MM. Bezrukikh, V.D. Sonkin, D.A. Farber

Age physiology: (Physiology of child development)

Tutorial

For students of higher pedagogical educational institutions

Reviewers:

doctor of biological sciences, head. Department of Higher Nervous Activity and Psychophysiology of St. Petersburg University, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education, Professor A.S. Batuev;

Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor I.A. Kornienko

FOREWORD

Elucidation of the patterns of child development, the specifics of the functioning of physiological systems at different stages of ontogenesis and the mechanisms that determine this specifics, is a necessary condition for ensuring the normal physical and mental development of the younger generation.

The main questions that parents, educators and psychologists should have in the process of raising and educating a child at home, in kindergarten or at school, at a consultative appointment or individual lessons, are what kind of child he is, what are his features, what option of training with him will be the most effective. Answering these questions is not at all easy, because this requires deep knowledge about the child, the patterns of his development, age and individual characteristics. This knowledge is also extremely important for developing the psychophysiological foundations for organizing educational work, developing mechanisms for adaptation in a child, determining the impact of innovative technologies on him, etc.

Perhaps, for the first time, the importance of a comprehensive knowledge of physiology and psychology for a teacher and educator was highlighted by the famous Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky in his work "Man as an object of education" (1876). “The art of education,” wrote K.D. Ushinsky, - has the peculiarity that it seems familiar and understandable to almost everyone, and even an easy matter to others - and the more understandable and easier it seems, the less a person is familiar with it theoretically and practically. Almost everyone admits that parenting requires patience; some think that it requires an innate ability and skill, that is, a habit; but very few have come to the conclusion that, in addition to patience, innate ability and skill, special knowledge is also needed, although our numerous wanderings could convince everyone of this. It was K.D. Ushinsky showed that physiology is one of those sciences in which "facts are stated, compared and grouped, and those correlations of facts in which the properties of the object of education, i.e., a person, are found." Analyzing the physiological knowledge that was known, and this was the time of the formation of age physiology, K.D. Ushinsky emphasized: “From this source, which is just opening up, education has almost not yet scooped.” Unfortunately, even now we cannot talk about the wide use of age-related physiology data in pedagogical science. The uniformity of programs, methods, textbooks is a thing of the past, but the teacher still does not take into account the age and individual characteristics of the child in the learning process.

At the same time, the pedagogical effectiveness of the learning process largely depends on how the forms and methods of pedagogical influence are adequate to the age-related physiological and psychophysiological characteristics of schoolchildren, whether the conditions for organizing the educational process correspond to the capabilities of children and adolescents, whether the psychophysiological patterns of the formation of basic school skills - writing and reading, as well as basic motor skills in the process of classes.

The physiology and psychophysiology of a child is a necessary component of the knowledge of any specialist working with children - a psychologist, educator, teacher, social pedagogue. “Upbringing and education deals with a holistic child, with his holistic activity,” said the well-known Russian psychologist and teacher V.V. Davydov. - This activity, considered as a special object of study, contains in its unity many aspects, including ... physiological "(V.V. Davydov" Problems of developmental education. - M., 1986. - P. 167).

age physiology- the science of the features of the life of the body, the functions of its individual systems, the processes occurring in them, and the mechanisms of their regulation at different stages of individual development. Part of it is the study of the physiology of the child in different age periods.

A textbook on age-related physiology for students of pedagogical universities contains knowledge about human development at those stages when the influence of one of the leading factors of development, education, is most significant.

The subject of developmental physiology (physiology of child development) as an academic discipline is the features of the development of physiological functions, their formation and regulation, the vital activity of the organism and the mechanisms of its adaptation to the external environment at different stages of ontogenesis.

age physiology

1. The subject of age physiology. Communication of age physiology with other biological disciplines. The value of age physiology for pedagogy, psychology, medicine and physical education.

Age physiology is a science that studies the patterns of formation and features of the functioning of the body in the process of ontogenesis.

The structure and functions of any organ are inextricably linked. It is impossible to know the functions of the body, its organs, tissues and cells without knowing their structure. Therefore, physiology is closely related to the achievements of human anatomy, histology and cytology. The basic patterns of life are inherent in the entire world of animals. But in the process of evolution, the forms of manifestation of these regularities changed and became more complicated. To study the life of any organism, it is necessary to understand the history of its species development - phylogenesis (the historical development of the organism). Therefore, in age-related physiology, the data of evolutionary doctrine are widely used, and the main stages in the development of various organs of animals are traced. From this, the connection between age-related physiology and evolutionary physiology becomes clear.

The need for teachers and educators to know the age characteristics of the functioning of the child's body has been repeatedly emphasized by scientists.

The first thing a teacher should know is the structure and life of the human body and its development. Without this, it is impossible to be a good teacher, to properly raise a child.

The pedagogical effectiveness of upbringing and education is closely dependent on the extent to which the anatomical and physiological characteristics of children and adolescents are taken into account, periods of development that are characterized by the greatest susceptibility to the effects of certain factors, as well as periods of increased sensitivity and reduced body resistance. Knowledge of the physiology of the child is necessary in physical education to determine effective methods of teaching motor actions in physical education lessons, to develop methods for the formation of motor skills, the development of motor qualities, to determine the content of physical education and health work at school.

1. Age features of the development of the stomach, pancreas, intestines.

Abdominal digestion is known to be carried out mainly by enzymes. pancreas , but in newborns it is poorly developed. The mass of the gland is 2-4 g, by the end of 1 year it reaches 10-12 g (in adults - 60-115 g).

Granulocytes of the pancreas of the newborn are slightly reactive to stimulants. The development of the secretion of various enzymes proceeds heterochronously. The transition to mixed and especially artificial feeding significantly increases the secretion and release of pancreatic enzymes. At the age of 2 years, the secretion of proteases, lipases and carbohydrases is well stimulated.

Regulation of pancreatic secretion is carried out by nervous and humoral mechanisms. In the regulation of the secretion of the duodenum, the importance of the nature of nutrition is especially great. This influence, which is formed with the transition to definitive nutrition, is heterochronous for the secretion of various enzymes. Bile plays an important role in intestinal digestion.

A number of major metabolic pathways are common to most cells and organisms. These pathways, which result in the synthesis, destruction and interconversion of the most important metabolites, as well as the accumulation of chemical energy, are called intermediate metabolism. Here is a highly simplified diagram of these processes.

Heterotrophs, such as animals and fungi, depend on obtaining organic matter from food. Since most of these nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids) cannot be utilized directly, they are first catabolicly broken down into smaller fragments (red arrows in the diagram). The resulting metabolites (collectively sometimes referred to as the "metabolite pool") are then catabolized to release free energy or used in anabolic pathways (blue arrows) to synthesize more complex molecules. Of the numerous metabolites, only the three most important representatives are represented here - pyruvate, acetyl-CoA and glycerol. These three compounds are the link between the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. The metabolic pool also includes intermediate metabolites of the citrate cycle (6). This cyclic pathway plays both a catabolic and anabolic role, that is, it is amphibolic (see p.). The end products of the breakdown of organic matter in animals are carbon dioxide (CO 2), water (H 2 O) and ammonia (NH 3). Ammonia is converted into urea and in this form is excreted from the body. The most important form of storage of chemical energy in cells is adenosine triphosphate (ATP, see p.). Energy must be expended on the formation of ATP, i.e., the reaction is endoergic. At the same time, when ATP is broken down into ADP and phosphate, free energy is released. Due to exoergic hydrolysis. Most 3. use this energy to synthesize new necessary compounds and do work.

Metabolism consists of two independent opposite processes:

Catabolism - the breakdown of incoming substances; directed downward, accompanied by the release of energy, which accumulates in the form of ATP;
anabolism - the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones; directed upwards, accompanied by the expenditure of energy.

At a young age, the predominance of anabolic processes (growth) over catabolic ones is characteristic. This is especially pronounced after birth and continues until about 18-19 years. During this period, the growth of organs and tissues ends, the full formation of the whole organism begins, and the processes of creation and decay come into balance.

With age, the processes of catabolism begin to predominate, which leads to a decrease (up to a complete cessation) in the production and content in the body of many of the most important substances for life. For example, the synthesis of coenzyme Q10 or levocarnitine stops, and so on. The result is the appearance of various age-related diseases, the loss of vital energy, a decrease in the capabilities of internal organs and muscle strength.

Compensation for the deficiency of such substances is currently possible with the correct use of high-quality biologically active additives (BA).

1. Factors that determine the age-related dynamics of energy metabolism.

In extreme old age (the phase of regressive development), there is a decrease in body weight, as well as a decrease in the linear dimensions of the human body, the main metabolism drops to low values. Moreover, the degree of decrease in basal metabolism at this age correlates, according to various researchers, with how old people show signs of decrepitude and lost working capacity.

As for sex differences in the level of basal metabolism, they are found in ontogeny already from 6-8 months. At the same time, the basal metabolism in boys is higher than in girls. Such relationships persist during puberty, and by old age they are smoothed out.

In ontogenesis, not only the average value of energy metabolism varies, but the possibilities of increasing this level under conditions of intense, for example, muscular activity also change significantly.

In early childhood, the insufficient functional maturity of the musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and respiratory systems limits the adaptive capabilities of the energy metabolism reaction during physical exertion. In adulthood, adaptive capacity, as well as muscle strength, reach a maximum. In old age, the possibilities of a compensatory increase in the level of respiration and energy exchange under conditions of stress are exhausted due to a decrease in VC, the coefficient of oxygen utilization by tissues, and a decrease in the functions of the cardiovascular system.

An increase in skeletal muscle tone with insufficient activity of the vagus nerve center during the first year of life contributes to an increase in energy metabolism. The role of age-related restructuring of the activity of skeletal muscles in the dynamics of energy metabolism is especially clearly distinguished in the study of gas exchange in people of different ages at rest and during physical activity. For progressive growth, an increase in metabolism at rest is characterized by a decrease in the level of basal metabolism and an improvement in energy adaptation to muscle activity. During the period of the stable phase, a high exchange of functional rest is maintained and the exchange during work increases significantly, reaching a stable, minimum level of basal metabolism. And in the regressive phase, the difference between the exchange of functional rest and the main exchange continuously decreases, the rest time lengthens. Changes in the nature of the central regulators of metabolism - the nervous and endocrine systems - are essential in the age-related dynamics of metabolism.

