Culturologists, psychologists, linguists, as well as writers and journalists note a noticeable decrease in the general level of speech and communicative culture at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. The state of Russian speech, especially the speech of young people, which causes deep concern not only among linguists and teachers of Russian studies, testifies to the moral trouble of society, to the lowering of the intellectual bar, to the unpreparedness of many yesterday's schoolchildren to receive a full-fledged higher education. There is no noticeable shift towards raising the level of the speech culture of society as a whole, and the proposed ways out of the cultural and speech crisis are also contradictory.

According to one of the leading experts in the field of speech culture, O.B. Sirotinina, in the minds of speakers, the idea of ​​the standard of good speech has changed, the bookish is replaced by emphatically colloquial and even non-literary [Sirotinina 2001: 152]. Recognizing the validity of such assessments, it should be borne in mind that in each period of the historical development of society there is a certain dissatisfaction with the language - it often seems imperfect to contemporaries, while people's views on the state of the language of their era are interesting and provide the key to understanding the development of the language [Yartseva 1969: 103]. In this regard, sharp assessments of the current state of the Russian language are not something exceptional. In the characterization of new linguistic phenomena, the tastes of different native speakers are manifested - both those who are characterized by its creative use, and conservatives. It is the ratio of these assessments that makes it possible to multidimensionally assess the modern speech situation and create an adequate portrait of a modern linguistic personality.

L.A. Verbitskaya emphasizes that when characterizing a language norm, it is necessary to take into account the relationship between the positions of the speaker and the listener.

Many linguists, writers, publicists see the origins of the disturbing state of Russian speech, which is noticeable today to every cultural member of society, in our past, in the totalitarian language that has dominated for decades. “Treasury supervision over the word has led to the fact that in a country with the deepest traditions of the language, which gave the world treasures of literature and poetry, Russian speech began to degenerate. In the mouths of official speakers, it has turned into a set of soulless phrases, into a dump of verbal rubbish.<…>False thoughts give rise to a false language” [Kostikov 1989]. Undoubtedly, the destructive role of the “false language” was manifested not only in politics and in the media: its impact was felt at all levels of education, and thinking and educated teachers considered resistance to it one of the most important tasks of education.

By the end of the XX century. the language situation has changed significantly. The emancipation of the speakers, associated with the objective and progressive, in essence, the processes of democratization of society, especially noticeable in the media, affects all the mechanisms of the language. However, in the absence of a general and speech culture, these factors develop into speech permissiveness, which adversely affects the language environment. At the same time, the statement of E.A. Zemskoy: “People did not begin to speak worse, we just heard how only those who read and were silent speak before. And a culture of speech that had fallen a long time ago was discovered” [Russian language of the end of the 20th century 2001: 3]. As already noted, the obvious decline in the speech standard [Neshchimenko 2001: 99] in the last two decades is especially noticeable in the mass media, whose increased influence on the language environment today is not in doubt [see, for example: Smetanina 2002].

Here are some examples:

Finally, everyone sat down, and on the big screen they launched the newsreel "Wick" No. 184. "The Chukchi reindeer herders do not fulfill the plan for the supply of hides," the off-screen voice broadcast. Hall respectfully hooted. The atmosphere of exciting anticipation did not leave the stalls, even when the shots with reindeer herders were replaced by others [AiF. 1997. No. 51].

The government is scratching its turnips on the next presidential installation by increasing 1.5 times the real wages of state employees over three years.

The pop divas rode onto the stage on a giant pedestal and, hand in hand, silently stood under the dome of the Olympic Stadium, like Minin and Pozharsky under the domes of the Kremlin, while playing a gloomy, mournful and solemn instrumental, mourning the theme "I've lost my mind." That is, the pathos of "return" was caught up and inflated. Then they got off the pedestal.

For what and how to dismiss, the president decides. Erysipelas did not like - and he dismissed [AiF. 2005. No. 37].

A special concentrate of "geldings" and English speech was observed at the Yusupov Palace.

The mass media have become the “speech environment” of many native speakers: “One way or another, by the end of the 20th century. the language of the media, with all its advantages and disadvantages, whether we like it or not, becomes a reference, rule-making factor influencing the formation of the norm of the modern literary language, as well as the level of ethnic linguistic culture as a whole [Neschimenko 2001: 101]. “Reading newspapers and magazines is often the only sphere of speech activity in which “standards”, “norms”, “aesthetics” are set. Many mass diseases of the language are therefore explained by the influence of language mass media on the speech image of society and many of its representatives” [Graudina et al. 1995: 85]. The rapidly changing socio-cultural situation suggests that print media are now inferior to television in terms of the intensity of impact on the linguistic personality. A special role in shaping the language environment in which young people “live” today belongs to the Internet.

Here is a fragment of an interview taken by one of the leading journalists of the Ogonyok magazine with Professor V. Glazychev. The interview is devoted to the problems of culture, in particular, the book boom in Russia:

I, too, wonder: what does it mean to “stop reading” with such a book boom? Every year in Russia, hundreds of thousands of tons of paper are consumed by the book market.

No, there really are people who have stopped reading. These are those who read only because there was nothing to do - now, thank God, they are busy with business. So some loss of the readership is a completely beneficial sign ... And about the general situation with reading<…>. When in the library of some provincial regional center you suddenly come across the fact that they have a queue for a book by Heidegger, your brain is immediately cleared. Damn, I've never even heard of this guy.<…>

This is one of the most curious philosophers of the 20th century.<…>Twinkle. 2002. No. 42.

Assessing the processes taking place in modern speech, one should recognize the validity of the words of Yu.V. Vorotnikova: “The immanent laws of language development are like the laws of nature: they do not depend on the will of man. But there are other areas in the language that are completely controlled and regulated by a person. This is precisely the sphere of the culture of speech, our conscious choice in this or that situation of this or that word, this or that stylistic figure, this or that style of communication.

The problem of mastering effective professional speech is one of the most important in modern scientific work on rhetoric and pedagogy. Particularly noteworthy is the study of the conditions for the effectiveness of speech pedagogical influence, its types and methods in the light of the question of the relationship between direct and indirect speech tactics, which are understood as the totality of various means and methods of speech behavior leading to speech success.

As the observation of the educational process at school shows, modern teachers and students of a pedagogical university do not widely use the tactics of indirect speech influence. The creation and use of methods of indirect influence for pedagogical purposes is not the subject of special study in the university theory and methods of teaching the Russian language, in the course of professional culture of speech and rhetoric. At the same time, the methods of indirect pedagogical influence are diverse and have their own specifics, which are determined by the characteristics and tasks of educational communication.

One of the universal methods of implementing the tactics of indirect influence, the rich didactic possibilities of which are practically not used by modern teachers, is a hint.

The results of our own observation of the activities of teachers showed that the use of a hint for pedagogical purposes is justified and effective in situations where the use of methods of direct influence is impossible or undesirable for a number of psychological, ethical, moral or other reasons. A hint as a method of pedagogical influence can perform many functions: 1) establish friendly (collegiate, parity, partnership) relations between the teacher and students, strengthen teaching authority; 2) create a favorable emotional climate in the group; 3) defuse a tense, conflict situation; 4) encourage students to critically comprehend the information received, their own and others' actions; 5) to protect the human "I" of the communicants (self-esteem), etc.

speech portrait teacher will

The modern speech situation represents a crisis transitional stage. But the language does not deteriorate, it develops. The question of changes in speech and in the language system becomes relevant. Introduced three-part system:

Features of the modern speech situation:
1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is expanding dramatically. Broad sections of the population receive speakers, writers.
2. Censorship is sharply weakened in the media.
3. The personal beginning in speech increases.
4. Expanding the scope of spontaneous communication, impromptu.
5. The main parameters of the flow of oral forms of mass communication are changing.
6. Situations and genres of communication in the field of public and personal communication are changing.
7. The rejection of bureaucratic language is growing sharply.
8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression.
9. The birth of new names and the birth of old ones.
In 1991 passed conference "Russian language and modernity" . It put forward the following theses:
1. The modern speech situation is not critical, does not indicate the death of the language, but reflects the typical features of the language of the 20s and the main trends in its development.
2. All researchers are not satisfied with the speech competence of Russian speakers, which indicates a decline in speech culture.
Types of speech culture:
1. Fully functional (elite). The most complete knowledge of all the possibilities of the national language. The attitude to one's own speech is critical. For carriers of this type, a creative attitude to the language is characteristic, their speech is always figurative.
2. Not fully functional. Incomplete measure of language proficiency.
3. Middle literary. A failed incomplete type. People have an idea about the norm, but do not own it. precedent texts - media texts. They treat their own speech uncritically, they know only two functional styles: colloquial and professional. Use a large number of stamps. The level of general culture is low.
4. Literary jargon. ignorance of euphemisms - more decent expressions. Demonstrative unwillingness to use them.
5. Everyday. Never think about their speech.

6. The main functions of the language and their implementation in speech.

The functions of the language are not equivalent. Those functions of the language are recognized as fundamental, the fulfillment of which predetermined its emergence and constitutive properties. The most important social function of language is communicative. It determines its main characteristic - the presence of a material (sound) form and a system of encoding and decoding rules. These properties provide and maintain the unity of expression and perception of meaning. This function forms a pragmatic component of the language structure, adapting speech to the participants and the situation of communication. With the help of language, people convey their thoughts and feelings to each other, thereby influencing each other and forming social consciousness.

The second main social function of the language is called the cognitive (cognitive) function, which consists of a logical (thought-forming) function. Thought then becomes formalized and sensually perceived when it is embodied in the forms of language and expressed in speech. Another component: an accumulative (historical) function, in which language serves as a means of accumulating social experience, a means of forming and developing material and spiritual culture, thereby changing public consciousness.

Statements about language are denoted by the metalinguistic (metalinguistic) function of language, implemented in linguistic texts, in the process of mastering a native or foreign language.

Example: “I explained that there is a big difference between “demonstrative”, when they show what is, and “ostentatious”, when they show what is not” (Khodasevich).

The setting for the message to satisfy the aesthetic sense of the addressee with its form in unity with the content is performed by the aesthetic (poetic) function, which, being the main one for a literary text, is also present in everyday speech, manifesting itself in its rhythm, imagery, etc. Unlike communicative function, which is the main one in ordinary (practical) language, the aesthetic function dominates in artistic speech.

The social function of the language, its social significance, lies in the fact that the language is involved in the development of various aspects of the spiritual life and labor activity of the people.

The achievements of the people, the nation in the development of science, fiction and other areas of spiritual culture are carried out with the direct participation of the native language and are expressed in it. That is why every nation strives, while developing its national culture, to maintain and improve its national language.

