky writes about this cathedral in the following way: “In the following 1551, for the organization of church administration and the religious and moral life of the people, a large church council was convened, usually called Stoglav, according to the number of chapters in which his deeds are summarized in a special book, in Stoglav. At this council, by the way, the king's own handwritten "writing" was read and he also delivered a speech.

The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 is a cathedral of the Russian church, convened on the initiative of the tsar and the metropolitan. The Consecrated Cathedral, the Boyar Duma and the Elected Rada participated in it in full composition. He received this name because his decisions were formulated in one hundred chapters, reflecting the changes associated with the centralization of the state. On the basis of local saints revered in certain Russian lands, an all-Russian list of saints was compiled. Ritual rituals were unified throughout the country. The council approved the adoption of the Sudebnik of 1550 and the reforms of Ivan IV.

The Council of 1551 acts as a "council" of the ecclesiastical and royal authorities. This "council" was based on a community of interests aimed at protecting the feudal system, social and ideological domination over the people, and suppressing all forms of their resistance. But the council often gave a crack, because the interests of the church and the state, spiritual and secular feudal lords, did not always and not always coincide.

Stoglav is a collection of decisions of the Stoglav Cathedral, a kind of code of legal norms for the inner life of the Russian clergy and its reciprocity with society and the state. In addition, Stoglav contained a number of family law norms, for example, it consolidated the power of a husband over his wife and father over children, determined the age of marriage (15 years for men, 12 for women). It is characteristic that three legal codes are mentioned in the stoglava, according to which court cases between church people and laity were decided: Sudebnik, the royal charter and Stoglav.

Zemsky Sobor 1566 on the continuation of the war with the Polish-Lithuanian state.

In June 1566, a zemstvo council was convened in Moscow on war and peace with the Polish-Lithuanian state. This is the first zemstvo sobor, from which a genuine document (“letter”) has come down to us.

Klyuchevsky writes about this council: "... was convened during the war with Poland for Livonia, when the government wanted to know the opinion of officials on the issue of whether to put up on the terms proposed by the Polish king."

The Council of 1566 was the most representative from a social point of view. Five curias were formed on it, uniting different segments of the population (clergy, boyars, clerks, nobility and merchants).

Electoral council and council on the abolition of tarkhans in 1584

This council passed a decision on the abolition of church and monastery tarkhans (tax benefits). The letter of 1584 draws attention to the grave consequences of the policy of the Tarkhans for the economic situation of service people.

The council decided: "for the military rank and impoverishment, set aside the tarkhans." This measure was of a temporary nature: until the sovereign's decree - "for the time being, the land will be built and the royal inspection will help in everything."

The goals of the new code were defined as the desire to combine the interests of the treasury and service people.

The Council of 1613 opens a new period in the activities of Zemsky Sobors, which they enter as established bodies of class representation, playing a role in public life, actively participating in solving issues of domestic and foreign policy.

Zemsky Sobors 1613-1615.

During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich. It is clear from the known materials that in the context of the unabated open class struggle and the unfinished Polish and Swedish intervention, the supreme power needed the constant assistance of the estates in carrying out measures to suppress the anti-feudal movement, restore the country's economy, which had been severely undermined during the Time of Troubles, replenish the state treasury, and strengthen the military forces. , solving problems of foreign policy.

Council of 1642 on the issue of Azov.

It was convened in connection with an appeal to the government of the Don Cossacks, with a request to take Azov under their protection, which they captured. The council was supposed to discuss the question: whether to agree to this proposal and, in case of consent, with what forces and with what means to wage war with Turkey.

It is difficult to say how this council ended, whether there was a conciliar verdict. But the cathedral of 1642 played its role in further measures to protect the borders of the Russian state from Turkish aggression, and in the development of the estate system in Russia.

From the middle of the 17th century, the activity of Z. with. gradually fades, because the cathedral of 1648-1649. and the adoption of the "Council Code" resolved a number of issues.

The last of the cathedrals can be considered the Zemsky Sobor on peace with Poland in 1683-1684. (although a number of studies speak of the cathedral in 1698). The task of the council was to approve the "decree" on "eternal peace" and "union" (when it is worked out). However, it turned out to be fruitless, did not bring anything positive to the Russian state. This is not an accident or a simple failure. A new era has come, requiring other, more efficient and flexible methods of solving foreign policy (as well as other) issues.

If the cathedrals played a positive role in their time in state centralization, now they had to give way to the class institutions of the emerging absolutism.

CATHEDRAL CODE OF 1649

In 1648-1649, the Laid Council was convened, during which the Cathedral Code was created.

The edition of the Cathedral Code of 1649 dates back to the time of the domination of the feudal-serfdom system.