Many researchers believe that the decrease in the energy metabolism of the whole organism during ontogenesis is primarily due to quantitative and qualitative changes in metabolism in the tissues themselves, the magnitude of which is judged by the ratio between the main mechanisms of energy release - anaerobic and aerobic. This allows us to find out the potential capabilities of tissues to generate and use the energy of macroergic bonds. Tissue respiration is currently being studied using the polarographic method, by O 2 tension in tissues, or by oxygenometry, by the degree of blood oxygenation. Using these methods, Ivanov (1973) showed that the amount of oxygen exchange in the tissues of the subcutaneous tissue in people in extreme old age (90-106 years) is reduced compared to subjects aged 19-32 years, while the conditions for oxygen diffusion to tissues worsen. With age, a kind of restructuring of the bioenergy of the heart muscle also occurs, it oxidizes energetically more efficient fatty acids less and less and retains the ability to oxidize energetically less valuable glucose at the same level. Thus, the bioenergetics of the heart in old age changes dramatically at the subcellular level. With age, parallel changes occur in the system of generation and use of macroergic compounds (ATP and creatine phosphate). For example, the concentration of ATP and CP in the muscles of white rats reaches a maximum value in adulthood and falls in old age; these shifts reflect the functional changes in skeletal muscles throughout life.

1. Age features of higher nervous activity.

Higher nervous activity represents the integrative ability of the higher parts of the brain to provide an individual behavioral adaptation of a person to changing conditions of the internal and external environment. The theory of higher nervous activity is built on the following basic basis:

1. on the concepts of reflex theory,

2. on the theory of reflection,

3. on the theory of systemic activity of the brain.

Development of conditioned reflexes. A child is born with a certain set of innate, unconditioned reflex reactions. From the second day of life, he begins to develop conditioned connections. For example, on the 2-5th day, a reaction to the position for feeding is formed, an orienting reflex occurs. From the 6th day, a leukocyte conditioned reflex reaction to food intake appears. On the 7-15th day of a child's life, conditioned reflexes to sound and vestibular stimuli appear. At 2 months, reflexes can be developed from any analyzer. In the second year of life, the child develops a large number of conditioned reflexes to the ratio of the size, severity, distance of objects. In the process of formation of a conditioned reflex, four stages are distinguished:

The stage of a non-specific reaction, which is characterized by the appearance of an orienting reaction to a stimulus;

the stage of inhibition, at which the child's activity is inhibited under the action of a conditioned signal;

The stage of an unstable conditioned reflex, when conditioned stimuli do not always cause a response;

stage of a stable conditioned reflex.

With age, the rate of development of conditioned reflexes increases. The systems of conditional connections developed at an early and preschool age (up to 5 years) are especially strong and retain their significance throughout life.

External unconditional braking. External unconditional inhibition appears in a child from the first days of life. At 6-7 years of age, the importance of external inhibition for higher nervous activity decreases and the role of internal inhibition increases.

Internal braking. Internal inhibition appears in a child approximately from the 20th day after birth in the form of a primitive form of differential inhibition. Fading inhibition appears at 2-2.5 months, conditioned inhibition is observed at 2.5-3 months, and delayed inhibition - from 5 months.

dynamic stereotype. In early childhood, stereotypes are of particular importance. They facilitate the adaptation of children to the environment, are the basis for the formation of habits and skills. In children under three years of age, stereotypes are easily developed and help the child develop the conditioned reflexes necessary for life with their help.

Speech development. The development of speech is the process of development of the second signal system. The terms of development of sensory and motor speech do not coincide. The development of sensory speech precedes the development of motor speech. Even before the child begins to speak, he already understands the meaning of the words. In the formation of speech, the following stages are distinguished:

1. Preparatory stage, or the stage of pronunciation of individual sounds and syllables (from 2-4 to 6 months);

2. The stage of the emergence of sensory speech, that is, the manifestation of the first signs of a conditioned reflex to the word, to its meaning (6-8 months);

3. The stage of the emergence of motor speech, that is, the pronunciation of meaningful words (10-12 months).

Up to 2 months, the child's vocabulary is 10-12 words, by 18 months - 30-40 words, by 24 months - 200-300 words, by 36 months - 500-700, in some cases - up to 1500 words. By the age of 6-7, the ability to internal (semantic) speech appears.

Development of thinking. Visual-effective thinking is formed in preschool and primary school age. Verbal-logical thinking manifests itself by the age of 8-9, reaching development by the age of 14-18.

Behavior Development. The behavioral act is carried out according to two principles:

on the principle of reflex, that is, from stimulus to action;

· according to the principle of self-regulation – when one or another physiological indicator deviates from the level that ensures normal life activity, a behavioral reaction is activated, which restores homeostasis.

Sensory, motor, central and some neurohumoral mechanisms are involved in the organization of behavior. Sensor systems provide recognition of stimuli of the external and internal environment. Motor systems implement the motor program in accordance with sensory information. Central systems connect sensory and motor systems to ensure the adaptive behavior of the whole organism in accordance with changing environmental conditions and on the basis of dominant motivation.

For a person, the most important behavior is communicative behavior. The formation of communicative behavior requires visual, acoustic, olfactory and tactile information.

Eye contact for a child is very important for establishing relationships with others. A child aged 1-1.5 weeks clearly distinguishes the general features of the presented objects, and it is they, and not their form, that are the most significant for him.

Acoustic contact is carried out in the form of a speech dialogue. It is believed that the child reacts to the sounds of speech from birth. In infants 4-5 months old, an "revitalization complex" of maximum strength and duration, including "cooing", is observed in the speech of an adult.

· Tactile sensitivity provides perception of external stimuli in a wide range, so for newborns and young children it is of great cognitive importance. Especially effective are tactile contacts in the first trimester of life.

With age, the role of vision and hearing in ensuring communicative behavior increases. The first communicative interactions occur even before the birth of a child in the "mother-fetus" system. The connection between the mother and the fetus is carried out through tissue contacts. After birth, the mother-child relationship continues in the mother-child system. Already from the 3rd day after birth, a newborn is able to distinguish the smell of milk and the body of his mother from the smell of other people. After the 3rd month of life, the child switches to interactions with other family members. Starting from 2-2.5 years old, children can create groups of 3-4 people. Moreover, boys interact more often than girls. In the presence of mothers, children prefer interaction with adults.

14. Analytical and synthetic activity in different periods of human ontogenesis.

The physiological basis of the processes of higher nervous activity is the analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex.

Analytical activity of the cortex of the brain lies in its ability to separate, isolate and distinguish between individual stimuli, that is, to differentiate them.

Synthetic activity of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres is manifested in the unification, generalization of the excitation that occurs in its various parts from the action of various stimuli.

Analysis and synthesis of specific signals are first signal system man and animals. Second signal system- these are nervous processes that occur in the hemispheres of the human brain as a result of the perception of signals from the surrounding world in the form of speech designations. The second signaling system is the basis of human thinking, it is socially conditioned. Outside of society, without communication with other people, it does not develop. The first and second signal systems are inseparable from each other, they function together and determine the unity of the higher nervous activity of a person.

15. Qualitative differences in human GNI. Development of the second signal system.

The main laws of higher nervous activity include:

1) the formation of new temporary connections when a neutral stimulus is reinforced with an unconditioned one;

2) the extinction of temporary connections when the conditioned stimulus is not reinforced by the unconditioned one;

3) irradiation and concentration of nervous processes;

4) mutual induction of nervous processes;

5) the formation of complex dynamic systems of reflexes, the so-called dynamic stereotypes.

The neuroanatomical substrate for the formation and extinction of temporary connections, differentiation and integration of stimuli is the cerebral cortex. In the subcortical regions of the brain are the nerve centers of the most important unconditioned reflexes, which form the basis for the formation of a conditioned reflex. The subcortical sections provide a high level of activity of the nerve cells of the cerebral cortex, thereby creating the necessary conditions for the formation of temporary connections and their differentiation. At the same time, the functioning of the subcortical regions of the brain is controlled by the cortex, which stimulates and inhibits the development of their activity.

The qualitative difference between the higher nervous activity of man and animals is due to the fact that a person has become more complex in the mechanisms of his mental activity, since a special stimulus has appeared - the word.

age physiology

a section of human and animal physiology that studies the patterns of formation and development of the physiological functions of the body throughout ontogeny - from egg fertilization to the end of life. V. f. establishes the features of the functioning of the body, its systems, organs and tissues at different age stages. The life cycle of all animals and humans consists of certain stages or periods. Thus, the development of mammals goes through the following periods: intrauterine (including the phases of embryonic and placental development), newborns, milk, puberty, maturity and aging.

The following age periodization has been proposed for humans (Moscow, 1967): 1. Newborn (from 1 to 10 days). 2. Breast age (from 10 days to 1 year). 3. Childhood: a) early (1-3 years), b) first (4-7 years), c) second (8-12 years old boys, 8-11 years old girls). 4. Adolescence (13-16 years old boys, 12-15 years old girls). 5. Youthful age (17-21 years old boys, 16-20 years old girls). 6. Mature age: 1st period (22-35 years old men, 21-35 years old women); 2nd period (36-60 years old men, 36-55 years old women). 7. Old age (61-74 years old men, 56-74 years old women). 8. Senile age (75-90 years). 9. Long-livers (90 years and above).

I. M. Sechenov (1878) pointed out the importance of studying physiological processes in ontogenetic terms. The first data on the features of the functioning of the nervous system in the early stages of ontogenesis were obtained in the laboratories of I. R. Tarkhanov a (1879) and V. M. Bekhterev a (1886). Researches on V. f. carried out in other countries. The German physiologist W. Preyer (1885) studied blood circulation, respiration, and other functions of developing mammals, birds, and amphibians; Czech biologist E. Babak studied the ontogeny of amphibians (1909). The publication of N. P. Gundobin's book "Features of Childhood" (1906) laid the foundation for a systematic study of the morphology and physiology of the developing human body. Works on V. f. received a large scale from the 2nd quarter of the 20th century, mainly in the USSR. The structural and functional features of the age-related development of individual organs and their systems were revealed: higher nervous activity (L. A. Orbeli, N. I. Krasnogorsky, A. G. Ivanov-Smolensky, A. A. Volokhov, N. I. Kasatkin, M M. Koltsova, A. N. Kabanov), the cerebral cortex, subcortical formations and their relationships (P. K. Anokhin, I. A. Arshavsky, E. Sh. Airapetyants, A. A. Markosyan, A. A. Volokhov and others), the musculoskeletal system (V. G. Shtefko, V. S. Farfel, L. K. Semyonova), the cardiovascular system and respiration (F. I. Valker, V. I. Puzik, N V. Lauer, I. A. Arshavsky, V. V. Frolkis), blood systems (A. F. Tur, A. A. Markosyan). Problems of age-related neurophysiology and endocrinology, age-related changes in metabolism and energy, cellular and subcellular processes, as well as acceleration are being successfully developed (See Acceleration) - accelerate the development of the human body.