7. General characteristics of the national language. The concept of the modern Russian literary language.

The national language is the common language of the whole nation, covering all spheres of speech activity of people. It is not homogeneous and consists of the following varieties: 1) Literary language; 2) Territorial and social dialects; 3) Non-literary vernacular.

The highest form of the national language is literary language- the language is standardized, serving the cultural needs of the people, fiction, the media, science, government agencies.

National language is wider!

Modern Russian literary language :

Russian is the language of the Russian nation

Literary - normalized (having a system of norms and rules)

8.language norm. Types of language norm. Signs of the language norm.

A linguistic norm is a set of the most stable language means and rules illuminated by tradition, their use, accepted in a given society, in a given era.

There are three formulas of language norms:

1. A is right, B is wrong.

2. A - correct, B - correct.

3. A - correct in X style, B - correct in y style.

In accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools the following types of norms are distinguished:

1. orthoepic norms - this is the rule for pronouncing sounds and sound combinations and placing stress in a word. Deviation from this type of norms generates the corresponding type of speech errors.

Subdivided into:

proper pronunciation.

· Accent

2. Lexical norms - rules for the use of words in accordance with their lexical meaning and compatibility, violation leads to lexical errors (smart girl / smart leg (lex.)).

Variety of lexical errors:

Mixing words with similar meanings

Mixing words with similar sounds

Mixing words that are similar in meaning and sound

Unresolved ambiguity

· Pleonasms, tautologies.

3. Phraseological norms

Rules for the use of stable combinations of words in accordance with their meaning, composition and grammatical form.

Types of phraseological errors:

Changing the lexical composition or replacing a component (she keeps it in her mittens/ mittens; Ivanushka grew by leaps and bounds, and at night/ by hours)

truncation (successes wish the best / successes leave much to be desired)

Expansion of the lexical composition (it's time for you to take up mine mind; he is before his will not forget the coffin).

Distortion of grammatical form (beat bucket/ buckets; tablecloth for him road/road; in head goes around / head).

Contamination - combining the components of two different phraseological units into one (this work a penny not worth / a broken penny)

Pleonastic combinations - use with words that duplicate its meaning ( Vain monkey labor, tough hedgehog gloves, random stray bullet).

Use in an unusual meaning (the lesson passed and your song was sung).

4. Word-building norms are the rules for the formation of words in the modern Russian literary language.

deviation from word-formation norms leads to word combinations.

5. Morphological norms - the rules for the formation of grammatical forms of words.

6. Syntactic norms - the rules for constructing a combination, sentence and text.

10. Speech errors and their classification.

speech error- an error associated with incorrect or not with the most successful use of words or phraseological units. The main causes of speech errors are misunderstanding of the meaning of a word, lexical compatibility, the use of synonyms, the use of homonyms, the use of polysemantic words, verbosity, lexical incompleteness of the statement, new words, obsolete words, words of foreign origin, dialectisms, colloquial and vernacular words, professional jargon, phraseological units, cliches and stamps.

Speech errors are divided into:

1) Lexical(A lexical error is the use of one word instead of some other, completely different from it in meaning: "Onegin was a courtyard" (instead of "nobleman")).

2) Morphological(These are incorrect formations of word forms during inflection, when the wrong ending is taken to the form of the word, which is required. The following typical errors are observed: - the formation of the nominative plural from masculine nouns with the ending - a (-я) instead of the ending - and ( -s): locksmith (instead of locksmiths), turner, bulldozer, hair, reprimand, hospital, combine operator, etc. (instead of getting sick), ride (instead of ride), crawl (instead of crawl), climb (instead of climb), torment (instead of torment), scatter (instead of scatter), tremble (instead of tremble). cheaper, beautiful, lie down (instead of lying down), business, places; I don’t need to go there (instead of nothing); someone has doubts (instead of someone), for someone, from someone ( instead of someone after someone, something from someone).)

3) Syntactic (these are the norms for the correct construction of phrases and sentences. Compliance with syntactic norms is the most important condition for the correctness of speech.)

4) Stylistic (this is the incorrect use of the word and (or) the incorrect construction of the sentence. The use of paronyms and pleonasm. Paronyms(words similar in meaning) are often used incorrectly. The following pairs can be cited as examples: difference (of something from something) - difference (between something and something), assimilate - master (the second is used in the meaning of a higher degree of manifestation of the action), equal (same) - smooth (without protrusions, irregularities), provide (give for use) - present (present), linguistic (from language in the meaning of organ) - linguistic (from language in the meaning of speech) and many others. Pleonasm is a verbal excess, interspersed with words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view. After updating an existing object...(After updating an object...); An operation is the way in which an action is performed...(An operation is a way of performing an action...); To provide... (To provide...). Tautology(a definition is called that repeats what was said earlier in a different form.) Incorrect: Along with these signs, there are a number of others ... True: Along with these signs, there are others ...)

5) communicative in accordance with the language level at which they arise.

Speech errors (P) are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a language unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, that is, a violation of lexical norms. These are pleonasm, tautology, speech clichés, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-distinguishing of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, ambiguity not eliminated by the context.

№	Error type	Examples
P1	The use of a word in an unusual sense	We were shocked by the wonderful performance of the actors. Thanks to the fire, the forest burned down.
R2	Unjustified use of dialect and colloquial words	Such people always manage to fool others. Oblomov did nothing and played the fool all day long.
P3	Bad use of pronouns	The text was written by V. Belov. It refers to the artistic style; I immediately had a picture in my mind.
P4	The use of words of a different stylistic coloring; mixing vocabulary from different eras; inappropriate use of stationery, expressive, emotionally colored words, outdated vocabulary, jargon, inappropriate use of phraseological units	According to the author's idea, the hero wins; Molchalin works as Famusov's secretary; In the novel by A.S. Pushkin there are lyrical digressions; The author now and then resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications. If I were there, then for such an attitude towards my mother, I would have given this cupcake in the gnaw; Don't put your finger in Zoshchenko's mouth, just let the reader laugh.
P5	Indistinguishability of shades of meaning introduced into the word by prefix and suffix	In such cases, I look in the dictionary.
R6	Non-distinguishing of paronyms, synonymous words; errors in the use of antonyms when constructing an antithesis; destruction of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit in an unsuccessfully organized context	Effective measures were taken; The name of this poet is familiar in many countries; In the third part of the text, not a cheerful, but not a major motif makes us think; the phonograph record has not yet said its last word.
R7	Violation of lexical compatibility	The author uses artistic features.
R8	Use of superfluous words, including pleonasm	Young youth; very lovely.
R9	The use of words near or close to the same root (tautology)	This story tells about real events.
P10	Unjustified repetition of a word	The hero of the story does not think about his act. The hero does not even understand the full depth of what he has done.
P11	Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions	When the writer came to the editorial office, he was accepted by the editor-in-chief. When they talked, the writer went to the hotel.
R12	Use of superfluous words, lexical redundancy	Then the fact that you can smile, our bookstore will take care of it.

11. Language and speech: comparative characteristics.

Language is a system of signs and symbols. Speech is the ability to speak a language. Language reveals itself only through speech. In linguistics, speech is understood as a specific speaking that takes place in time, clothed in a linguistic form (inner speech).

Difference: speech is concrete, unique, relevant, unfolds in time. It is realized in space, speech is active, tends to unite words. Unlike language, it is less conservative, but more mobile. Speech as a sequence of words involved in it reflects the experience of the speaker, is conditioned by the context, and can be chaotic. On the one hand, speech using already known language means depends on the language. And it has characteristics that have no other relation to the language (specific timbre, duration, degree of literacy, accent).

12. Two forms of speech: oral and written.

Speech communication occurs in 2 forms: oral and written. They are in a complex unity and occupy the same place in social speech practice. The basis of oral and written speech is literary speech - normalized.

Feature of oral speech: Oral speech is a sounding speech functioning in the sphere of direct communication. Historically, the oral form is primary. A greater role in it is played by: 1) the place of logical stress; 2) The degree of clarity of pronunciation; 3) The presence or absence of pauses.

Oral speech has an intonation variety capable of conveying all the richness of human feelings. It is perceived by ear. It can be prepared or unprepared. Prepared differs: 1) thoughtfulness; 2) a clear structural compositional organization; 3) compliance with speech norms; 4) Strict logic. Unprepared characterized by: 1) spontaneity; 2) The statement is formed gradually, depending on the situation. The speaker controls the sl. Language levels: 1) logical-compositional; 2) syntactic. Those. makes sure that the speech is logical and coherent. Chooses appropriate words to adequately express thought.

Oral speech, as well as written speech, is normalized and regulated, but its norms differ from book speech. In the oral norm - this is what is not perceived as an error.

The oral form of speech is assigned to all functional styles of the Russian language, but it has an advantage in the colloquial everyday style of speech. Allocate: 1) oral journalistic speech; 2) in the field of official business communication; 3) oral scientific; 4) colloquial speech.

Spoken language affects all varieties of oral speech.

Written speech: an auxiliary sign system created by people that is used to fix sounding speech. At the same time, writing is an independent communication system that complements a number of specific functions. It makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by a person, expands the scope of human communication, breaks the boundaries of the immediate environment.

main function- fixation of oral speech, which has the goal of preserving the last in space and time.

Written speech unfolds not in time, but in a statistical space, which makes it possible to think over the speech, return to what has already been written, rebuild sentences, parts of the text, replace words, clarify.

Written speech uses bookish language, the use of which is strictly regulated. The word order is fixed, inversion is not typical, in some cases it is unacceptable.

Sentences, as a rule, express complex logical and semantic connections, therefore, logical and semantic connections are characteristic of it. It is focused on the perception of the organs of vision, so it has a clear structural and formal organization.

15.Text. Text features. Discourse.

Text is an ordered set of sentences designed to express some meaning.

Features of the text: 1) Communicative completeness; 2) Connectivity; 3) integrity (unity); 4) dynamism; 5) Compression and redundancy; 6) Imagery.

Discourse (French discours - speech, performance, words) - in a broad sense, it is a complex unity of language practice and extralingual factors (significant behavior that manifests itself in forms accessible to sensory perception) necessary for understanding the text, i.e. gives an idea of ​​the participants in communication, their attitudes and goals, the conditions for the development and perception of the message. Traditionally, discourse had the meaning of an ordered written, but most often speech, message of an individual subject. In recent decades, the term has become widespread in the humanities and has acquired new shades of meaning. The frequent identification of text and discourse is connected, firstly, with the absence in some European languages ​​of the term equivalent to French English, discours (e), and secondly, with the fact that earlier only language practice was included in the scope of the concept of discourse. With the formation of discourse analysis as a special area of ​​research, it became clear that the meaning of discourse is not limited to written and oral speech, but also denotes extralinguistic semiotic processes. The emphasis in the interpretation of discourse is placed on its interactional nature. Discourse is, first of all, a speech immersed in life, in a social context (for this reason, the concept of discourse is rarely used in relation to ancient texts).