Numerous studies by pre-revolutionary authors (Shmelev, Latkin, Zabelin, and others) cite mainly formal reasons for explaining the reasons for compiling the Code of 1649, such as, for example, the need to create a unified legislation in the Russian state, etc.

However, the real reasons that caused the convening of the Zemsky Sobor and the creation of the Code were the historical events of that period, namely the intensification of the class struggle of the exploited people against the feudal lords and merchants.

The question of the role of class representatives in the creation of the Code of 1649 has long been the subject of research. A number of works quite convincingly show the active nature of the activities of the "elected people" at the council, who spoke with petitions and sought their satisfaction.

The preface to the code contains official sources that were used in compiling the code:

1. "Regulations of the Holy Apostles and Holy Fathers", i.e., Church resolutions of ecumenical and local councils;

2. "City laws of the Greek kings", i.e. Byzantine law;

3. Decrees of the former "great sovereigns, tsars and grand princes of Russia" and boyar sentences, compared with the old judicial codes.

satisfied the requirements of the main pillar of tsarism - the mass of the service nobility, securing for them the right to own land and serfs. That is why the tsarist legislation not only singles out a special chapter 11, "The Court of the Peasants," but also repeatedly returns to the question of the legal status of the peasantry in a number of other chapters. Long before the Code was approved by tsarist legislation, although the right of a peasant transition or “exit” was abolished, in practice this right could not always be applied, since there were “fixed” or “decree years” for filing a claim for fugitives; the search for fugitives was mainly the business of the owners themselves. That is why the question of the abolition of the school years was one of the fundamental questions, the solution of which would create all conditions for the feudal lords for the complete enslavement of broad strata of the peasantry. Finally, the question of the serf status of the peasant family was unresolved: children, brothers, nephews.

Large landowners in their estates sheltered the fugitives, and while the landowners filed a lawsuit for the return of the peasants, the term of the "lesson years" expired. That is why the nobility, in their petitions to the tsar, demanded the abolition of "lesson years", which was done in the code of 1649. Issues related to the final enslavement of all sections of the peasantry, the complete deprivation of their rights in the socio-political and property situation are mainly concentrated in chapter 11 of the Code.

The Cathedral Code consists of 25 chapters, divided into 967 articles without any definite system. The construction of the chapters and articles of each of them was determined by the socio-political tasks facing the legislation in the period of the further development of serfdom in Russia.

For example, the first chapter is devoted to the fight against crimes against the foundations of the doctrine of the Orthodox Church, which was the bearer of the ideology of the feudal system. The articles of the chapter protect and secure the inviolability of the church and its religious rites.

Chapter 2 (22 articles) and 3 (9 articles) characterize the crimes against the personality of the king, his honor and health, as well as the crimes that were committed on the territory of the royal court.

Chapters 4 (4 articles) and 5 (2 articles) single out such crimes as forgery of documents, seals, counterfeiting in a special section.

Chapters 6, 7 and 8 characterize the new offenses of state crimes related to treason to the fatherland, the criminal acts of persons in military service, the established procedure for ransoming prisoners.

Chapter 9 sanctifies financial issues concerning both the state and private individuals - feudal lords.

Chapter 10 deals mainly with judiciary issues. It covers in detail the norms of procedural law, which generalize not only the previous legislation, but also the wide practice of the feudal judicial system of Russia in the 16th - mid-17th centuries.

Chapter 11 characterizes the legal status of serfs and black-eared peasants, etc.

PERIODIZATION OF THE HISTORY OF zemsky sobors

Z.'s history with. can be divided into 6 periods (according to L.V. Cherepnin).

The first period is the time of Ivan the Terrible (since 1549). Councils convened by the royal power. 1566 - a council convened at the initiative of the estates.

The second period can begin with the death of Ivan the Terrible (1584). This is the time when the prerequisites for a civil war and foreign intervention were taking shape, a crisis of autocracy was outlined. The cathedrals mainly performed the function of electing the king, and sometimes they became an instrument of forces hostile to Russia.

It is characteristic of the third period that the zemstvo sobors, with militias, turn into the supreme body of power (both legislative and executive), resolving issues of domestic and foreign policy. This is the time when Z. s. played the largest and most progressive role in public life.

Chronological framework of the fourth period - 1613-1622. Councils operate almost continuously, but already as an advisory body under the royal power. Many questions of current reality pass through them. The government seeks to rely on them in carrying out financial measures (collecting five-ruble money), in restoring the undermined economy, eliminating the consequences of intervention and preventing new aggression on the part of Poland.

Fifth period - 1632 - 1653. Councils gather relatively rarely, but on major issues of internal policy (drawing up the code, the uprising in Pskov (1650)) and external (Russian-Polish, Russian-Crimean relations, the annexation of Ukraine, the question of Azov). During this period, the speeches of class groups that make demands to the government, in addition to cathedrals, are also activated through petitions.