The concepts of ontogenesis and aging were formed: A. A. Bogomolets - on the role of the physiological system of connective tissue; A. V. Nagorny - on the significance of the intensity of protein self-renewal (decaying curve); P. K. Anokhin - about systemogenesis, i.e. maturation in ontogenesis of certain functional systems that provide one or another adaptive reaction; I. A. Arshavsky - about the importance of motor activity for the development of the body (energy rule of skeletal muscles); A. A. Markosyan - about the reliability of a biological system that ensures the development and existence of an organism under changing environmental conditions.

In researches on V. f. they use the methods used in physiology, as well as the comparative method, i.e., comparing the functioning of certain systems at different ages, including the elderly and senile. V. f. closely related to related sciences - morphology, biochemistry, biophysics, anthropology. It is the scientific and theoretical basis of such branches of medicine as pediatrics, hygiene of children and adolescents, gerontology, geriatrics, as well as pedagogy, psychology, physical education, etc. Therefore, V. F. is actively developing in the system of institutions related to the protection of children's health, which have been organized in the USSR since 1918, and in the system of physiological institutes and laboratories of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, and others. introduced as a compulsory subject at all faculties of pedagogical institutes. In coordination of researches on V. f. an important role is played by conferences on age-related morphology, physiology and biochemistry, convened by the institute of age-related physiology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. The 9th conference (Moscow, April 1969) united the work of 247 scientific and educational institutions of the Soviet Union.

Lit.: Kasatkin N. I., Early conditioned reflexes in human ontogenesis, M., 1948; Krasnogorsky N. I., Proceedings on the study of higher nervous activity of humans and animals, vol. 1, M., 1954; Parkhon K. I., Age biology, Bucharest, 1959; Paper A., ​​Features of the activity of the child's brain, trans. from German, L., 1962; Nagorny A. V., Bulankin I. N., Nikitin V. N., The problem of aging and longevity, M., 1963; Essays on the physiology of the fetus and newborn, ed. V. I. Bodyazhina. Moscow, 1966. Arshavsky I. A., Essays on age physiology, M., 1967; Koltsova M. M., Generalization as a function of the brain, L., 1967; Chebotarev D. F., Frolkis V. V., Cardiovascular system during aging, L., 1967; Volokhov A. A., Essays on the physiology of the nervous system in early ontogenesis, L., 1968; Ontogeny of the blood coagulation system, ed. A. A. Markosyan, L., 1968; Farber D. A., Functional maturation of the brain in early ontogenesis, M., 1969; Fundamentals of morphology and physiology of the organism of children and adolescents, ed. A. A. Markosyan. Moscow, 1969.

A. A. Markosyan.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what "Age Physiology" is in other dictionaries:

age physiology- a science that studies the characteristics of the life of an organism at different stages of ontogenesis. Tasks of VF: study of the features of the functioning of various organs, systems and the body as a whole; identification of exogenous and endogenous factors that determine ... ... Pedagogical terminological dictionary

AGE PHYSIOLOGY- a section of physiology that studies the patterns of formation and age-related changes in the functions of the whole organism, its organs and systems in the process of ontogenesis (from fertilization of the egg to the termination of individual existence). Life cycle… …

- (from the Greek phýsis - nature and ... Logia) of animals and humans, the science of the vital activity of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues and the regulation of physiological functions. F. also studies the patterns of interaction of living organisms with ...

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY- (from the Greek phýsis - nature and lógos - teaching), a science that studies the processes of vital activity of organs, organ systems and the whole organism in its relationship with the environment. f. divided into general, private (special), ... ... Veterinary Encyclopedic Dictionary

Physiology- (physiologia, from the Greek physis nature + logos teaching, science, word) - a biological science that studies the functions of the whole organism, its components, origin, mechanisms and laws of life, relations with the environment; allocate F. ... ... Glossary of terms for the physiology of farm animals

Section F., which studies age-related features of life, patterns of formation and extinction of body functions ... Big Medical Dictionary

PHYSIOLOGY- a section of physiology that studies the laws of the functioning of the body in different age periods (in ontogenesis) ... Psychomotor: Dictionary Reference

Animals, a section of animal physiology (See Physiology) that studies the characteristics of physiological functions in various representatives of the animal world by the method of comparison. Together with age physiology (See Age physiology) and ecological ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

I Medicine Medicine is a system of scientific knowledge and practice aimed at strengthening and maintaining health, prolonging people's lives, and preventing and treating human diseases. To accomplish these tasks, M. studies the structure and ... ... Medical Encyclopedia

AHATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN- age features of the structure, functions of children. organism, their transformation in the process of individual development. Knowledge and accounting of A. f. about. are necessary for the correct organization of the education and upbringing of children of different ages. The age of the children is conditional ... ... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia

Short description:

Sazonov V.F. Age anatomy and physiology (a manual for OZO) [Electronic resource] // Kinesiologist, 2009-2018: [website]. Date of update: 01/17/2018..__.201_).

Attention! This material is in the process of regular updating and improvement. Therefore, we apologize for possible minor deviations from the curricula of previous years.

1. General information about the structure of the human body. Organ systems

Man, with his anatomical structure, physiological and mental characteristics, represents the highest stage in the evolution of the organic world. Accordingly, it has the most evolutionarily developed organs and organ systems.

Anatomy studies the structure of the body and its individual parts and organs. Knowledge of anatomy is necessary for the study of physiology, so the study of anatomy must precede the study of physiology.

Anatomy is a science that studies the structure of the body and its parts at the supracellular level in statics.

Physiology is a science that studies the processes of vital activity of an organism and its parts in dynamics.

Physiology studies the course of life processes at the level of the whole organism, individual organs and organ systems, as well as at the level of individual cells and molecules. At the present stage of the development of physiology, it is again united with the sciences that once separated from it: biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology and histology..

Differences Between Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy describes the structures (structure) of the body in static condition.

Physiology describes the processes and phenomena of the body in dynamics (i.e. in motion, in change).

Terminology

Anatomy and physiology use common terms to describe the structure and operation of the body. Most of them are of Latin or Greek origin.

Basic terms ():

Dorsal(dorsal) - located on the dorsal side.

Ventral- located on the ventral side.

Lateral- located on the side.

Medial- located in the middle, occupying a central position. Remember the median from math? She is also in the middle.

Distal- remote from the center of the body. Do you know the word "distance"? One root.

Proximal- close to the center of the body.

Video:The structure of the human body

Cells and tissues

Characteristic of any organism is a certain organization of its structures.
In the process of evolution of multicellular organisms, cell differentiation occurred, i.e. cells of various sizes, shapes, structures and functions appeared. From identically differentiated cells, tissues are formed, the characteristic property of which is structural association, morphological and functional commonality and interaction of cells. Different fabrics are specialized in function. So, a characteristic property of muscle tissue is contractility; nervous tissue - transmission of excitation, etc.

Cytology studies the structure of cells. Histology - the structure of tissues.

Organs

Several tissues combined into a certain complex form an organ (kidney, eye, stomach, etc.). An organ is a part of the body that occupies a permanent position in it, has a certain structure and shape, and performs one or more functions.

The organ consists of several types of tissues, but one of them prevails and determines its main, leading function. In a muscle, for example, this tissue is muscle.

Organs are the working apparatus of the body, specialized to perform complex activities necessary for the existence of a holistic organism. The heart, for example, acts as a pump that pumps blood from the veins to the arteries; kidneys - the function of excreting end products of metabolism and water from the body; bone marrow - the function of hematopoiesis, etc. There are many organs in the human body, but each of them is part of a whole organism.

Organ systems
Several organs that perform a specific function together form an organ system.

Organ systems are anatomical and functional associations of several organs involved in the performance of any complex activity.

Organ systems:
1. Digestive (oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, digestive glands).
2. Respiratory (lungs, airways - mouth, larynx, trachea, bronchi).
3. Circulatory (cardiovascular).
4. Nervous (Central nervous system, outgoing nerve fibers, autonomic nervous system, sensory organs).
5. Excretory (kidneys, bladder).
6. Endocrine (endocrine glands - thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas (insulin), adrenal glands, gonads, pituitary gland, epiphysis).
7. Musculoskeletal (musculoskeletal - skeleton, muscles attached to it, ligaments).
8. Lymphatic (lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, thymus - thymus, spleen).
9. Sexual (internal and external genital organs - ovaries (ovum), uterus, vagina, mammary mammary glands, testicles, prostate gland, penis).
10. Immune (red bone marrow at the ends of tubular bones + lymph nodes + spleen + thymus (thymus) - the main organs of the immune system).
11. Integumentary (integuments of the body).

2. General ideas about the processes of growth and development. The main differences between a child's body and an adult

Concept definition

Development- this is the process of complicating the structure and functions of the system over time, increasing its stability and adaptability (adaptive capabilities). Also, development is understood as maturation, the achievement of the full value of a phenomenon. © 2017 Sazonov V.F. 22\02\2017

Development includes the following processes:

1. Growth.
2. Differentiation.
3. Formation.

The main differences between a child and an adult:

1) immaturity of the body, its cells, organs and organ systems;
2) reduced growth (reduced body size and body weight);
3) intensive metabolic processes with a predominance of anabolism;
4) intensive growth processes;
5) reduced resistance to harmful environmental factors;
6) improved adaptation (adaptation) to a new environment;
7) underdeveloped reproductive system - children cannot reproduce.

Periodization of age
1. Infancy (up to 1 year).
2. Pre-school period (1-3 years).
3. Preschool (3-7 years).
4. Junior school (7-11-12 years old).
5. Middle school (11-12-15 years old).
6. Senior school (15-17-18 years old).
7. Maturity. At the age of 18, physiological maturity sets in; biological maturity comes from the age of 13 (the ability to have children); full physical maturity in women occurs at the age of 20, and in men at 21-25 years. Civil (social) maturity in our country comes at the age of 18, and in Western countries - at 21. Mental (spiritual) maturity occurs after 40 years.

Age changes, development indicators

1. Body length

This is the most stable indicator characterizing the state of plastic processes in the body and, to some extent, the level of its maturity.