16. Lexicography and speech culture.

A dictionary is a specific organization of collections of words, usually with comments that describe the structural features of the words. There are also dictionaries in which there are no special comments.

In another sense, the term dictionary denotes the entire set of a certain language and is opposed to the term grammar, which denotes a set of rules for constructing more complex language expressions from words.

A linguistic discipline that focuses on vocabulary-building techniques called lexicography.

Lexicography is one of the branches of lexicology.

Main task: development of general typologies of dictionaries and description of the main types of dictionaries of the Russian language.

Lexicography is both a science and an art.

The lexicographer is a scientist.

The scribe, having determined the meaning of an unfamiliar word, wrote it between the lines or in the margins (glosses).

The earliest glosses are known from the deepest antiquity.

Handwritten glossaries were in constant demand. With the advent of printing, books fell in price, and dictionaries were among the first printed products.

In the 16th century, new principles for compiling dictionaries were formed, in particular, the alphabetical principle of arrangement was gradually approved.

(Lexicography (ancient Greek λεξικόν, lexikon - “dictionary” and γράφω, grapho - “I write”) - a section of linguistics that deals with the compilation of dictionaries and their study; a science that studies the semantic structure of a word, features of words, their interpretation.

Practical lexicography performs socially important functions, providing language teaching, description and normalization of the language, interlingual communication, scientific study of the language. Lexicography seeks to find the most optimal and acceptable for perception ways of dictionary representation of the entire body of knowledge about the language.

Theoretical lexicography covers a complex of problems related to the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, the volume and nature of the dictionary, the principles of the arrangement of material) and the microstructure of the dictionary (the structure of the dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions, the ratio of different types of information about the word, types of language illustrations, etc.). ), the creation of a typology of dictionaries, with the history of lexicography.

Lexicography represents a word in the totality of all its properties, so the dictionary is not only a unique and indispensable guide to the language, but also the most important tool for scientific research. Linguistic science of the 21st century strives to embody all aspects of the acquired knowledge in a dictionary form, therefore, in the latest dictionaries, not only words, but also other language units become the object of description.

Among the famous lexicographers are Pollux, C. Ducange, I.K. Adelung, I.G. Walter, V.I. Dal.

A culture of speech…)

17. Linguistic dictionaries of the Russian language and their purpose.

A linguistic dictionary is a scientific reference publication where words are placed in alphabetical order and stable combinations, words with their interpretation, stress, grammatical, syntactic and other notes. Linguistic dictionaries describe words, their meaning, features of use, structural properties, compatibility, correlation with lexical systems of other languages.

Particularly noteworthy is the distinction between linguistic (primarily explanatory) and encyclopedic dictionaries, which, first of all, consists in the fact that concepts are described in encyclopedic dictionaries (depending on the volume and addressee of the dictionary, more or less detailed scientific information is given), in explanatory - linguistic meanings. There are many entries in encyclopedic dictionaries in which proper names are the heading word.

An example of a dictionary entry from a linguistic dictionary:

Marmot, -r to a, m. A small rodent of the family. squirrel, living in burrows and hibernating in winter.

An example of a dictionary entry from an encyclopedic dictionary:

Marmots, a genus of mammals of the family. squirrels. Body length up to 60 cm, tail less than 1/2 body length. 13 species, in the North. hemispheres (excluding deserts and tundras); in Russia several types. Object of trade (fur, fat, meat). They may be carriers of the plague pathogen. Some species are rare and protected.

18. The concept of a typical text and its role in business communication.

Sample text- this is a sample text, on the basis of which texts of similar content are subsequently created.

19. Characteristics of the official business style.

The main sphere of functioning is administrative and legal activity. This style satisfies the need of society for documenting various acts, state, socio-political, economic life, business relations in organizations, as well as between members of society.

Style texts represent a huge variety of genres (documents, orders). The expression of legal will in documents determines the properties of business speech and the socially organizing uses of the language.

Functions of official business style: 1) informational; 2) prescriptive; 3) Ascertaining.

The form of implementation is written.

Two sub-styles are distinguished from the official business style: 1) Legislative (official documentary (language of legislative documents)); 2) Clerical (Everyday business (correspondence between institutions))

Style features: 1) Accuracy of presentation, which does not allow for the possibility of differences in interpretation.

2) Detailed presentation

3) Steriatypism (standardization)

4) Emotionlessness

5) Impersonality

6) objectivity

7) Consistency

Speech here has a dual nature, it is characterized by the abstractness of the means of expression and the concreteness of the content.

Language features of the official business style: Words and phrases that have a pronounced functional and stylistic coloring are used. Among them are a significant number of professional terms. The official business style is characterized by a tendency to reduce the number of words, to simplify their structure (narrow terminology).

Therefore, texts of this style often give precise definitions of the words and concepts used. Polysemy (polysemy), use in a figurative sense is unacceptable here, synonyms are used to a small extent. Compound words formed from two or more stems are typical for business language. This is a specific clerical vocabulary.

As a result of studying this chapter, the student should: know

• the main characteristics of the modern speech situation;
• the main provisions of the modern concept of speech culture; be able to
• classify different types of language proficiency;
• evaluate speech behavior; own
• the skills of analyzing the modern speech situation;
• the skills of correlating their speech acts with a specific communication situation.

Language is a powerful means of regulating people's activities in various fields, therefore, studying the speech behavior of a modern person, understanding how a person owns the richness of the language, how effectively he uses it, is a very important and urgent task. Many years ago, the songwriter Lev Oshanin in a lyrical miniature conveyed those emotional sensations that arise during speech "failures" (the poem plays on one of the most typical speech errors, which remains relevant today):

I dialed the number and got the wrong call -

But so deep

Unusual, personal -

It seemed

All my life I've dreamed of this.

It's quiet, but it's about to sound

Just touch...

And suddenly I hear:

"Where are you calling!?"

And immediately, as if hail through the window,

It's like I was robbed in a movie.

• - Oh, girl, I'm sorry.
• - Do not call, but call! -

And she answered: "Does it matter."

She does not care. Gone. Broke off.

Every educated person must learn to evaluate speech behavior - his own and those of his interlocutors, to correlate his speech actions with a specific situation of communication.

Today, the language is recognized as the most important component of the national culture, which determines the unity of the nation. The speech of our contemporaries attracts more and more attention of journalists, scientists of various specialties (linguists, philosophers, psychologists, sociologists), writers, teachers, it becomes the object of legislative activity, the subject of heated discussions of ordinary native speakers of the Russian language. Feeling speech problems, they try to answer the question of what is the reason for the disturbing state of speech culture. Symptomatically, the title of the book by the famous linguist M. A. Krongauz, devoted to actual processes in Russian speech, is “The Russian language on the verge of a nervous breakdown”.

The age-old Russian questions “what to do?” and "who is to blame?" quite natural in relation to the Russian language and Russian speech.

The freedom and emancipation of modern speech behavior entails the loosening of linguistic norms, the growth of linguistic variability (instead of one acceptable form of a linguistic unit, different variants turn out to be acceptable).

Mass media have a special influence on the state of speech culture today. Each person daily experiences the powerful impact of television speech, speech that sounds on the radio or presented on the pages of newspapers and magazines. The quality of this speech evokes an immediate emotional response. It is newspapers and magazines, radio and television for many native speakers that serve as the main source of ideas about the language norm, they form the language taste; many “diseases” of language are rightly associated with the mass media.

Linguistic emancipation, at times turning into unbridledness, replication of linguistic errors that do not meet with a proper rebuff, dull the sense of linguistic responsibility. Sloppy speech, adherence to cliches, the desire to cover up the banality of thought with “prestigious” words and phrases are found in numerous statements that sound on radio waves and on TV screens. Many broadcasts, primarily addressed to young people, undermine the notion of what is acceptable and unacceptable in public speech.

Internet communication, which determined the emergence of new speech genres (e-mails, chats, blogs, etc.), has a tremendous impact on modern speech, especially the speech of young people.

Modern speech, both oral and written, is replete with unmotivated borrowings, ineptly formed occasional words, jargon. The desire to update the lexical and stylistic resources of journalism determines the high degree of looseness of the mass media.

In the 80s. 20th century Academician D.S. Likhachev first used the concept of ecology, which was quite new at that time, in an unusual context - “ecology of culture”, “moral ecology”. He wrote: “... Ecology cannot be limited only to the tasks of preserving the natural biological environment. No less important for a person's life is the environment created by the culture of his ancestors and himself. The preservation of the cultural environment is a task no less important than the preservation of the natural environment. In the last two decades, the question of the ecology of language, which is directly related to the consciousness of a person, with the defining properties of his personality, has been increasingly raised; the ecology of language is an integral part of the ecology of culture. Even a special area of ​​the science of language has been formed - linguistic ecology.

"Pollution of the language environment", which occurs with the active participation of the media, cannot but have a detrimental effect on the speech culture of a native speaker. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of S. M. Volkonsky, who back in the 20s. 20th century wrote: “The feeling of language (if I may say so, the feeling of purity of language) is a very subtle feeling, it is difficult to develop it and very easy to lose. The slightest shift in the direction of slovenliness and irregularity is enough for this slovenliness to become a habit, and, as a bad habit, as such it will flourish. After all, it is in the nature of things that good habits require practice, while bad habits develop themselves.

Today, the ability to conduct a dialogue is becoming one of the most important characteristics of a person as a social phenomenon. A significant increase in the role of oral speech in the structure of communication, the expansion of its functions have significantly changed the idea of ​​the reference qualities of a speaker. Oral (meaning freer) verbal communication determines many qualities of speech that are found at different levels.

The speech portrait of a linguistic personality is largely determined by the richness of its lexicon. It is this that ensures the freedom and efficiency of speech behavior, the ability to fully perceive and process information received in verbal form. The speech situation at the turn of the century is characterized, on the one hand, by the active enrichment of the dictionary (a stream of borrowings, adaptation of terminological vocabulary by ordinary consciousness, the promotion of jargon units into the literary language), and on the other hand, the impoverishment of certain fragments of the dictionary, largely due to the reduction and simplification of the reading circle, deverbalization of culture.

Understanding the language environment is naturally associated with the niche that a book and, more broadly, a written text occupies in modern society. The range of texts read and studied has a great influence on the formation of personality. In the process of reading, we do not just perceive texts. Their fragments are appropriated by a person, the processed words and phrases form a lexicon. The quantity and quality of the texts read are directly reflected in those speech works that a native speaker creates in various areas of communication.

Philosophers and psychologists today speak with great concern about the expansion of screen culture and various forms of Internet communication, which are replacing the culture of reading. As you know, a reading person thinks differently, has a large vocabulary, but the features of a linguistic personality are determined not only by the quantity, but also by the quality of what is read; the properties of the created speech works depend on the properties of regularly processed texts, they are the result of their processing. The outstanding literary critic and philosopher M. M. Bakhtin wrote that "the individual speech experience of every person is formed and developed in continuous and constant interaction with other people's individual statements."