The last period (after 1653 and before 1683-1684) is the time of the attenuation of cathedrals (the eve of their fall, the beginning of the 80s of the 18th century, is marked by a slight rise).

CLASSIFICATION OF zemsky sobors

Turning to the problems of classification, Cherepnin divides all cathedrals, primarily in terms of their social and political significance, into four groups:

1) Councils convened by the king;

2) Councils convened by the king on the initiative of the estates;

3) Councils convened by estates or on the initiative of estates in the absence of the king;

4) Councils that elect the king.

The majority of co-bors belong to the first group. The second group should include the cathedral of 1648, which gathered, as the source directly says, at the request of the king of people of "different ranks", and also, probably, a number of cathedrals of the time of Mikhail Fedorovich. The third group includes the cathedral of 1565, at which the question of the oprichnina was raised, the “verdict” of June 30, 1611, the “council of the whole earth” of 1611 and 1611-1613. The electoral councils (fourth group) gathered for the election and approval of the kingdom of Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky, Mikhail Romanov, Peter and John Alekseevich, and also, probably, Fyodor Ivanovich, Alexei Mikhailovich.

Of course, there are conditional moments in the proposed classification. Cathedrals of the third and fourth groups, for example, are close in their purpose. However, the establishment of who and why the council was assembled is a fundamentally important basis for classification, helping to understand the relationship between autocracy and estates in a class-representative monarchy.

If we now take a closer look at the issues that were dealt with by the councils convened by the tsarist government, then, first of all, it is necessary to single out four of them that approved the implementation of major state reforms: judicial, administrative, financial and military. These are the cathedrals of 1549, 1619, 1648, 1681-1682. Thus, the history of Zemsky Sobors is closely connected with the general political history of the country. The given dates fall on the key moments in her life: the reforms of Grozny, the restoration of the state apparatus after the civil war of the early 17th century, the creation of the Cathedral Code, the preparation of Peter's reforms. For example, the meetings of the estates in 1565, when Grozny left for Alexandrov Sloboda, and the sentence passed by the Zemsky Sobor on June 30, 1611, in “stateless time” were devoted to the fate of the political structure of the country (these are also acts of general historical significance ).

Electoral councils are also a kind of political chronicle, depicting not only the change of persons on the throne, but also the social and state changes caused by this.

The content of the activity of some zemstvo sobors was the struggle against popular movements. The government directed so-bors to the struggle, which was carried out using means of ideological influence, which were sometimes combined with military and administrative measures applied by the state. In 1614, on behalf of the Zemsky Sobor, letters were sent to the Cossacks who had left the government with an exhortation to come into obedience. In 1650, the representation of the Zemsky Sobor itself went to the rebellious Pskov with persuasion.

Most often at the councils, issues of foreign policy and the tax system were considered (mainly in connection with military needs). Thus, the largest problems facing the Russian state passed through discussions at the meetings of the councils, and statements that this happened purely formally and the government could not reckon with the decisions of the councils somehow convince little.

FINDINGS

There was no special archival fund, where the documents of Zemsky Sobors were deposited. They are extracted, first of all, from the funds of those institutions of the 18th century that were in charge of organizing the convening and holding of cathedrals: the Ambassadorial Order (which included the Royal Archive of the 16th century), the Discharge, the Quarters. All documents can be divided into two groups: monuments depicting the activities of the cathedrals, and materials on the election of delegates.

Zemsky Sobors of the 16th-17th centuries certainly played a significant role in the history of the development of the Russian state (in political and public life), since they were one of the first representative institutions in Russia. Many of them left a number of legal monuments (such as the Cathedral Code of 1649, Stoglav and a number of others), which are of great interest to historians.

So, the role of the Zemsky Sobor in 1648-1649. in the evolution of autocracy is as significant as the Council of 1549. The latter stands at its initial stage, the former marks the final forms of centralization. Depending on the participation of zemstvo councils in the election of the king, an assessment is made of the legality of their occupation of the throne. During the time of popular uprisings, the Zemsky Sobor was one of the supreme state bodies (it had both legislative and executive prerogatives).

Tsars were elected at the councils: in 1584 - Fedor Ioannovich, in 1598 - Boris Godunov, in 1613 - Mikhail Romanov, etc.

In the work on the history of the development of zemstvo cathedrals in the 16-17th century, many historians participated and are participating, this is quite an interesting topic. There are many articles and monographs on this topic, in the works of such famous historians as V. O. Klyuchevsky, S. M. Solovyov, a significant place is also given to the cathedrals of the 16-17th century.