The body length of a newborn child ranges from 46 to 56 cm. It is generally accepted that if a newborn child has a body length of 45 cm or less, then he is premature.

Body length in children of the first year of life is determined taking into account its monthly increase. In the first quarter of life, the monthly increase in body length is 3 cm, in the second - 2.5, in the third - 1.5, in the fourth - 1 cm. The total increase in body length for the 1st year is 25 cm.

During the 2nd and 3rd years of life, the increase in body length is 12-13 and 7-8 cm, respectively.

The body length in children from 2 to 15 years old is also calculated according to the formulas proposed by I. M. Vorontsov, A. V. Mazurin (1977). The length of the body of children at the age of 8 is taken as 130 cm, for each missing year, 7 cm is subtracted from 130 cm, and 5 cm is added for each excess year.

2. Body weight

Body weight, in contrast to length, is a more variable indicator that reacts relatively quickly and changes under the influence of various causes of exo- (external) and endogenous (internal) nature. Body weight reflects the degree of development of bone and muscle systems, internal organs, subcutaneous fat.

The body weight of a newborn is on average about 3.5 kg. Newborns weighing 2500 g or less are considered premature or born with intrauterine malnutrition. Children born with a body weight of 4000 g or more are considered large.

As a criterion for the maturity of a newborn child, the weight-growth coefficient is used, which is normally 60-80. If its value is below 60, this indicates in favor of congenital malnutrition, and if it is above 80, congenital paratrophy.

After birth, within 4-5 days of life, the child experiences a loss of body weight within 5-8% of the original, that is, 150-300 g (physiological weight loss). Then the body weight begins to increase and around the 8-10th day reaches the initial level. A weight loss of more than 300 g cannot be considered physiological. The main reason for the physiological drop in body weight is, first of all, the insufficient introduction of water and food in the first days after the birth of the baby. The loss of body weight is important in connection with the release of water through the skin and lungs, as well as the original feces, urine.

It should be taken into account that in children of the 1st year of life, an increase in body length by 1 cm, as a rule, is accompanied by an increase in body weight by 280-320 g. When calculating the body weight of children of the 1st year of life with a birth weight of 2500-3000 g for the initial indicator is taken as 3000 g. The rate of increase in body weight of children after a year slows down significantly.

Body weight in children older than a year is determined by the formulas proposed by I. M. Vorontsov, A. V. Mazurin (1977).
The body weight of a child at 5 years old is taken as 19 kg; for each missing year up to 5 years, 2 kg is deducted, and 3 kg is added for each subsequent year. To assess the body weight of children of preschool and school age, two-dimensional centile scales of body weight at different body lengths, based on the assessment of body weight by body length within age and sex groups, are increasingly used as age norms.

3. Head circumference

The head circumference of a child at birth is on average 34-36 cm.

It increases especially intensively in the first year of life, amounting to 46-47 cm by the year. In the first 3 months of life, the monthly increase in head circumference is 2 cm, at the age of 3-6 months - 1 cm, during the second half of life - 0.5 cm .

By the age of 6, the head circumference increases to 50.5-51 cm, by the age of 14-15 - up to 53-56 cm. In boys, its size is slightly larger than in girls.
The size of the head circumference is determined by the formulas of I. M. Vorontsov, A. V. Mazurin (1985). 1. Children of the first year of life: the head circumference of a 6-month-old child is taken as 43 cm, for each missing month from 43, subtract 1.5 cm, for each subsequent month add 0.5 cm.

2. Children from 2 to 15 years old: head circumference at 5 years old is taken as 50 cm; for each missing year, subtract 1 cm, and for each excess year, add 0.6 cm.

Monitoring changes in the head circumference of children in the first three years of life is an important component of medical activity in assessing the physical development of a child. Changes in the head circumference reflect the general patterns of the biological development of the child, in particular the cerebral type of growth, as well as the development of a number of pathological conditions (micro- and hydrocephalus).

Why is the circumference of a child's head so important? The fact is that a child is born already with a full set of neurons, the same as in an adult. But the weight of his brain is only 1/4 of the brain of an adult. It can be concluded that the increase in brain weight occurs due to the formation of new connections between neurons, as well as due to an increase in the number of glial cells. Head growth reflects these important brain development processes.

4. Chest circumference

Breast circumference at birth averages 32-35 cm.

In the first year of life, it increases monthly by 1.2-1.3 cm, amounting to 47-48 cm by the year.

By the age of 5, the chest circumference increases to 55 cm, by 10 - up to 65 cm.

The circumference of the chest is also determined by the formulas proposed by I. M. Vorontsov, A. V. Mazurin (1985).
1. Children of the 1st year of life: the circumference of the chest of a 6-month-old child is taken as 45 cm, for each missing month, 2 cm should be subtracted from 45, and 0.5 cm should be added for each subsequent month.
2. Children from 2 to 15 years old: chest circumference at 10 years old is taken as 63 cm, for children under 10 years old, the formula 63 - 1.5 (10 - n) is used, for children over 10 years old - 63 + 3 cm (n - 10), where n is the number of years the child is. For a more accurate assessment of the size of the circumference of the chest, centile tables are used, based on the assessment of the circumference of the chest along the length of the body within the age and sex group.

Chest circumference is an important indicator that reflects the degree of development of the chest, muscular system, subcutaneous fat layer on the chest, which closely correlates with the functional indicators of the respiratory system.

5. Body surface

The surface of the body is one of the most important indicators of physical development. This sign helps to assess not only the morphological, but also the functional state of the organism. It has a close correlation with a number of physiological functions of the body. Indicators of the functional state of blood circulation, external respiration, kidneys are closely related to such an indicator as the surface of the body. Individual medications should also be prescribed according to this factor.

The surface of the body is usually calculated according to the nomogram, taking into account the length and weight of the body. It is known that the surface area of ​​a child's body per 1 kg of its mass is three times greater in a newborn and twice as large in a one-year-old than in an adult.

6. Puberty

Assessing the degree of puberty is important in determining a child's developmental level.

The degree of a child's puberty is one of the most reliable indicators of biological maturity. In everyday practice, it is most often assessed by the severity of secondary sexual characteristics.

In girls, these are pubic (P) and axillary (A) hair growth, breast development (Ma), and age of first menstruation (Me).

In boys, in addition to the growth of hair on the pubis and in the armpits, the voice mutation (V), facial hair (F) and the formation of the Adam's apple (L) are evaluated.

Puberty assessment should be done by a doctor, not a teacher. When assessing the degree of puberty, it is recommended to expose children, especially girls, in parts due to an increased sense of shame. If necessary, the child should be completely undressed.

Generally accepted schemes for assessing the degree of development of secondary sexual characteristics in children by body regions:

Development of pubic hair: no hair - P0; single hair - P1; hair on the central part of the pubis is thicker, longer - P2; hair on the entire triangle of the pubis is long, curly, thick - P3; the hair is distributed over the entire pubic area, passes to the thighs and extends along the white line of the abdomen - P4t.
The development of hair in the armpit: no hair - A0; single hair - A1; hair is sparse in the central part of the cavity - A2; thick hair, curly throughout the cavity - A3.
Development of the mammary glands: glands do not protrude above the surface of the chest - Ma0; the glands protrude somewhat, the areola together with the nipple forms a single cone - Ma1; the glands protrude significantly, together with the nipple and areola, they are cone-shaped - Ma2; the body of the gland takes a rounded shape, the nipples rise above the areola - Ma3.
Development of facial hair: no hair growth - F0; beginning hair growth above the upper lip - F1; coarse hair above the upper lip and on the chin - F2; widespread hair growth above the upper lip and on the chin with a tendency to merge, the beginning of the growth of sideburns - F3; fusion of hair growth zones above the lip and in the chin area, pronounced growth of sideburns - F4.
Voice timbre change: children's voice - V0; mutation (breaking) of the voice - V1; male voice timbre - V2.

The growth of the thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple): no signs of growth - L0; beginning protrusion of cartilage - L1; distinct protrusion (Adam's apple) - L2.

When evaluating the degree of puberty in children, the main attention is paid to the severity of Ma, Me, P indicators as more stable. Other indicators (A, F, L) are more variable and less reliable. The state of sexual development is usually denoted by the general formula: A, P, Ma, Me, which respectively indicate the stages of maturation of each sign and the age of the onset of the first menstruation in girls; e.g. A2, P3, Ma3, Me13. When assessing the degree of puberty according to the development of secondary sexual characteristics, a deviation from the average age norms is considered to be ahead or behind with shifts in the indicators of the sexual formula for a year or more.

7. Physical development (assessment methods)

The physical development of a child is one of the most important criteria in assessing his state of health.
From a large number of morphological and functional signs, various criteria are used to assess the physical development of children and adolescents at each age.

In addition to the features of the morphofunctional state of the body, when assessing physical development, it is now customary to use such a concept as biological age.

It is known that individual indicators of the biological development of children in different age periods can be leading or auxiliary.

For children of primary school age, the leading indicators of biological development are the number of permanent teeth, skeletal maturity, and body length.

When assessing the level of biological development of middle-aged and older children, the severity of secondary sexual characteristics, bone ossification, the nature of growth processes are of greater importance, while body length and the development of the dental system are of lesser importance.

To assess the physical development of children, various methods are used: the method of indices, sigma deviations, evaluation tables, regression scales and, more recently, the centile method. Anthropometric indices are the ratio of individual anthropometric features, expressed as formulas. The inaccuracy and fallacy of using indices to assess the physical development of a growing organism has been proved, since as a result of age morphology studies it has been shown that individual dimensions of a child's body increase unevenly (developmental heterochrony), which means that anthropometric indicators change disproportionately. The method of sigma deviations and regression scales, which are currently widely used to assess the physical development of children, are based on the assumption that the sample under study corresponds to the law of normal distribution. Meanwhile, the study of the form of distribution of a number of anthropometric characteristics (body weight, chest circumference, muscle strength of the arms, etc.) indicates the asymmetry of their distribution, more often right-sided. Because of this, the boundaries of sigma deviations can be artificially overestimated or underestimated, distorting the true nature of the assessment.

centile methodassessment of physical development

These shortcomings are devoid of based on nonparametric statistical analysis. centile method, which has recently been increasingly used in the pediatric literature. Since the centile method is not limited by the nature of the distribution, it is acceptable for assessing any indicators. The method is easy to use, due to the fact that when using centile tables or graphs, any calculations are excluded. Two-dimensional centile scales - "body length - body weight", "body length - chest circumference", in which the values ​​​​of body weight and chest circumference are calculated for the proper body length, make it possible to judge the harmony of development.