Today, hundreds of names that create a multidimensional field of culture mean nothing to school graduates, because they are simply not familiar to them. A crack in the mutual understanding of generations is growing. This cannot but affect the ability to communicate, to conduct a constructive dialogue, since the common language of culture is created on those texts that have already formed the linguistic consciousness of generations.

In different speech spheres, there is a noticeable impoverishment of speech at the lexical level, its truncation - at the level of constructing an utterance, negligence - at the phonetic and morphological levels. There is a clear decrease in the general level of speech culture in the media, in professional and everyday communication.

The intensive growth of borrowings in the last decade largely determines the speech portrait of a young Russian at the beginning of the 21st century. On the one hand, the ego manifests itself in the natural internationalization of the terminological apparatus of modern science being mastered, in familiarization with modern technologies, on the other hand, in the unjustified Americanization of everyday speech.

Starting to study the discipline "Culture of Speech", a modern student, free and liberated in his speech, should not forget about linguistic responsibility: it is with the help of language that cultural and intellectual wealth is transmitted from generation to generation, it is a good command of the native language that gives the individual the opportunity to fully realize themselves in the profession and in creativity. The quality of the linguistic environment, formed by the combined efforts of society, testifies to its spiritual health or ill health.

• 1. Substantiate and confirm with specific examples the factors identified by linguists that characterize the current state of Russian speech.
• 2. Read the reflections on the state of the Russian language of writers - our contemporaries. What characteristics can you agree with, what are you ready to argue with? Give examples from contemporary media, popular literature, advertisements, and other types of text that would support your point of view.

in the same way, we, according to our capabilities, taste, habits, climate, form our wardrobe using certain items, putting them on daily or only in exceptional cases. The composition of "storage units" and the rules for handling them are constantly changing, just as the rules for using clothes change under the influence of fashion. The most dynamic changes occur with words. Some of them disappear, or rather, if we continue the above comparison, they are forgotten, they are no longer taken from the shelf, they are covered with a thick layer of dust, they die for the warehouse visitors. Those departments where phonemes and morphemes are stored are more conservative, where changes occur much more slowly, the same can be said about the rules for operating with these units. This, by the way, explains why those who speak about the corruption or development of the language turn exclusively to vocabulary, arguing about borrowings, argotism, changing the meanings of words, etc.

This warehouse is huge. It is not given to anyone to know everything that is stored on it, but the more units are involved by its visitors, the more complete both their life and the existence of the warehouse itself. If, out of the whole variety of units, rules and methods of working with them, only a limited set is used, this leads to a serious simplification, primitivization of speech products, to the degradation of the warehouse-language itself. Its space is shrinking, significant areas are being "preserved", cease to exist for users, die for them. Who wants to wear the same suit all their lives? Or maybe not a suit at all, but a loincloth and a skirt made of palm leaves? The fundamental difference is that, while shaping our wardrobe in order to look decent, appropriate, dignified, to meet certain rules of behavior in society, we cannot always afford to dress as we would like - not the means, not the climate, not the figure etc. But there is nothing to limit us in speaking. You do not need to have superpowers to use all the resources of the native language, to form a rich, beautiful, interesting speech.

2. ... Much of what we hear not only on the street, but also in an official setting, on radio and television, much that we have to read in newspapers and on billboards, is disgusting to hear and read - because of rudeness, annoying obscene allusions, wretched idle talk, illiteracy and irresponsibility of speech.

However, such nasty things do not point to the properties of the language, but to the properties of people. “The linguistic taste of the era” (this is the name of the book by linguist V. G. Kostomarov) is made up of the tastes of different strata of society, different generations, it is determined by people with different characters and temperaments, life values ​​and morality. Those groups that are perceived as the most prestigious are trendsetters in the type of speech, in some especially expressive or especially meaningless words and phrases.

Everything will be fine with the morality and language of the media when people with a high level of culture and good taste become rich customers of texts. And also when the consumers of the advertised products will be wealthy cultured people - in this case, the speech from the TV screen and from the newspaper pages will be focused on them.

It is curious how the growth of a synonymous series of words denoting the highest praise reflects the reorientation of a person from one reference value to another: “divine”, “charming”, “charming”, “magic”, “wonderful”, “magnificent”, “beautiful”, “excellent”, “great”, “valuable”, “iron”, “legitimate”, “global”, “chic”, “excellent”, “amazing”, “not weak”, “hippie”, “pop”, “ Otpad”, “cool”, “cool”, “awesome”, “kayfovo”, “cool” ...

Language turns out to be able to mercilessly show the state of consciousness of an uncultured and morally wretched person. And we still, like wild people, go on talking about bad words, not distinguishing between the signifier and the signified.

It is not words that are bad, but intentions: to offend, humiliate, to carry out psychological violence in any form. For me, for example, it is insulting when, when demonstrating new products in department stores, they do not answer my question, but shout the memorized text into the entire space of the room. It seems to be not a single "bad word", but it's a shame. This is where the communicative function of language breaks down. However, there is a message in these situations, its content is as follows: "Yes, I'm not going to notice you and talk to you."

3. Feel free to kill the conductors who say "PAY THE FARE"! You can either "pay the fare" or "pay the fare"! So begins the list of "the most deadly mistakes", placed on one portal. The usefulness of such work on errors is beyond doubt. But...

I remember a dank March day in St. Petersburg, a decrepit trolley bus somewhere between the Admiralty and St. Isaac's Square. A poorly dressed conductor, in response to someone's rudeness, suddenly bursts into a "Dostoevsky and demon-possessed" monologue: the work is hard, the salary is beggarly, there is no travel housing - in general, complete hopelessness. In what words she had previously demanded payment for the fare - really, I don’t remember. Not before the culture of speech was at that moment. And maybe, in the struggle for culture, we should be a little calmer, more tolerant... Do not keep people in constant fear about their level of literacy...

There used to be a folklore "dictation" in the parish, with which some bores pestered their acquaintances: a long phrase about a widow who, on an ivy-covered terrace, regaled a collegiate assessor. Now this tradition is being revived in "total dictations", which I also do not like. This is an intimate affair, not a public one - an increase in spelling and punctuation literacy. Only control and police measures do not help here. Better - to interest, to involve people from childhood in the world of language and its cultural and historical context. Recall: the rank of collegiate assessor gave the nobility (silent in "Woe from Wit") and corresponded to the military rank of major (Kovalev in Gogol's "The Nose"). Those who were told this in time, perhaps they will figure out where and how much "s" in the notorious "assessor". The letters are alive! It's fun to watch them play and dance.

A test appeared on the Internet, which certified philologists and writers today solve with nervous excitement: well, how can we not score the required fourteen points! Those who dialed, however, are greeted very tenderly: “After a long search, we found you - a Person (with a capital letter), who is fluent in Russian!” That's right: people need to be encouraged. But I look at the quality of the tasks themselves. It is proposed, for example, to place commas in the following phrase: "The first exhibition of the Wanderers, which opened in 1871, convincingly demonstrated the existence of a new direction in painting that was developing over the 60s."

The methodological idea is clear: one participial turnover is after the noun, the other precedes it. But let's look at the phrase from the point of view of style, let's try to read it aloud. This is a tongue-tied clerk: two participles, and even a verbal noun between them! So neither write nor speak. What happens? One we treat - another we cripple. We correct punctuation - we disfigure the style.

Oh, this testomania! Infectious stuff! So I wanted to scare the readers at parting. But not much - just three questions.

1. How do you spell and pronounce the word "competitive"?

Do you sometimes insert an extra “n” between “t” and “o”, as, unfortunately, do some radio hosts, and sometimes even the leading economists of our country?

• 2. Do you correctly use the expression "the powers that be" (singular) and "the powers that be" (plural)? Do not replace it with the erroneous "powers that be"?
• 3. Do you know that the often sounding combination "takes place" is a sign of the speaker's low speech culture? This is a ridiculous and unnecessary hybrid of the expressions "takes place" (i.e. "has") and "has to be" (i.e. "will", "to be").

Congratulations to those who prove to be impeccable on all three counts. We won't kill conductors.

4. I am generally good at slang and all kinds of jargon. Active word-creation takes place in them, which the literary language cannot always afford. In essence, they are testing grounds for all sorts of language experiments. The use of slang in ordinary conversation creates a special effect and makes the speech quite expressive. And I even envy all these “sausage is not childish”, “stopudovo” and “atomio” (I don’t use them very much myself), because speaking Russian means not only “speaking correctly”, as required from time to time channel "Culture", but also with pleasure, and therefore, emotionally and creatively (or maybe it's better to say now - creatively?). And slang, of course, is more emotional than literary language.

Sometimes slang words fill in a certain gap in the literary language, i.e. express an important idea for which there was no separate word. Such words were, for example, "get" and "collision". They are very popular and are often found in oral communication, if only because you can’t say more precisely in one word. Not only in colloquial speech, but also in written texts, a lot of slang words are now generally used. But still, I was surprised when I read the phrase "an act of terrorist lawlessness" in the statement of the Foreign Ministry. I was struck by how easily the word bespredel, until recently “criminal jargon”, which primarily described the situation in the camp, overcame the borders of the zone and entered the official language. Perhaps these examples are enough. I think that almost everyone who pays attention to their native language will have complaints about its current state - similar or maybe some other (after all, we all have different tastes, including linguistic ones).

5. Modern Russian speech is called in every way: tasteless, vulgar, primitive, flat. If we try to do without evaluativeness, then we can say about it that it is a stream of pragmatic naming, as it were, without any regard for the sacred component of the language. It's kind of like praying in your own words.

In the 90s, there were quite a few jokes about the relationship of the “new Russians” with God, where crimson jackets turn to heavenly Dad on a kid's hair dryer. Now "civilized" Russian business speaks in a terrible mixture of English, thieves, party-bureaucratic interspersed with "as it were" literary. As a result of this eclecticism, the effect is reversed. The Russian “branding-branding-balalaika”, which wants to be effective, “like them”, does not even primitivize and vulgarize the Russian language, but rather cloud it.

Reading samples of Russian capitalist bullshit, you fall into some kind of strange state: both funny and sad, and somehow scary.

Why, for example, should a cake be called "Jew"? It turns out that the naming-branding specialists, in their sparkling branding storm, decided that this name expresses a guarantee of quality. Why then not "Swiss" or "Japanese"?

And in general - "eat a Jew" - it somehow sounds unsympathetic. And the "Big Bear" cake is no better.

Why call the toilet "Debut"?

What is "Creditza Wonderful Moment"? What a wonderful moment I have to give for this very loan? God knows what thoughts come to mind.