Usually, the 3rd, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, 97th centiles are used to characterize the sample. 3rd centile - this is the value of the indicator, less than which it is observed in 3% of the sample members; the value of the indicator is less than the 10th centile - in 10% of the sample members, etc. The gaps between the centiles are named centile corridors. With an individual assessment of indicators of physical development, the level of a trait is determined by its position in one of the 7 centile corridors. Indicators that fell into the 4th-5th corridors (25th-75th centiles) should be considered average, in the 3rd (10th-25th centiles) - below average, in the 6th (75th-90th centiles) ) - above average, in the 2nd (3-10th centile) - low, in the 7th (90-97th centile) - high, in the 1st (up to 3rd centile) - very low, in the 8th (above the 97th centile) - very high.

harmonious is a physical development in which body weight and chest circumference correspond to body length, that is, they fall into the 4th-5th centile corridors (25th-75th centiles).

disharmonious physical development is considered in which body weight and chest circumference lag behind due (3rd corridor, 10-25th centiles) or more than due (6th corridor, 75-90th centiles) due to increased fat deposition.

Sharply disharmonious should be considered physical development, in which body weight and chest circumference lag behind due (2nd corridor, 3-10th centile) or exceed the proper value (7th corridor, 90-97th centile) due to increased fat deposition.

"Square of harmony" (Auxiliary table for assessing physical development)

		Percentage (Centile) Series
		3,00%	10,00%	25,00%	50,00%	75,00%	90,00%	97,00%
Body weight by age	97,00%						Harmonious development ahead of age
	90,00%
	75,00%			Harmonious development according to age
	50,00%
	25,00%
	10,00%	Harmonious development below age norms
	3,00%
Body length by age

Currently, the physical development of the child is assessed in a certain sequence.

Correspondence of the calendar age to the level of biological development is established. The level of biological development corresponds to the calendar age, if most of the indicators of biological development are within the average age limits (M±b). If the indicators of biological development lag behind the calendar age or are ahead of it, this indicates a delay (retardation) or acceleration (acceleration) of the rate of biological development.

After determining the correspondence of the biological age to the passport one, the morphofunctional state of the organism is assessed. Centile tables are used to assess anthropometric indicators depending on age and gender.

The use of centile tables allows us to define physical development as medium, above or below average, high or low, as well as harmonious, disharmonious, sharply disharmonious. The allocation to the group of children with deviations in physical development (disharmonious, sharply disharmonious) is due to the fact that they often have disorders of the cardiovascular, endocrine, nervous and other systems, on this basis they are subject to a special in-depth examination. In children with disharmonious and sharply disharmonious development, functional indicators, as a rule, are below the age norm. For such children, taking into account the cause of deviations in physical development from age indicators, individual plans for recovery and treatment are developed.

3. The main stages of human development - fertilization, embryonic and fetal periods. Critical periods of development of the embryo. Causes of congenital deformities and defects

Ontogenesis is the process of development of an organism from the moment of conception (formation of a zygote) to death.

Ontogeny is divided into prenatal development (prenatal - from conception to birth) and postnatal (postpartum).

Fertilization is the fusion of male and female germ cells, resulting in a zygote (fertilized egg) with a diploid (double) set of chromosomes.

Fertilization occurs in the upper third of the woman's oviduct. The best conditions for this are usually within 12 hours after the release of the egg from the ovary (ovulation). Numerous spermatozoa approach the egg, surround it, come into contact with its membrane. However, only one penetrates the egg, after which a dense fertilization shell forms around the egg, preventing the penetration of other spermatozoa. As a result of the fusion of two nuclei with haploid sets of chromosomes, a diploid zygote is formed. This is a cell that is actually a single-celled organism of a new daughter generation). It is capable of developing into a full-fledged multicellular human organism. But can she be called a full-fledged person? A person and a human fertilized egg have 46 chromosomes, i.e. 23 pairs is a complete diploid set of human chromosomes.

prenatal period lasts from conception to birth and consists of two phases: embryonic (first 2 months) and fetal (3-9 months). In humans, the intrauterine period lasts an average of 280 days, or 10 lunar months (approximately 9 calendar months). In obstetric practice germ (embryo) called a developing organism during the first two months of intrauterine life, and from 3 to 9 months - fruit (foetus) Therefore, this period of development is called fetal, or fetal.

Fertilization

Fertilization most often takes place in the expansion of the female oviduct (in the fallopian tubes). The spermatozoa that have poured into the vagina as part of the sperm, due to their exceptional mobility and activity, move into the uterine cavity, pass through it to the oviducts, and in one of them they meet with a mature egg. Here the sperm enters the egg and fertilizes it. The spermatozoon introduces into the egg cell hereditary properties characteristic of the male body, contained in a packaged form in the chromosomes of the male germ cell.

Splitting up

Cleavage is the process of cell division into which the zygote enters. The size of the resulting cells does not increase in this case, because. they do not have time to grow, but only divide.

Once a fertilized egg starts dividing, it is called an embryo. The zygote is activated; its fragmentation begins. Crushing is slow. On the 4th day, the embryo consists of 8-12 blastomeres (blastomeres are cells formed as a result of crushing, they are smaller and smaller after the next division).

Picture: The initial stages of embryogenesis in mammals

I - stage of 2 blastomeres; II - stage of 4 blastomeres; III - morula; IV–V – trophoblast formation; VI - blastocyst and the first phase of gastrulation:
1 - dark blastomeres; 2 - light blastomeres; 3 - trophoblast;
4 - embryoblast; 5 - ectoderm; 6 - endoderm.

morula

Morula ("mulberry") is a group of blastomeres formed as a result of crushing the zygote.

Blastula

Blastula (vesicle) is a single-layer embryo. Cells are located in it in one layer.

The blastula is formed from the morula due to the fact that a cavity appears in it. The cavity is called primary body cavity. It contains liquid. In the future, the cavity is filled with internal organs and turns into the abdominal and chest cavities.

gastrula
The gastrula is a two-layer embryo. The cells in this "germ vesicle" form walls in two layers.

Gastrulation (the formation of a two-layer embryo) is the next stage of embryonic development. The outer layer of the gastrula is called ectoderm. He further forms the skin of the body and the nervous system. It is very important to remember that nervous system comes fromectoderm (outer germ layer, first), therefore, it is closer in its characteristics to the skin than to such internal organs as the stomach and intestines. The inner layer is called endoderm. It gives rise to the digestive system and the respiratory system. It is also important to remember that the respiratory and digestive systems are connected by a common origin.The gill slits in fish are openings in the intestine, and the lungs are outgrowths of the intestine.

Neirula

A neurula is an embryo at the stage of formation of the neural tube.

The vesicle of the gastrula is drawn out, and a groove forms on top. This groove from the depressed ectoderm folds into a tube - this is the neural tube. A cord is formed under it - this is a chord. Over time, bone tissue will form around it and the spine will turn out. Notochord remnants can be found between the vertebrae of the fish. Below the chord, the endoderm extends into the intestinal tube.

The complex of axial organs is the neural tube, notochord, and intestinal tube.

Histo- and organogenesis
After neurulation, the next stage in the development of the embryo begins - histogenesis and organogenesis, i.e. the formation of tissues ("histo-" is a tissue) and organs. At this stage, the third germ layer is formed - mesoderm.
It should be noted that since the formation of organs and the nervous system, the embryo is called fruit.

The fetus, which develops in the uterus, is located in special membranes that form, as it were, a bag filled with amniotic fluid. These waters allow the fetus to move freely in the bag, protect the fetus from external damage and infections, and also contribute to the normal course of childbirth.

Critical periods of development

A normal pregnancy lasts 9 months. During this time, a child weighing about 3 kg or more and 50-52 cm tall develops from a fertilized egg of microscopic size.
The most damaged stages of embryonic development refer to the time when their connection with the mother's body is formed - this is the stage implantation(introduction of the embryo into the wall of the uterus) and stage placenta formation.
1. First critical period in the development of the human embryo refers to the 1st and the beginning of the 2nd week after conception.
2. Second critical period - this is the 3-5th week of development. The formation of individual organs of the human embryo is associated with this period.

During these periods, along with increased embryonic mortality, local (local) deformities and malformations occur.

3. Third critical period - this is the formation of a child's place (placenta), which occurs in a person between the 8th and 11th weeks of embryo development. During this period, the fetus may show general anomalies, including a number of congenital diseases.
During critical periods of development, the sensitivity of the embryo to an insufficient supply of oxygen and nutrients, to cooling, overheating, and ionizing radiation is increased. The ingestion of certain substances harmful to it (drugs, alcohol and other toxic substances formed in the body during mother's illnesses, etc.) into the blood can cause serious disturbances in the development of the child. Which? Slowdown or arrest of development, the appearance of various deformities, high mortality of embryos.
It is noted that starvation or lack of components such as vitamins and amino acids in the mother's food lead to the death of the embryos or to anomalies in their development.
Infectious diseases of the mother pose a serious danger to the development of the fetus. The effect on the fetus of such viral diseases as measles, smallpox, rubella, influenza, poliomyelitis, mumps, is manifested mainly in the first months pregnancy.
Another group of diseases, for example, dysentery, cholera, anthrax, tuberculosis, syphilis, malaria, affects the fetus mostly in the second and last third of pregnancy.
One of the factors that has a particularly harmful and strong effect on a developing organism is ionizing radiation (radiation).

Indirect, indirect, the effect of radiation on the fetus (through the mother's body) is associated with general violations of the physiological functions of the mother, as well as with changes that have occurred in the tissues and vessels of the placenta. Cells are most sensitive to radiation nervous system and hematopoietic organs of the embryo.
Thus, the embryo is extremely sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, primarily to changes that occur in the mother's body.
Often disturbed embryonic development in cases where the father or mother suffers from alcoholism. Children of chronic alcoholics are often born with mental retardation. The most characteristic thing is that babies behave restlessly, the excitability of their nervous system is increased. Alcohol has a detrimental effect on the germ cells. Thus, it harms future offspring both before fertilization and during the development of the embryo and fetus.

4. Periods of postnatal development. Factors influencing development. Acceleration.
The body of a child after birth is constantly growing and developing. In the process of ontogenesis, specific anatomical and functional features arise, which are called age. Accordingly, the human life cycle can be divided into periods, or stages. There are no clearly defined boundaries between these periods, and they are largely arbitrary. However, the allocation of such periods is necessary, since children of the same calendar (passport), but of different biological age, react differently to sports and work loads; at the same time, their working capacity may be greater or lesser, which is important for solving a number of practical issues of organizing the educational process at school.
The postnatal period of development is the period of life from birth to death.

Periodization of age in the postnatal period:

Infancy (up to 1 year);
- pre-preschool (1-3 years);
- preschool (3-7 years);
- junior school (7-11-12 years old);
- secondary school (11-12-15 years old);
- senior school (15-17-18 years old);
- maturity (18-25)

At the age of 18, physiological maturity sets in.

Biological maturity - the ability to have offspring (from the age of 13). Full physical maturity occurs at the age of 20, and for men - at 21-25 years. Physical maturity is evidenced by the end of growth and ossification of the skeleton.

The criteria for such periodization included a set of features - the size of the body and organs, weight, ossification of the skeleton, teething, the development of endocrine glands, the degree of puberty, muscle strength.
The child's organism develops in the specific conditions of the environment, which continuously acts on the organism and largely determines the course of its development. The course of morphological and functional rearrangements of the child's body in different age periods is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Depending on the specific environmental conditions, the development process can be accelerated or slowed down, and its age periods can come earlier or later and have different durations. The qualitative originality of the child's organism, which changes at each stage of individual development, is manifested in everything, and above all in the nature of its interaction with the environment. Under the influence of the external environment, especially its social side, certain hereditary qualities can be realized and developed, if the environment contributes to this, or, conversely, suppressed.

Acceleration

Acceleration (acceleration) is the accelerated growth of a whole generation of people over any historical period of time.

Acceleration is the acceleration of age-related development by shifting morphogenesis to earlier stages of ontogenesis.

There are two types of acceleration - epochal (secular trend, i.e. "the trend of the century", it is inherent in the entire current generation) and intragroup, or individual - this is the accelerated development of individual children and adolescents in certain age groups.

Retardation is a delay in physical development and the formation of functional systems of the body. It is the opposite of acceleration.

The term "acceleration" (from the Latin word acceleratio - acceleration) was proposed by the German doctor Koch in 1935. The essence of acceleration is in an earlier achievement of certain stages of biological development and completion of the maturation of the organism.

There is evidence that due to intrauterine fetal acceleration, full-fledged mature newborns with a weight of over 2500 g and a body length of more than 47 cm can be born at gestational ages of less than 36 weeks.

A doubling of body weight in infants (compared to birth weight) is now occurring by 4, and not by 6 months, as was the case in the early twentieth century. If the "cross" of the chest and head circumference values ​​at the beginning of the 20th century was recorded by the 10-12th month, in 1937 - already at the 6th month, in 1949 - at the 5th, then at present the chest circumference becomes equal to the circumference of the head between the 2nd and 3rd months of life. Modern infants have earlier teething. By the year of life in modern children, the body length is 5-6 cm, and the weight is 2.0-2.5 kg higher than they were at the beginning of the century. The circumference of the chest increased by 2.0-2.5 cm, and the head - by 1.0-1.5 cm.
Acceleration of development is also noticeable in children of toddler and preschool age. The development of modern 7-year-old children corresponds to 8.5-9 years in children of the late 19th century.
On average, in preschool children, the body length has increased by 10-12 cm over 100 years. Permanent teeth also erupt earlier.

At preschool age, acceleration can be harmonious. This is the name given to those cases when there is a correspondence of the level of development not only in the mental and somatic spheres, but also in relation to the development of individual mental functions. But harmonic acceleration is extremely rare. More often, along with the acceleration of mental and physical development, pronounced somatovegetative dysfunctions (at an early age) and endocrine disorders (at an older age) are noted. In the mental sphere itself, disharmony is observed, manifested by the acceleration of the development of some mental functions (for example, speech) and the immaturity of others (for example, motor skills and social skills), and sometimes somatic (bodily) acceleration is ahead of mental. In all these cases, disharmonious acceleration is meant. A typical example of disharmonious acceleration is a complex clinical picture, reflecting a combination of signs of acceleration and infantilism ("childhood").

Acceleration in early childhood has a number of features. Acceleration of mental development in comparison with the age norm even by0.5-1 year always makes the child "difficult", vulnerable to stress, especially to psychological situations that are not always caught by adults.

During puberty, which begins in modern girls at 10-12 years old, and in boys at 12-14 years old, the growth rate increases greatly. Earlier comes puberty.

In large cities, puberty of adolescents occurs somewhat earlier than in rural areas. The rate of acceleration of rural children is also lower than in cities.

In the course of acceleration, the average height of an adult for each decade increases by about 0.7-1.2 cm, and weight - by 1.5-2.5 kg.

Concerns have been raised that the acceleration-related shortening of the growth period and the acceleration of puberty may lead to earlier wilting and a shorter lifespan. These fears were not confirmed. The life expectancy of modern people has increased, working capacity is preserved for a longer time. In women, menopause has moved to the 48-50th year of life (at the beginning of the 20th century, menstruation stopped at 43-45 years). Consequently, the childbearing period has lengthened, which can also be attributed to the manifestations of acceleration. In connection with the later onset of menopause and senile changes, metabolic diseases, atherosclerosis and cancer "moved" to an older age. It is believed that the milder course of diseases such as scarlet fever and diphtheria is associated not only with the success of medicine, but also with acceleration due to a change in the reactivity of the body. As a result of acceleration, the reactivity of young children acquired features that were previously characteristic of older children (adolescents).
In connection with the acceleration of physical and puberty, the problems associated with early sexual activity and early marriages have acquired particular importance.

The main manifestations of acceleration according to Yu. E. Veltishchev and G. S. Gracheva (1979):

• increased length and body weight of newborns in comparison with similar values ​​of the 20-30s of our century; at present, the growth of one-year-old children is on average 4-5 cm, and body weight is 1-2 kg more than 50 years ago
• earlier eruption of the first teeth, their change to permanent ones occurs 1-2 years earlier than in children of the last century;
• earlier appearance of ossification nuclei in boys and girls, and in general, ossification of the skeleton in girls ends 3 years, and in boys - 2 years earlier than in the 20-30s of our century;
• an earlier increase in the length and body weight of children of preschool and school age, and the older the child, the more it differs in body size from children of the last century;
• an increase in body length in the current generation by 8-10 cm compared to the previous one;
• the sexual development of boys and girls ends 1.5-2 years earlier than at the beginning of the 20th century; for every 10 years, the onset of menstruation in girls accelerates by 4-6 months.

True acceleration is accompanied by an increase in life expectancy and the reproductive period of the adult population.(I. M. Vorontsov, A. V. Mazurin, 1985).

On the basis of taking into account the ratios of anthropometric indicators and the level of biological maturity, harmonic and disharmonic types of acceleration are distinguished. The harmonic type includes those children whose anthropometric indicators and the level of biological maturity are higher than the average values ​​for this age group, the disharmonic type includes children who have increased body growth in length without simultaneous acceleration of sexual development or early puberty without increased growth in length.

Theories of the causes of acceleration

1. Physical and chemical:
1) heliogenic (the influence of solar radiation), it was put forward by the German school doctor E. Koch, who introduced it in the early 30s. the term "acceleration";
2) radio-wave, magnetic (the influence of a magnetic field);
3) cosmic radiation;
4) an increased concentration of carbon dioxide caused by an increase in production;

5) lengthening of daylight hours due to artificial lighting of the premises.

2. Theories of individual factors of living conditions:
1) alimentary (improvement of nutrition);
2) nutraceutical (improving the structure of nutrition);

3) the influence of hormonal growth stimulants supplied with the meat of animals grown on these stimulants (hormones have been used to accelerate the growth of animals since the 1960s);
4) increased flow of information, increased sensory impact on the psyche.

3. Genetic:
1) cyclic biological changes;
2) heterosis (mixing of populations).

4. Theories of a complex of factors of living conditions:
1) urban (urban) influence;
2) a complex of socio-biological factors.

Thus, a generally accepted point of view has not yet been formed regarding the causes of acceleration. Many hypotheses have been put forward. Most scientists consider nutritional change to be the determining factor in all developmental shifts. This is due to an increase in the amount of consumed high-grade proteins and natural fats per capita.

The acceleration of the physical development of the child requires the rationalization of labor activity and physical activity. In connection with acceleration, the regional standards that we use to assess the physical development of children should be periodically reviewed.

Deceleration

The acceleration process has begun to decline, the average body size of a new generation of people is decreasing again.

Deceleration is the process of canceling acceleration, i.e. slowing down the processes of biological maturation of all organs and systems of the body. Deceleration is currently replacing acceleration.

currently planned deceleration is a consequence of the influence of a complex of natural and social factors on the biology of modern man, as well as acceleration.

Over the past 20 years, the following changes in the physical development of all segments of the population and all age groups have been recorded: the circumference of the chest has decreased, muscle strength has sharply decreased. But there are two extreme trends in body weight changes: insufficient, leading to malnutrition and dystrophy; and excess leading to obesity. All this is regarded as a negative phenomenon.

Reasons for deceleration:

Environmental factor;

Gene mutations;

Deterioration of social living conditions and, above all, the structure of nutrition;

All the same growth of information technologies, which began to lead to overexcitation of the nervous system and, in response to this, to its inhibition;

Decreased physical activity.

A reflex is a response of the body to irritation from the external or internal environment, carried out through the nervous system (CNS) and has an adaptive value.

For example, irritation of the skin of the plantar part of the foot in humans causes reflex flexion of the foot and toes. This is the plantar reflex. Touching the lips of an infant causes sucking movements in him - a sucking reflex. Illumination with bright light of the eye causes constriction of the pupil - the pupillary reflex.
Thanks to reflex activity, the body is able to quickly respond to various changes in the external or internal environment.
Reflex reactions are very diverse. They can be conditional or unconditional.
In all organs of the body there are nerve endings that are sensitive to stimuli. These are receptors. Receptors are different in structure, location and function.
The executive organ, the activity of which changes as a result of a reflex, is called an effector. The path along which impulses pass from the receptor to the executive organ is called the reflex arc. This is the material basis of the reflex.
Speaking about the reflex arc, it must be borne in mind that any reflex act is carried out with the participation of a large number of neurons. A two- or three-neuron reflex arc is just a circuit. In fact, the reflex occurs when not one, but many receptors located in one or another area of ​​the body are stimulated. Nerve impulses during any reflex act, arriving in the central nervous system, are widely distributed in it, reaching its different departments. Therefore, it is more correct to say that the structural basis of reflex reactions is made up of neural circuits of centripetal, central, or intercalary, and centrifugal neurons.
Due to the fact that any reflex act involves groups of neurons that transmit impulses to different parts of the brain, the entire body is involved in the reflex reaction. And indeed, if you are suddenly pricked with a pin in your hand, you will immediately pull it back. This is a reflex reaction. But this will not only reduce the muscles of the hand. Breathing, the activity of the cardiovascular system will change. You will respond with words to an unexpected injection. Almost the entire body was involved in the response. A reflex act is a coordinated reaction of the whole organism.