"Russian national show". If "national", then why "show"?

"Low prices - a clear conscience." Whose conscience is clear? Seller? Buyer? If the seller, then what does the buyer care about his conscience?

You can endlessly give examples of discord, vulgarity, ambiguity, bad taste, etc. The Internet is full of all these examples. Of course, all this "was, was, was." Russian "haberdashery" language of the 19th - early 20th centuries. (the language of hairdressers, merchants, clerks, etc.) is also clumsy and ridiculous. In terms of the scale of distribution, expansion into the Russian “logosphere” today, it cannot be compared. After all, we live in the information age.

We are learning to sell words. We learn to live not “vertically” (as if “praying” through reading Tolstoy and Dostoevsky), but “horizontally”, creating texts for sale, be it a story, a slogan, the name of a toothpaste or a restaurant. So far we are doing this clumsily, still with an involuntary glance at Lev Nikolaevich and Fyodor Mikhailovich, still not completely daring to sell the mysterious Russian soul that so struck the once pragmatic West. We have not yet left the sacred, we have not come to the profane - like Kolobok, which, by the way, was eventually eaten.

Huseynov G. Ch. Zero at the tip of the tongue / G. Ch. Huseynov. - M., 2012.

Klubkov, /7. BUT. Please speak correctly / P. A. Klubkov. - St. Petersburg, 2004. Kozyrev, V.A. Modern language situation and speech culture / V. A. Kozyrev, V. D. Chernyak. - M., 2012.

krongauz, M.A. Russian language on the verge of a nervous breakdown / M. A. Krongauz. - M., 2012. Levontina, I. Russian with a dictionary / I. Levontina. - M., 2010.

• Volkonsky S. M. About the Russian language // Russian speech. 1992. N ° 2.
• Language can be imagined as a warehouse, where on certain shelves in a certain order are various "storage units", for example, clothes - any that only exists in nature: ostrich boas and loincloths, silk blouses and padded jackets, old-fashioned crinolines and new-fashioned cardigans, felt boots and slippers ... To create a speech work, each of us “shores” one or another of these units, builds some combinations from them and carries out other operations prescribed by the rules that exist in this warehouse. Exactly
• Gudkov D. B. Skorokhodova E. Yu. About the Russian language and not only about it. Mm 2010. S. 13-15.
• Zubova L. What can threaten language and culture? // Banner. 2006. No. 10.
• Language news from Vladimir Novikov // Free Press website. 02/23/2012.
• Krongauz M. Notes of an Angry Everyman // Domestic Notes. 2005.
• Elistratov V. Trending-branding-balalaika // Znamya. 2012. No. 2.

Language is a powerful means of regulating people's activities in various fields.

The state of the Russian language of our time determined by a number of factors.

1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is expanding dramatically: new segments of the population are joining the role of speakers, the role of writers in newspapers and magazines

2. In the media, censorship and auto-censorship, which previously largely determined the nature of speech behavior, are sharply weakened.

3. The personal beginning in speech increases. Faceless and unaddressed speech is replaced by personal speech, it acquires a specific addressee. Biological communication, both oral and written, is increasing.

4. The sphere of spontaneous communication is expanding, not only personal, but also oral public. People no longer give or read pre-written speeches. They say.

5. Important parameters of the flow of oral forms of mass communication are changing: the possibility of a direct appeal of the speaker to the listeners and feedback from the listeners to the speakers is created.

6. Situations and genres of communication are changing both in the field of public and in the field of personal communication. Rigid limits of official public communication are weakened. Many new genres of oral public speech are born in the field of mass communication. The dry radio and TV announcer has been replaced by a presenter who reflects, jokes, and expresses his opinion.

7. The psychological rejection of the bureaucratic language of the past (the so-called Newspeak) is growing sharply.

8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression, new forms of imagery, new types of appeals to strangers.

9. Along with the birth of the names of new phenomena, there is a revival of the names of those phenomena that return from the past, forbidden or rejected in the era of totalitarianism. Freedom and emancipation of speech behavior entail a loosening of linguistic norms, an increase in linguistic variability options).

Modern speech situation. Currently, we are witnessing the fall of speech culture, the reason for this: 1. Modern people read very little 2. Many Soviet people went through the so-called Gulag, returning to freedom, they brought the camp language into society

3. The settlement of foreign words that came into our language during the years of perestroika 4. The use of obscene words in modern literature 5. The absence of censorship in the media 6. During the years of perestroika, mass rallies began, people who did not know the elements of oratory often spoke, all this reduced the speech culture.

2. What is the culture of speech? The culture of speech is understood as the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form, in which the choice and organization of language means are carried out. The culture of speech contains three components: normative, communicative and ethical. The culture of speech implies, first of all, the correctness of speech, that is, the observance of the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers (speaking and writing) as an "ideal" or model. The language norm is the central concept of speech culture, and the normative aspect of speech culture is considered one of the most important. The culture of speech develops the skills of selecting and using language means in the process of speech communication, helps to form a conscious attitude to their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks. The choice of language means necessary for this purpose is the basis of the communicative aspect of speech culture. Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture. The ethical aspect of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical norms of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greeting, request, question, gratitude, congratulations, etc.; appeal to "you" and "you"; choice of full or abbreviated name, form of address, etc.). The use of speech etiquette is greatly influenced by extralinguistic factors: the age of the participants in the speech act (purposeful speech action), their social status, the nature of the relationship between them (official, informal, friendly, intimate), the time and place of speech interaction, etc. Ethical component culture of speech imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication, condemns the conversation in "raised tones". Equally important are the accuracy and clarity of speech. 1 Normative. The culture of speech contains three components: normative, communicative and ethical. The normative aspect of the culture of speech is one of the most important, but not the only one. The Czech linguist K. Gausenblas writes: “There is nothing paradoxical about the fact that one is able to speak on the same topic in a non-literary language and look more cultured than another speaker in a literary language.” it is not enough to achieve normative text… 2 Communicative. The language has a large arsenal of tools. The main requirement for a good text is as follows: of all language means for creating a specific text, those must be chosen that fulfill the tasks of communication, or communicative tasks, with maximum completeness and efficiency. The study of a text from the point of view of the correspondence of its linguistic structure to the tasks of communication in the theory of speech culture is called the communicative aspect of the culture of language proficiency. Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, therefore it is important to know the basic communicative qualities of speech and take them into account in the process of speech interaction. Communicative - an aspect in terms of which normativity should also be considered. The culture of speech is defined as a set of communicative qualities of good speech. These qualities are identified on the basis of the correlation of speech with individual ones, as B.N. Golovin, non-speech structures. Non-speech structures include: language as a certain basis that produces speech; thinking; consciousness; reality; man is the addressee of speech; communication conditions. This complex of non-speech structures requires the following good qualities from speech, that is, those corresponding to these structures: the correctness of speech (in other words, normativity), its purity (the absence of dialectisms, jargon, etc., which also applies to the introduction of a normative aspect), accuracy , logic, expressiveness, figurativeness, accessibility, effectiveness and relevance. There is no doubt that all these qualities are really important for the evaluation of many specific texts in a communicative aspect. 3 Ethical. The ethical aspect of speech culture is not always explicit. R.O. Jacobson, a world-famous linguist, identifies six main functions of communication: designation of extralinguistic reality (It was a beautiful mansion), attitude to reality (What a beautiful mansion!), Magical function (Let there be light!), poetic, metalinguistic (judgments about the language itself : They don’t say so; Another word is needed here) and actual, or contact-establishing. If during the performance of the first five functions named here, the ethical aspect manifests itself, say, usually, then when the contact-establishing function is performed, it manifests itself in a special way. The contact-establishing function is the very fact of communication, the topic is not of great importance; it doesn't matter whether the topic is well or badly revealed. The ethical aspect of communication comes to the fore. Thus, speech ethics are the rules of proper speech behavior based on moral norms, national and cultural traditions. The main ethical principle of speech communication - the observance of parity - finds its expression, starting with a greeting and ending with a farewell throughout the conversation: NORMATIVE, COMMUNICATIVE, ETHICAL ASPECTS OF ORAL AND WRITTEN SPEECH. A norm is an assessment by native speakers of certain facts as correct or incorrect, acceptable or inadmissible, appropriate or inappropriate. The system of norms of the literary language is obligatory, codified (fixed). This system includes private norms: 1) pronunciation; 2) word usage; 3) writing; 4) shaping; At the same time, literary norms are perceived as mandatory. Generally accepted communicative rules are conditioned by the very nature of human society and constitute a set of conditions without which human life ceases to be normal. One of the speech culture theorists, Professor B. N. Golovin, identifies five levels of the communicative circle. The first level is from reality to the consciousness of the author. Here the idea of ​​the statement is born, the communicative task is manifested. At the second level, the intention of the statements is connected with the language data of the author. At the third level, the “verbal execution” of the idea takes place. At the fourth level, the utterance is perceived by the addressee. The addressee is required to understand the transmitted information. At the fifth level, the recipient correlates the information received during perception with reality, with previously accumulated knowledge, and draws appropriate conclusions. According to linguists, the main units of the communicative circle during the transition of language into speech are the word and the statement.

3. modern- 1. to someone. Relating to the same time, to the same era with someone or something. 2. Relating to the time of existence of the person being talked about (book). 3. Relating to the present time, to the current moment, to the present era, present. Modern literature. Modern life. 4. Standing at the level of its age, not backward, meeting the material needs, social, cultural needs of the present time. The Russian language is the national language of the great Russian people, which includes the entire set of linguistic means, the cat. Russian people use in their communication. The highest form of Russian. yaz yavl. literary language, which has a whole system of norms, in the formation and strengthening of which, their processing and polishing, Russian writers, scientists, publicists, and public figures played an outstanding role. The literary language is the language of books, newspapers, theater, radio and television, government agencies and educational institutions. The Russian literary language is a normalized and processed form of the national language: "Language is created by the people," Gorky noted. The concept of the modern Russian literary language. Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A. S. Pushkin. The high merits of the Russian language are created by its huge vocabulary, wide polysemy of words, richness of synonyms, inexhaustible treasury of word formation, numerous word forms, peculiarities of sounds, stress mobility, clear and harmonious syntax, variety of stylistic resources. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people, it covers all spheres of speech activity of people. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of language existence, exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the national national language. The literary language is understood as the language processed by masters of the word, scientists, public figures.