7. Differences between conditioned (acquired) reflexes and unconditioned ones. Conditions for the formation of conditioned reflexes

Table. Differences between unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

№	reflexes
	Unconditional	Conditional
1	Congenital	Acquired
2	Inherited	Are produced
3	Species	Individual
4	Nerve connections are permanent	Nerve connections are temporary
5	Stronger	Weaker
6	Faster	Slower
7	Difficult to slow down	Easily braked

In the implementation of unconditioned reflexes, mainly the subcortical parts of the central nervous system take part (we also call them "lower nerve centers" . Therefore, these reflexes can be carried out in higher animals even after the removal of the cerebral cortex. However, it was possible to show that after the removal of the cerebral cortex, the nature of the course of unconditioned reflex reactions changes. This gave grounds to speak of a cortical representation of the unconditioned reflex.
The number of unconditioned reflexes is relatively small. They by themselves cannot ensure the adaptation of the body to the constantly changing conditions of life. A great variety of conditioned reflexes are developed during the life of the organism, many of them lose their biological significance when the conditions of existence change, fade away, and new conditioned reflexes are developed. This enables animals and humans to best adapt to changing environmental conditions.
Conditioned reflexes are developed on the basis of unconditioned ones. First of all, you need a conditioned stimulus, or signal. A conditioned stimulus can be any stimulus from the external environment or a certain change in the internal state of the organism. If you feed a dog every day at a certain hour, then by this hour, even before feeding, the secretion of gastric juice begins. Time has become the conditioned stimulus here. Conditioned reflexes for a while are developed in a person subject to the regime of work, eating at the same time, and a constant time for going to bed.
In order to develop a conditioned reflex, the conditioned stimulus must be reinforced with an unconditioned stimulus, i.e. one that evokes an unconditioned reflex. The ringing of knives in a nightingale will cause a person to salivate only if this ringing has been reinforced by food one or more times. The ringing of knives and forks in our case is a conditioned stimulus, and the unconditioned stimulus that causes a salivary unconditioned reflex is food.
In the formation of a conditioned reflex, the conditioned stimulus must precede the action of the unconditioned stimulus.

8. Patterns of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system. Their role in the activity of the nervous system. Mediators of excitation and inhibition. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes and its types

According to the ideas of IP Pavlov, the formation of a conditioned reflex is associated with the establishment of a temporary connection between two groups of cortical cells - between those who perceive conditioned and those who perceive unconditional stimulation.
Under the action of a conditioned stimulus, excitation occurs in the corresponding perceiving zone of the cerebral hemispheres. When the conditioned stimulus is reinforced with an unconditioned stimulus, a second, stronger focus of excitation appears in the corresponding zone of the cerebral hemispheres, which, apparently, takes on the character of a dominant focus. Due to the attraction of excitation from the focus of lesser strength to the focus of greater strength, the nerve path is cut, the summation of excitation occurs. A temporary neural connection is formed between the two foci of excitation. This connection becomes stronger, the more often both parts of the cortex are simultaneously excited. After several combinations, the connection is so strong that under the action of only one conditioned stimulus, excitation also occurs in the second focus.
Thus, due to the establishment of a temporal connection, a conditioned stimulus initially indifferent to the organism becomes a signal of a certain innate activity. If the dog hears the bell for the first time, he will give a general orienting reaction to it, but will not salivate. Let's back up the sounding bell with food. In this case, two foci of excitation will appear in the cerebral cortex - one in the auditory zone, and the other in the food center. After several reinforcements of the call with food in the cerebral cortex, a temporary connection arises between the two foci of excitation.
Conditioned reflexes can be inhibited. This happens in those cases when in the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, during the implementation of the conditioned reflex, a new, sufficiently strong focus of excitation arises, which is not associated with this conditioned reflex.
Distinguish:
external inhibition (unconditional);
internal (conditional).

External
Internal
Unconditioned brake - a new biologically strong signal that inhibits the implementation of the reflex
Fading inhibition with repeated repetition of SD without reinforcement, the reflex fades
Estimated; a new stimulus precedes the stimulation of the reflex
Differential - when a similar stimulus is repeated without reinforcement, the reflex fades
Limiting inhibition (super-strong stimuli inhibit the implementation of the reflex)
delayed
Fatigue - inhibits the implementation of the reflex
Conditional brake - when a combination of stimuli is not given reinforcement, one stimulus serves as a brake for another

In the central nervous system, unilateral conduction of excitation is noted. This is due to the peculiarities of synapses, the transfer of excitation in them is possible only in one direction - from the nerve ending, where the mediator is released upon excitation, to the postsynaptic membrane. In the opposite direction, the excitatory postsynaptic potential does not propagate.
What is the mechanism of transmission of excitation in synapses? The arrival of a nerve impulse at the presynaptic ending is accompanied by a synchronous release of a mediator into the synaptic cleft from the synaptic vesicles located in its immediate vicinity. A series of impulses comes to the presynaptic ending, their frequency increases with an increase in the strength of the stimulus, leading to an increase in the release of the mediator into the synaptic cleft. The dimensions of the synaptic cleft are very small, and the neurotransmitter, quickly reaching the postsynaptic membrane, interacts with its substance. As a result of this interaction, the structure of the postsynaptic membrane temporarily changes, its permeability for sodium ions increases, which leads to the movement of ions and, as a result, the emergence of an excitatory postsynaptic potential. When this potential reaches a certain value, a propagating excitation occurs - an action potential.
After a few milliseconds, the neurotransmitter is destroyed by special enzymes.
At present, the vast majority of neurophysiologists recognize the existence in the spinal cord and in various parts of the brain of two qualitatively different types of synapses - excitatory and inhibitory.
Under the influence of an impulse coming along the axon of an inhibitory neuron, a mediator is released into the synaptic cleft, which causes specific changes in the postsynaptic membrane. The inhibitory mediator, interacting with the substance of the postsynaptic membrane, increases its permeability to potassium and chloride ions. Inside the cell, the relative number of anions increases. The result is not a decrease in the internal charge of the membrane, but an increase in the internal charge of the postsynaptic membrane. It is hyperpolated. This leads to the appearance of an inhibitory postsynatic potential, resulting in inhibition.

9. Irradiation and induction

Excitation impulses that have arisen when a particular receptor is irritated, entering the central nervous system, spread to its neighboring sections. This spread of excitation in the CNS is called irradiation. The irradiation is the wider, the stronger and longer the applied irritation.
Irradiation is possible due to numerous processes in centripetal nerve cells and intercalary neurons that connect different parts of the nervous system. Irradiation is well expressed in children, especially at an early age. Children of preschool and primary school age, when a beautiful toy appears, open their mouths, jump, laugh with pleasure.
In the process of differentiation of stimuli, inhibition limits the irradiation of excitation. As a result, excitation is concentrated in certain groups of neurons. Now, around the excited neurons, excitability drops, and they come into a state of inhibition. This is the phenomenon of simultaneous negative induction. The concentration of attention can be seen as a weakening of irradiation and an increase in induction. Dissipation of attention can also be considered as a result of inductive inhibition induced by a new focus of excitation as a result of the emerging orienting reaction. In neurons that have been excited, after excitation, inhibition occurs and, conversely, after inhibition, excitation occurs in the same neurons. This is sequential induction. Sequential induction can explain the increased motor activity of schoolchildren during breaks after prolonged inhibition in the motor area of ​​the cerebral cortex during the lesson. Rest at recess should be active and mobile.

The eye is located in the deepening of the skull - the eye socket. Behind and from the sides, it is protected from external influences by the bony walls of the orbit, and in front - by the eyelids. The inner surface of the eyelids and the anterior part of the eyeball, with the exception of the cornea, is covered with a mucous membrane - the conjunctiva. At the outer edge of the orbit is the lacrimal gland, which secretes a fluid that protects the eye from drying out. Blinking of the eyelids contributes to the even distribution of tear fluid over the surface of the eye.
The shape of the eye is spherical. The growth of the eyeball continues after birth. It grows most intensively in the first five years of life, less intensively - 9-12 years.
The eyeball consists of three shells - outer, middle and inner.
The outer shell of the eye is the sclera. This is a dense opaque white fabric, about 1 mm thick. In the anterior part, it passes into a transparent cornea.
The lens is a transparent elastic formation that has the shape of a biconvex lens. The lens is covered with a transparent bag; along its entire edge, thin, but very elastic fibers stretch to the ciliary body. They are strongly stretched and hold the lens in a stretched state.
In the center of the iris there is a round hole - the pupil. The size of the pupil changes, causing more or less light to enter the eye.
The tissue of the iris contains a special coloring matter - melanin. Depending on the amount of this pigment, the color of the iris ranges from gray and blue to brown, almost black. The color of the iris determines the color of the eyes. The inner surface of the eye is lined with a thin (0.2-0.3 mm), very complex shell - the retina. It contains light-sensitive cells, named rods and cones because of their shape. The nerve fibers from these cells come together to form the optic nerve, which travels to the brain.
The child in the first months after birth confuses the top and bottom of the object.
The eye is able to adapt to a clear vision of objects located at different distances from it. This ability of the eye is called accommodation.
Accommodation of the eye begins already when the object is at a distance of about 65 m from the eye. A clearly pronounced contraction of the ciliary muscle begins at a distance of 10 or even 5 m from the object. If the object continues to approach the eye, accommodation becomes more and more intense and, finally, a clear vision of the object becomes impossible. The smallest distance from the eye at which an object is still clearly visible is called the nearest point of clear vision. In a normal eye, the far point of clear vision lies at infinity.

(PHYSIOLOGY OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT)

Tutorial

For students of higher pedagogical educational institutions

M.M. Bezrukikh I (1, 2), III (15), IV (18-23),

V.D. Sonkin I (1, 3), II (4-10), III (17), IV (18-22),

D.A. Farber I (2), III (11-14, 16), IV (18-23)

Reviewers:

doctor of biological sciences, head. Department of Higher Nervous Activity and Psychophysiology, St. Petersburg University, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education,

Professor A. S. Batuev; Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor I.A. Kornienko

Bezrukikh M. M. and etc.

Age physiology: (Physiology of child development): Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. studies, institutions / M. M. Bezrukikh, V. D. Sonkin, D. A. Farber. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2002. - 416 p. ISBN 5-7695-0581-8

The textbook presents modern concepts of human ontogenesis, taking into account the latest achievements in anthropology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, neuro- and psychophysiology, etc. The morphological and functional features of the child at the main stages of age development, their connection with the processes of socialization, including education and upbringing, are considered. The book is illustrated with a large number of diagrams, tables, drawings that facilitate the assimilation of the material, questions for self-examination are proposed.

AGE PHYSIOLOGY 1

Tutorial 1

FOREWORD 3

Section I INTRODUCTION TO AGE PHYSIOLOGY 7

Chapter 1

Chapter 2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF AGE PHYSIOLOGY 18

(PHYSIOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT) 18

Chapter 3. GENERAL PLAN OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE ORGANISM 28

Section II ORGANISM AND ENVIRONMENT 39

Chapter 4. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 39

Chapter 5. ORGANISM AND ITS HABITAT 67

Chapter 6. INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE ORGANISM 82

Chapter 7. METABOLISM (METABOLISM) 96

Chapter 8. SYSTEM OF OXYGEN SUPPLY OF THE ORGANISM 132

Chapter 9. PHYSIOLOGY OF ACTIVITY AND ADAPTATION 162

Chapter 10

Section III THE ORGANISM AS A WHOLE 199

Chapter 11. NERVOUS SYSTEM: SIGNIFICANCE AND STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION 199

Chapter 12

Chapter 13. REGULATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL STATE OF THE BRAIN 219

Chapter 14. INTEGRATIVE ACTIVITY OF THE BRAIN 225

Chapter 15. CENTRAL MOVEMENT REGULATION 248

Chapter 16

Chapter 17

Section IV STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT 297

Chapter 18. INFANTITY (from 0 to 1 year) 297

Chapter 19. EARLY AGE 316

(FROM 1 YEAR TO 3 YEARS) 316

Chapter 20. PRESCHOOL 324

(FROM 3 TO 6-7 YEARS) 324

Chapter 21

Chapter 22

Chapter 23. SOCIAL FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF ONTOGENESIS 369

LITERATURE 382

FOREWORD

Elucidation of the patterns of child development, the specifics of the functioning of physiological systems at different stages of ontogenesis and the mechanisms that determine this specifics, is a necessary condition for ensuring the normal physical and mental development of the younger generation.

The main questions that parents, educators and psychologists should have in the process of raising and educating a child at home, in kindergarten or at school, at a consultative appointment or individual lessons, are what kind of child he is, what are his features, what option of training with him will be the most effective. Answering these questions is not at all easy, because this requires deep knowledge about the child, the patterns of his development, age and individual characteristics. This knowledge is also extremely important for developing the psychophysiological foundations for organizing educational work, developing mechanisms for adaptation in a child, determining the impact of innovative technologies on him, etc.

Perhaps, for the first time, the importance of a comprehensive knowledge of physiology and psychology for a teacher and educator was highlighted by the famous Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky in his work “Man as an Object of Education” (1876). “The art of education,” wrote K.D. Ushinsky, “has the peculiarity that it seems familiar and understandable to almost everyone, and even an easy matter to others, and the more understandable and easier it seems, the less a person is theoretically familiar with it. and practically. Almost everyone admits that parenting requires patience; some think that it requires an innate ability and skill, i.e. skill; but very few have come to the conclusion that, in addition to patience, innate ability and skill, special knowledge is also needed, although our numerous wanderings could convince everyone of this. It was K.D.Ushinsky who showed that physiology is one of those sciences in which "facts are stated, compared and grouped together, and those correlations of facts in which the properties of the object of education, i.e., a person, are found." Analyzing the physiological knowledge that was known, and this was the time of the formation of age-related physiology, K.D. Ushinsky emphasized: “From this source, just opening, education almost did not draw yet.” Unfortunately, even now we cannot talk about the wide use of age-related physiology data in pedagogical science. The uniformity of programs, methods, textbooks is a thing of the past, but the teacher still does not take into account the age and individual characteristics of the child in the learning process.

At the same time, the pedagogical effectiveness of the learning process largely depends on how the forms and methods of pedagogical influence are adequate to the age-related physiological and psychophysiological characteristics of schoolchildren, whether the conditions for organizing the educational process correspond to the capabilities of children and adolescents, whether the psychophysiological patterns of the formation of basic school skills - writing and reading, as well as basic motor skills in the process of classes.

The physiology and psychophysiology of a child is a necessary component of the knowledge of any specialist working with children - a psychologist, educator, teacher, social pedagogue. “Upbringing and education deals with a holistic child, with his holistic activity,” said the well-known Russian psychologist and teacher V.V. Davydov. - This activity, considered as a special object of study, contains in its unity many aspects, including ... physiological (V.V. Davydov "Problems of developmental education." - M., 1986. - P. 167).

Age physiology is the science of the features of the life of the body, the functions of its individual systems, the processes that take place in them, and the mechanisms of their regulation at different stages of individual development. Part of it is the study of the physiology of the child in different age periods.

A textbook on age-related physiology for students of pedagogical universities contains knowledge about human development at those stages when the influence of one of the leading factors of development, education, is most significant.

The subject of developmental physiology (physiology of child development) as an academic discipline is the features of the development of physiological functions, their formation and regulation, the vital activity of the organism and the mechanisms of its adaptation to the external environment at different stages of ontogenesis.

Basic concepts of age physiology:

An organism is the most complex, hierarchically (subordinately) organized system of organs and structures that ensure vital activity and interaction with the environment. The elementary unit of the organism is the cell. A collection of cells that are similar in origin, structure and function forms a tissue. Tissues form organs that perform specific functions. A function is a specific activity of an organ or system.

Physiological system - a set of organs and tissues related by a common function.

A functional system is a dynamic association of various organs or their elements, the activity of which is aimed at achieving a specific goal (useful result).

As for the structure of the proposed textbook, it is built in such a way that students have a clear idea of ​​the patterns of development of the body in the process of ontogenesis, the features of each age stage.

We tried not to overload the presentation with anatomical data and at the same time considered it necessary to give basic ideas about the structure of organs and systems at different stages of age development, which is necessary for understanding the physiological patterns of organization and regulation of physiological functions.

The book consists of four sections. Section I - "Introduction to developmental physiology" - reveals the subject of developmental physiology as an integral part of developmental physiology, gives an idea of ​​the most important modern physiological theories of ontogenesis, introduces basic concepts, without which it is impossible to understand the main content of the textbook. In the same section, the most general idea of ​​​​the structure of the human body and its functions is given.

Section II - "The Organism and the Environment" - gives an idea of ​​the main stages and patterns of growth and development, the most important functions of the body that ensure the interaction of the body with the environment and its adaptation to changing conditions, the age development of the body and the characteristic features of the stages of individual development.

Section III - "The Organism as a Whole" - contains a description of the activities of systems that integrate the body into a single whole. First of all, it is the central nervous system, as well as the autonomic nervous system and the system of humoral regulation of functions. The main patterns of age-related development of the brain and its integrative activity are the key aspect of the content of this section.

Section IV - "Stages of child development" - contains a morpho-physiological description of the main stages of child development from birth to adolescence. This section is most important for practitioners who work directly with the child, for whom it is important to know and understand the basic morphological and functional age-related characteristics of the child's body at each stage of its development. To understand the contents of this section, it is necessary to master all the material presented in the previous three. This section concludes with a chapter that examines the impact of social factors on child development.

At the end of each chapter, there are questions for independent work of students, which allow you to refresh the memory of the main provisions of the studied material that require special attention.

Section I INTRODUCTION TO AGE PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 1

The relationship of age physiology with other sciences

By the time of birth, the child's body is still very far from a mature state. A human cub is born small, helpless, it cannot survive without the care and care of adults. It takes a long time for it to grow and become a full-fledged mature organism.

The section of physiological science that studies the biological patterns and mechanisms of growth and development is called age physiology. The development of a multicellular organism (and the human body consists of several billion cells) begins at the moment of fertilization. The entire life cycle of an organism, from conception to death, is called individual development, or ontogenesis.

Regularities and features of the life of the organism in the early stages of ontogenesis are traditionally the subject of research. age physiology (physiology of child development).

The physiology of child development concentrates its interest on those stages that are of greatest interest to the educator, teacher, school psychologist: from birth to morphofunctional and psychosocial maturation. Earlier stages related to intrauterine development are explored by science embryology. Later stages, from reaching maturity to old age, study normal physiology and gerontology.

Man in his development obeys all the basic laws established by Nature for any developing multicellular organism, and therefore developmental physiology is one of the sections of a much broader field of knowledge - developmental biology. At the same time, in the dynamics of growth, development and maturation of a person, there are many specific, special features that are inherent only in the species Homo sapience (Reasonable Man). In this plane, developmental physiology is closely intertwined with science anthropology which aims at the comprehensive study of man.

A person always lives in the specific conditions of the environment with which he interacts. Continuous interaction and adaptation to the environment is the general law of the existence of living things. Man has learned not only to adapt to the environment, but also to change the world around him in the necessary direction. However, this did not save him from the influence of environmental factors, and at different stages of age development, the set, strength of action and the result of the influence of these factors may be different. This determines the relationship of physiology with ecological physiology, which studies the impact on a living organism of various environmental factors and ways of adapting the organism to the action of these factors.

During periods of intensive development, it is especially important to know how environmental factors act on a person, how various risk factors influence. This has traditionally received increased attention. And here the physiology of development closely interacts with hygiene, since it is the physiological laws that most often act as the theoretical foundations of hygiene requirements and recommendations.

The role of living conditions, and not only "physical", but also social, psychological, in the formation of a healthy and adapted person is very great. A child should be aware of the value of his health from early childhood, possess the necessary skills to preserve it.

Formation of the value of health and a healthy lifestyle is the task of pedagogical valeology, which draws factual material and basic theoretical provisions from developmental physiology.

Finally, developmental physiology is the natural science basis pedagogy. At the same time, the physiology of development is inextricably linked with the psychology of development, since for each person his biological and personal make up a single whole. No wonder any biological damage (illness, injury, genetic disorders, etc.) inevitably affects the development of the individual. The teacher should be equally well versed in the problems of developmental psychology and physiology of development: only in this case his activity will bring real benefit to his students.