4 .History of the development of the Russian national language. The Russian national language has a complex and long history, its roots go back to ancient times. The Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. The development of the Russian language in different eras took place at different rates. An important factor in the process of its improvement was the mixing of languages, the formation of new words and the displacement of old ones by them. Since the 18th century the Russian language becomes a literary language with generally recognized norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. The creator of the Russian literary language was A.S. Pushkin. In his work, the norms of the Russian literary language that later became national were fixed. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of the literary language up to the present day. In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, and also against the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words. In the 19th century a real struggle for the approval of linguistic norms unfolded. The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. It was conducted between the followers of the writer N.M. Karamzin and Slavophile A.C. Shishkov. Karamzin fought for the establishment of uniform norms, demanded to get rid of the influence of the three styles and Church Slavonic speech, to use new words, including borrowed ones. Shishkov, on the other hand, believed that the Church Slavonic language should be the basis of the national language. The flowering of literature in the 19th century. had a great influence on the development and enrichment of the Russian language. In the first half of the XIX century. the process of creating the Russian national language was completed. In modern Russian, there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the XVIII century. terminology was borrowed by the Russian language from the German language, in the 19th century. - from the French language, then in the middle of the twentieth century. it is borrowed mainly from the English language (in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, however, the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited. The Russian language has inexhaustible possibilities for expressing thoughts, developing various topics, and creating works of any genre.

5. The national language has its varieties and branches. Its structure is as follows: literary language. non-literary varieties: vernacular, dialects, territorial social (dialects) (jargons). Literary language is a form of the historical existence of the national language, taken by its speakers as exemplary, it is a historically established system of commonly used language elements, speech means that have undergone long-term cultural processing in texts (written and oral) of authoritative masters of the word, in oral communication of educated native speakers of the national language. The function of the literary language is to provide verbal communication in the main areas of activity of the entire historically established group of people who speak this national language. Literary language is opposed to folk colloquial speech. The literary language is constantly replenished and updated at the expense of colloquial speech. The development of the literary language is directly related to the development of the culture of the people, especially their fiction. The language of fiction embodies the best achievements of the national speech culture, the main advantages of the literary language of one people, the national language as a whole. The Russian literary language has two main forms of existence: oral and written. The oral form is the primary and only form of the existence of a language that does not have a written language. For the spoken literary language, the oral form is the main one, while the book language functions in both written and oral form (report - oral form, lecture - written form). The written form is more recent in time of occurrence. Fiction exists mainly in written form, although it is also realized in oral form (for example, artistic reading, theatrical performances, any reading aloud). The Russian national language includes, along with the literary language, colloquial speech: colloquial speech, local or territorial dialects, jargons. If we compare the dialectal and literary languages, then in the first we will see a wide variety of nominations for the same concepts, objects, phenomena with the same or the same type of stylistic characteristic of their designations. Russian national language and its varieties. The national language is the highest form of existence and functioning of the language of the nation. National lang. represents a historically established linguistic community, uniting the entire set of forms of its existence: lit. lang. with his letters. and oral varieties, dialects, vernacular and social. jargon. The national language is one of the obligatory signs of a nation, a nationality, a means of their communication and development. Characterizing the language of the Russian nation, there are several variants (forms) of the language. 1. The literary language is the highest form of the Russian national language, the norms of which are fixed in grammars and dictionaries, are brought up by the school, are reflected in the speech of literate native speakers, and are used in the media (media). Literary language is an exemplary, codified, standardized language. Lit. language - a language that is understood by all native speakers. The literary language has written and oral forms that serve the following areas: politics, culture, sulfur production, legislation, art, everyday communication, interethnic communication. The written form is graphically fixed, obeys the laws of spelling and punctuation, and can be edited. The oral form of speech - sounding speech, is created spontaneously, obeys the norms of spelling, intonation. 2. Non-literary variants (forms) of the language - dialects, jargons, vernacular - are limited by the scope of distribution (restrictions are either territorial or social). A territorial dialect is a non-literary variant of a language. This is a type of language used by people living in a certain territory. An example of dialectism (a dialect word): bison - in some Uralic dialects, the same as a wrangler in the literary language (from the dialect verb zubat = argue. Jargon (including slang and slang) is a non-literary variant of the language used between representatives of certain closed social groups (for example, prison and thieves' slang, youth slang, etc.) Here are examples of such words: for students, the word cranberry means colloquium; in youth slang, the expressions laces in a glass and flowers withered contain information that parents are at home; mow, mow , mow down - in the prison argo “assign something contrary to the established rules." Colloquialism is a non-literary version of the language used in the speech of poorly educated people, which gives the speech an incorrect and rude character. Examples of colloquial words and expressions: mug, drive off, pick up, kill off. Oral and written forms of the literary language. The literary language has written and oral forms that serve the following areas s: politics, culture, sulfur production, legislation, art, everyday communication, interethnic communication. The written form is graphically fixed, obeys the laws of spelling and punctuation, and can be edited. The oral form of speech - sounding speech, is created spontaneously, obeys the norms of spelling, intonation. Initially, the language was only spoken and the sound was its only form. The need to transmit speech at a distance, to preserve speech for a long time, led to the invention of writing. Written speech appeared. At first, written speech only recorded sounding speech, but over time it turned out that the difference between written and sounding speech is so great that they began to talk about 2 languages: the sounding language, the oral language and the written language. Written language often expresses intellectual information, so it is used more often in book speech. Oral - usually serves to express emotions, moods, relationships. Oral speech is primarily colloquial, dialogical speech, consisting of replicas exchanged between interlocutors. Oral speech can also be monologue (for example, a teacher's explanation in a lesson, a student's report, etc.), but at the same time it retains all the liveliness of colloquial speech, its expressiveness, intonation. Linguistic differences between oral and written forms of speech come down primarily to differences in syntax. There are fewer complex sentences in oral speech, but there is a lot of unsaid, made up for by gestures, facial expressions, and many incomplete sentences. Written language sets the rules for writing and reading. This is how spelling and punctuation came about. The spelling and punctuation norms of the written language are obligatory for all.

6. Language norm- these are traditionally established rules for the use of speech means, i.e. rules of exemplary and generally recognized pronunciation, use of words, phrases and sentences. The norm is obligatory and covers all aspects of the language. There are written and oral norms. The linguistic norm is defined and studied in at least two aspects. Firstly, the language norm is understood as stable, fixed in the process of communication variants of language units. In this case, the norm determines what is widespread in a given period of development of the national language, describes the options that are often found in speech. The main task of the study of the language norm in the linguistic aspect is the selection and description of linguistic phenomena, the "inventory" of the current state of the language. Secondly, the linguistic norm is considered not only as a linguistic, but also as a socio-historical category. In this case, the norm reflects the social aspect of communication, which is manifested not only in the selection and description of linguistic phenomena, but primarily in the system of their assessments.

Written language norms First of all, these are spelling and punctuation norms. For example, writing H in the word workerNick, and HH in the word birthday boy obeys certain spelling rules. And setting a dash in a sentence Moscow is capital of Russia explained by the punctuation norms of the modern Russian language.

oral rules subdivided into  grammatical,  lexical and  orthoepic.

Grammar norms - these are the rules for using forms of different parts of speech, as well as the rules for constructing a sentence.

Lexical norms These are the rules for using words in speech. An error is, for example, the use of the verb * lay down instead of put. Even though the verbs lay down and put have the same meaning put - is a normative literary word, and lay down- spacious. Errors are expressions: * I put the book back *He puts the folder on the table etc. In these sentences, you need to use the verb put: I put the books back, He puts the folder on the table.

Orthoepic norms are the pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy (from the Greek. orthos- "correct" and epos- "speech"). About stress in words should be consulted in the "Orthoepic Dictionary". The pronunciation of a word is also recorded in spelling and explanatory dictionaries. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic norms facilitates and speeds up the process of communication, therefore the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become the means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, forums.

7. Orthoepic norms Pronunciation norms are studied by orthoepy. Orthoepy (from the Greek orthos direct, correct and epos speech) - 1) a system of uniform pronunciation standards in the literary language; 2) science (section of phonetics), dealing with the norms of pronunciation, their justification and establishment.

Orthoepic norms are also called literary pronunciation norms, since they serve the literary language, i.e. the language spoken and written by cultured people. Orthoepy, along with obligatory pronunciation norms, primarily studies variants of pronunciation norms that coexist in the language at some point in time, when the old (historically determined) pronunciation variant is still actively used along with the new variant.

Pronunciation of vowels

1. The strong position for vowels is the position under stress. In an unstressed position, vowels undergo a change (qualitative or quantitative), i.e. are reduced.

Attention should be paid to the difficult cases of reduction. After the hissing [ well] and [ w] and sound [ c] unstressed vowel [ a] pronounced like a short [ a]: jargon, kings. But before soft consonants - like a sound [ ye]: sorry, thirty. On rare occasions [ ye] is also pronounced before hard consonants: rye, jasmine.

2. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of letters a, e, i to pronounce the sound [ ie]: clock. This is what is called "hiccup". It is found in neutral and conversational styles. "Ekane" (pronunciation in a given phonetic position of the sound [ ee] characterizes stage speech: in [ ee]net, t[ ee]New. pronunciation h[ and]sy - obsolete, h[ a]sy - dialectal.

3. Consonants c, w, w - solid sounds, after them in place of the letter and pronounced [ s]: revolution[ s]I, w[ s]zn, sh[ s]p.

4. In a few words of foreign origin, not completely acquired by the Russian language, in place of the letter about, unlike the Russian orthoepic norm, in an unstressed position, pronounced weakened [ about], i.e. without reduction: for the sake of[ about]. too clear [ about] is perceived as a mannered, on the other hand, distinct pronunciation [ about] in "Russified" book words ( sonata, novella) is also not desirable, because gives the pronunciation a colloquial tone.

5. Letter yo proposed to use the Russian historian N.M. Karamzin, simplifying the complex pattern that existed earlier in the alphabet of the letter. However, the letter yo now we can only meet in primers and textbooks for foreigners studying Russian. The absence of this letter in books and periodicals leads to incorrect pronunciation of words. Pay attention to words in which the vowel [ about], denoted by the letter yo, sometimes erroneously replaced with a percussion [ uh], whitish, maneuvers pronounced like whitish, maneuvers. Sometimes, on the contrary, percussion [ uh] is erroneously replaced by [ about] yo: grenadier, scam pronounced like grenadier, scam. This pronunciation is not normal.

Pronunciation of consonants

1. Voiced consonants at the absolute end of a word and before deaf consonants are stunned: arbu [s], pre[ t]acceptance.

The basics of describing the speech situation were given by Aristotle in his "Rhetoric" [Ancient rhetoric. M., 1978] He wrote that " speech is made up of three elements. From the speaker himself, from the subject of which he speaks, and from the person to whom he refers; he is the ultimate goal of everything (I mean the listener) ". [Rhetoric: book one] In addition to the speaker and the addressee (the person to whom the speech is addressed), others who are a witness to what is happening are often involved in the speech situation. Relations between the participants in communication are also important for the speech situation, and above all - taking into account the social roles of participants in communication Misunderstanding of their social speech by participants in communication leads to conflicts and problems.

Speech situation- 1) the situation of speech, the situational context of speech interaction; 2) a set of situational context characteristics that are relevant (significant) for the speech behavior of participants in a speech event, influencing their choice of speech strategies, techniques, means.

The speech situation has the following signs:

1) participants (addresser, addressee, audience),

2) the subject of speech,

3) circumstances (place, time, other significant conditions),

4) communication channel (method of communication) - either oral or written speech, conventional signs, etc. are used,

5) code (language, dialect, style),

6) speech genre (for example, sermon ),

7) event (for example, church service, one of the situations of which is the situation of a sermon ),

8) assessment of the effectiveness of speech ( did the sermon touch the heart ),

9) goal - what, in the opinion of the participants, could be the result of speech in this situation (Pedagogical speech science. Dictionary-reference book. Edited by T.A. Ladyzhenskaya and A.K. Mikhalskaya; compiled by A.A. Knyazkov Moscow: Flinta, Nauka, 1998).

Classification of the communication situation Z.A. Smelkova:

The main elements of the speech situation and defining it are the participants and the relationship between them. Partners in speech communication are people who perform a certain role (social and speech corresponding to it) in a given speech situation, who are in certain relationships with speech partners and fulfill (realize) their speech goals (intentions).

There can be two communicators in a speech situation, or one can communicate with several partners at once. Their role positions can be varied.

Characteristics of possible roles in communication:

1. Symmetrical - asymmetric - equal or unequal in social status and age ( student - student; colleagues; student - teacher; subordinate - boss ).

2. Social roles of partners:

constants - gender, family ties, profession, level of culture, age;

variables - social role at the moment of communication - in relation to the partner ( the patient is a doctor, the passenger is a conductor, etc. )

3. Official - informal nature of communication ( communication with the family, among colleagues, colleagues, on vacation, etc. ).

External circumstances (conditions) of communication:

Spatial and temporal conditions - contact (oral visual) communication and distant ( writing, talking on the phone ) communication.

Internal circumstances - motives and goals of communication:

The communicative intention includes a communicative strategy and communicative tactics.

Typology of communicative intention (strategy):

- inform ( describe, tell, report ) - give an idea of ​​the subject of speech specifically and impartially;

- to convince - to persuade to one's opinion, using the necessary arguments and evidence, appealing, first of all, to the mind of the interlocutor, to his life experience;

- inspire - turn not only to the mind, but also to the feelings of the interlocutor (or audience), using logical and emotional means of influencing the personality;

- to induce to action - to call, to convince the interlocutor of the need for action in such a way that the response is direct action.

The success of verbal communication is the implementation of the communicative goal of the initiator of communication and the achievement of agreement by the interlocutors (Ostap Bender and Elochka).

The ability of the speaker to focus on a certain situation of communication determines the effectiveness of speech activity.

1. Household (personal) communication (in your circle, relatives, relatives).

2. Functional or business communication (work).

3. Communication in situations imposed on us (transport, shop, hospital).

The quality of a person's life depends on how he can communicate in these areas. Let's characterize typical areas of communication.

Everyday communication is communication related to our daily life, everyday life.

The conditions for the effectiveness of such communication are as follows:

1. Mutual desire to have a conversation (if one of the speakers answers in monosyllables, do not impose a conversation).

2. Successfully choose a topic (the topic of conversation should be relevant and interesting for the interlocutor, the subject of discussion should be known to each of the speakers).

3. Find a common language. (The national language is a complex phenomenon. Among insufficiently literate people, mainly city residents, vernacular is used, in rural areas - local dialects, there are jargons in the field of various professions, among young people, etc., people who have received an education ). To speak the same language, you need to know the customs, characteristics, customs of the people with whom you have to communicate.

Business communication - communication at work, in the performance of official duties, in solving production issues. Business communication will be effective if we take into account a number of conditions:

1. Partnerships. Business communication is based on equal principles, it is necessary to take into account mutual interests, it is necessary to proceed from the interests of the business.

2. Regulation. In such communication, we are subject to established rules and restrictions. These rules are determined by the type of business communication (conversation, negotiations, telephone conversation, etc.), the degree of its officiality, the goals and objectives of a particular meeting. A large role in such communication is given to business etiquette.

3. Adhering to the principles of effective listening: (a) do not mistake silence for attention; b) be physically attentive - face to face, posture, facial expressions, gestures; c) do not pretend to listen; d) let the interlocutor speak; e) do not interrupt unnecessarily; f) if interrupted, help restore the interlocutor's train of thought; g) do not make hasty conclusions, refrain from judgments; h) do not be overly sensitive to emotional words; i) if the interlocutor has spoken, summarize his speech, ask if he meant it; j) do not focus on the conversational features of the interlocutor).

Business communication is classified as professional communication (included in the range of professional duties) and as non-professional communication (colleagues talking to each other during a break). In professional communication, the following genres can be distinguished: business conversation, business negotiations, business telephone conversation.

Speech ethics

Lecture plan:

1. Basic concepts of etiquette

2. Basic principles of etiquette.

3. Etiquette in the culture of communication

4. Speech distances and taboos

4.2.1. Basic concepts of etiquette

Etiquette is a kind of code of good manners and rules of behavior, communication of people accepted in a given society.

There are a lot of rules, it is impossible to remember everything, but is it necessary?

Naturally, the possession of modern etiquette remains a necessary attribute of a well-mannered, cultured person. Without mastering etiquette, a person is like a driver who, at rush hour, drove onto a busy street without knowing the rules of the road. It is not difficult to imagine what kind of conflicts, and perhaps even tragedies, this can lead to.

Etiquette today has become less ceremonial, more simple and democratic. It is designed to a greater extent for the rapprochement of people, for their mutual understanding and mutual respect. Modern etiquette performs a number of functions that help us make communication and living in society mutually enjoyable and, most importantly, useful.

Consider the main functions of modern etiquette:

1. Anti-conflict - for example, if someone accidentally pushed you and asked for the deepest apologies, you are unlikely to yell at him or throw at him the first heavy object that came to hand. If you got to the wrong place, and they politely answered you: “Sorry, you may have made a mistake, Petrov does not live in our apartment,” you will not be rude, I hope so. And to the phrase: “That you don’t know how to use the phone” or “all sorts of people are calling here”, at best, you silently put down the phone and express all the adjectival stock available in the dictionary.

2. Creating an atmosphere of mutual comfort - it is easy and pleasant to communicate with a polite person. This was taught to us by Jesus Christ: in the Gospel of Matthew it is said: “As you want to be treated with you, so you do with people.” If you want to be rude, then forget about etiquette. If you want me to yell at you, speak louder.

3. Signaling about belonging to a certain social and cultural environment. For example: identify who could apologize like this.

· Sorry. I'm sorry - neutral

I humbly ask you to excuse me - the old intelligentsia

· Guilty! - military

Sorry - vernacular

THANK YOU - Generation 90

· ??? - and you

4. Communicative - often the interlocutors cannot find a topic for conversation. An educated person will always find a decent topic for conversation, make communication interesting and useful.

Remember the joke about lieutenant Rzhevsky: A cadet approaches lieutenant Rzhevsky: “Lieutenant, how do you manage to seduce a girl 10 minutes after meeting you?” "Very simple: talk to her a little about the weather, animals, music - and she is yours." A cadet is walking down the street, he sees a girl walking with a small white dog. “Dear dog,” he kicks the dog in the ass, “it flies low, probably towards the rain. Do you have a drum at home?

Remember, etiquette never says:

About age

family and financial status;

· Physical disabilities, diseases;

only about yourself

· gossip; everything that is unpleasant to the interlocutor.

The main thing is to take into account the interests of the interlocutor: is it worth talking about the theater with a truck driver.

Let's read a poem by Sasha Cherny: how well the girl chose a topic for conversation, did she manage to win a young man.

City fairy tale

The profile is thinner than a cameo, The eyes are like ripe plums, The neck is whiter than a lily, And the body is like that of Lady Godiva. A virgin with a bottomless soul, As the first violin of the orchestra - No wonder they called the Madonna of the Medici of the sixth semester. The philologist Thaddeus Simeonovich Smyatkin came to see the Madonna. My story will not be long: Philologist fell in love to the heel. Fell in love cruelly and immediately In her eyes, lips and ears. I muttered a phrase after a phrase, I languished like a fish on dry land. I wanted to be her cup, Her brother or aunt, Her enamel buckle And even her toothbrush!.. “Are you tired, Varvara Petrovna? Oh, how your hands are trembling! - The philologist whispered lovingly, And the thorns pierced his heart. "Tired. She opened a student: the corpse was fat and flabby.

Cold… Tool steel. Hands, of course, froze. Then at the Kalinkin bridge I watched my veneers. Tired: there were up to a hundred. What's wrong with you? Are you looking for matches? Matches are on the window. Well. Came back, Took out the cat's kidneys And sewed them neatly. Then my friend and I got: Preparations of a rotten umbilical cord. Then there was a boring analysis: Excretion of urea in the urine ... Ah, me! I apologize: I forgot the role of the hostess - Colleague! Take the jam - I cooked it myself today. Faddey Simeonovis Smyatkin Said silently: "Thank you!" And in the throat, a lump of sweet and sour Struggled like a fish in a net. I didn't want to be her cup, Neither her brother nor her aunt, Nor her enamel buckle, Nor her toothbrush!

4.2.2. basic principles of etiquette

Etiquette is really necessary, at the same time, a huge amount of etiquette rules has accumulated today. And remembering them all is almost impossible. Fortunately, this is not necessary - it is enough to learn the basic principles of etiquette.

First of all, this is the principle of humanism, humanity: the main thing is a kind attitude towards people. Many rules of etiquette are dictated by the requirements of a humane, kind attitude towards people. For example, these:

It is not good to whisper in the presence of others: “Speak out loud more than two”

· Do not meticulously consider cutlery at a party, especially do not wipe them with a napkin;

· Do not smoke indoors without the permission of those present;

Do not open the window without obtaining the consent of others;

Sometimes there is an opinion that politeness is something opposite to directness and sincerity, that it is a form of hypocrisy, especially when it comes to the need to show courtesy to a person who does not arouse sympathy, on whom we are offended. But do not forget: the main advantage! And they carry water on the offended! If a classmate comes towards you, who did not let you cheat, do not turn your eyes away, do not humiliate yourself, let him feel ashamed - say hello.

Politeness can manifest itself in a variety of forms, shades:

Correctness - somewhat emphasized, official, dry politeness, the ability to control oneself in any circumstances, the most conflicting ones. Anecdote: A true gentleman will even call a cat that sprinkled him from head to toe a cat.

Courtesy is a respectful courtesy usually shown towards elders. Jean de La Bruyère said (17th century): “The essence of courtesy is the desire to speak and behave in such a way that our neighbors are pleased with us and with themselves”

Courtesy is politeness, in which the desire to be pleasant and useful to another is clearly manifested. When communicating with people, do not forget about their interests: “It will be courtesy to talk with a hunter about dogs, with a fan about gymnastic competitions, with lovers about beauties” (Plutarch “Table Talk”).

Delicacy - courtesy, shown with special softness, subtlety, sensitivity in relation to the people with whom communication takes place. ON THE. Dobrolyubov, for example, believed that "The essence of a delicate nature is that if someone has loaned you money and you see that he is in need, you yourself will endure the need, but do not ask him for a debt."

Tact is a sense of proportion that should be observed in relations with other people, the ability to feel the boundary beyond which resentment can occur in the person with whom we communicate. Tact includes the ability not to notice other people's mistakes, not to make comments in the presence of other people, not to ask questions that put a person in an awkward position.

As a profession, it is not tactful itself - a teacher.

Let us recall the famous phrase of A.P. Chekhov: "tact is not that you do not spill the sauce on the tablecloth, but that you do not notice if someone else does it."

The English have an old anecdote about the difference between politeness and tact. “Once two gentlemen were walking and talking about the difference between politeness and tact. They did not come to a consensus and decided to leave the dispute to the first person they met. It was a chimney sweep. After listening to the essence of the problem, the young man said that his education did not allow him to express scientific theories, and he could give an example: “I cleaned pipes in a large mansion,” he said. - Having finished work, he got lost and began to look for a way out. Pushing open one of the doors, I found myself in the bathroom, where a young lady was lying in the tub among lacy soapsuds. She screamed. And I said, "I'm sorry, sir!" - and quickly left. So, “sorry” was politeness, and “sir” was tact.”

Modesty is a restrained, moderate, simple person. Modesty is not a complex, but an art, especially in our time. The French are considered the humblest people, they will never put themselves in the first place when listing a number of people: “Parents and I ...”, “My friends and I ...” or “My dog ​​and I went hunting.” The second place is occupied by modest Englishmen, they consider it bad form to display their own erudition immoderately and generally categorically assert whatever it is. Name at least one Russian person who does not fit into an argument.

So, we talked about the basic principle of modern etiquette - humanity.

The second most important principle of modern etiquette is the principle of expediency of actions, i.e. we should be comfortable, as well as others.

For example, the rule has developed over the centuries that a woman, walking next to a man, occupies a position to his right. This was due to the fact that the belonging of a man's suit (even civilian) was a weapon. Today, weapons are not part of the men's suit, but this rule has been preserved. However, if today a woman walks next to a military man, then she should walk to his left. This would be expedient, since otherwise it would be inconvenient for her companion to salute.

What do you do when you encounter a person in a narrow corridor, from which side are you trying to get around him? And everything is very simple - everyone takes a step to the left, thereby not annoying his interlocutor, without losing precious minutes.

Or my favorite aphorism: "If it's blowing through the window of the bus, give way to the elders." In accordance with the principle of expediency, the table is laid. It is known that the knives and forks lying to the left and to the right of the plate, respectively, form pairs. Therefore, they should be used as the dishes change, starting with those that lie further from the plate, so that the area occupied by them gradually decreases, and with the last plate the waiter would take away the last cutlery. Smart and convenient!

The third principle is the beauty and aesthetic appeal of behavior. Indeed, a person who, having met his acquaintance, begins to unscrew a button on his coat during a conversation, or, talking about a visit to the dentist, begins to open his mouth wide and show a cured tooth, looks funny and ugly.

The fourth principle, which underlies the rules of modern etiquette, is due to the fact that among its norms and rules there are many that are difficult to explain from the standpoint of the already named principles. For example, why is it necessary to clink glasses when drinking alcohol - because our ancestors were afraid of being poisoned or bewitched and always shared drops from their glass with others. The tradition of taking off your hat came to us from ancient Rome, where slaves had to bare their shaved heads when meeting with a free man, so that he could see that there was a slave in front of him. In the Middle Ages, knights took off their helmets, leaving their heads unprotected as a sign of trust in a person.

So, the principles of modern etiquette have evolved over the centuries. I love A.P. very much in this respect. Chekhov: “Educated people cannot fall asleep in their clothes, see cracks in the wall with bedbugs, breathe bad air, walk on spat on the floor, eat from a kerosene stove. They try to tame and ennoble the sexual instinct as much as possible. What they need from a woman is not a bed, not horse sweat, not a mind, expressed in the ability to pout with a fake pregnancy and lie tirelessly. They don't crack like vodka. They only drink when they are free, on occasion.”

In accordance with the area regulated by the rules, the following types of etiquette are distinguished: etiquette in the culture of communication, etiquette of business communication, appearance etiquette, feast etiquette, etc.

4.2.3. Etiquette in the culture of communication

Almost all of our lives are meetings and communication with many people. And the mood, the relationship with people, and the result of our work depend on how these meetings proceed. A huge number of contacts in which a person enters daily requires him to fulfill a number of conditions and rules that allow him to communicate while maintaining personal dignity and distance in relation to other people. Etiquette is a special language of communication that makes it possible, while maintaining the sovereignty of each individual, to achieve mutual understanding and mutual respect.

Already by the way people greet, they show their attitude. The forms of greeting can vary from short and simple greetings such as "Hello", "Hi", "Hello", or long, tedious ones, such as "I am glad to welcome you to our humble offence".

Of course, there are national specifics of welcome formulas. For example, in New Guinea, the greeting sounds something like this:

Let me lick your face.

Let me sniff you all.

The ancient Romans greeted each other with questions: "Do you sweat well?"; ancient Chinese: "Have you eaten today?"; Mongols: "Are your cattle healthy?"; Persians: "Be cheerful", Russians wish you health. All these greetings are somehow connected with the wish of a person for good, health, well-being.

Let's look at the basic greeting formulas adopted in modern Russia.

Official: Hello, allow me to greet you, I am glad to welcome you, my respect, good afternoon, good health to you.

Informal: good morning (evening), hello, great, kiss hands, hi, smack.

Often at a meeting, expressions are used to accompany greetings: How are you? How is your health? How are you doing? How are you? Well, what's new?

How we usually respond to these phrases: it is normal that it is perceived as a refusal, an unwillingness to talk. Your answer should not be complete, but not tiring, one or two words are enough, but meaningful in terms of emotional content, you must show that you are happy with the person, you are pleased with his concern for you. For example, thank you, thank you, good, excellent, wonderful, great, I can’t complain, the best, no worse than others, everything is the same as always. But in this case, it is necessary to take into account the situation and mood of your interlocutor: in an official setting, it is enough to say thank you, if a person is sad, be closer to him, do not awaken envy.

Tune in to the same emotional wave with your interlocutor is the most important condition for a successful dialogue. It is desirable that this mood be with a plus sign, it is necessary to start the conversation with a positive, otherwise you will initially doom your interlocutor to an unpleasant pastime. Here are the main methods of expressing joy at a meeting: I am so glad to see you, how glad I am of our meeting, I am happy to see you, what a pleasant meeting, like this meeting, what a surprise, whom I see, is it you, what fate, have not seen each other for a long time how many years, how many winters, haven't seen you for a hundred years, etc.

What if you meet a person every ten minutes? Say hello every time or turn away? Etiquette rules recommend: you can use all polite greeting formulas, if they are exhausted, you can just smile, politely nod your head. But you should not turn away and pretend that you did not notice him: “In terms of courtesy, it is better to oversalt than undersalt” (Cervantes).

Who should say hello first?

A young man with a girl, with a senior in age and position

But at the same time, you should not stretch your hand, this initiative belongs to them.

Entering a room where other people are already there, also greets you first.

A person passing by is the first to say hello

· When two couples meet, girls greet first, then women with men, and only after the man.

A few private remarks:

· It is considered good manners to bow to a person who greets your companion, even if you are a stranger.

· when they come to visit, they first greet the hostess and the owner.

If there are a large number of people with whom you need to greet, you can make a general bow.

· if you meet the same person all the time, but do not know him, then, of course, greet him. Later, this may turn out to be a profitable acquaintance.

If the addressee is unfamiliar to the subject of speech, then communication begins with an acquaintance. In this case, it can occur directly and indirectly. Of course, it is desirable that someone introduce you, but there are times when you need to do it yourself.

Etiquette suggests several possible formulas:

Allow me to get to know you.

I would like to get to know you.

Let's get acquainted.

Let's get acquainted.

When contacting the institution by phone or in person, it becomes necessary to introduce yourself:

Let me introduce myself.

My surname is Sergeev.

My name is Valery Pavlovich.

In the course of communication, if there is a reason, people make invitations and express congratulations.

Invitation:

Let me invite you...

Come to the holiday (anniversary, meeting).

We will be glad to see you.

Congratulation:

Allow me to congratulate you on…

Please accept my sincere (cordial, warm) congratulations...

Warm congratulations...

The expression of the request should be polite, delicate, but without excessive fawning:

Do me a favor...

If it doesn't bother you (if it doesn't bother you)...

Be kind…

May I ask you...

I beg you...

Advice and suggestions should not be expressed in a categorical form. It is advisable to formulate advice in the form of a delicate recommendation, a message about some important circumstances for the interlocutor:

Let me draw your attention to…

I would suggest you...

The wording of the refusal to comply with the request may be as follows:

- (I) cannot (unable, unable) to help (permit, assist).

At present, this (do) is not possible.

Understand, now is not the time to make such a request.

I'm sorry, but we (I) cannot fulfill your request.

I am forced to refuse (prohibit, do not allow).

Compliments. The culture of criticism in speech communication

An important advantage of a person in communication is the ability to make beautiful and appropriate compliments. Tactfully and timely said, a compliment lifts the mood of the addressee, sets him up for a positive attitude towards the interlocutor, to his proposals, to the common cause.

A compliment is said at the beginning of a conversation, at a meeting, acquaintance, parting, or during a conversation. A compliment is always nice. Only an insincere or overly enthusiastic compliment is dangerous.

A compliment can refer to appearance, excellent professional abilities, high morality, ability to communicate, contain a general positive assessment:

You look good (excellent, fine, excellent, great) looking.

You are so (very) charming (smart, resourceful, reasonable, practical).

You are a good (excellent, excellent, excellent) specialist (economist, manager, entrepreneur).

You are good (excellent, excellent, excellent) in managing (your) household (business, trade, construction).

You know how to well (perfectly) lead (manage) people, organize them.

It is a pleasure (good, excellent) to do business with you (to work, to cooperate).

A culture of criticism is needed so that critical statements do not spoil relations with the interlocutor and would allow him to explain his mistake to him.

To do this, one should criticize not the personality and qualities of the interlocutor, but specific mistakes in his work, the shortcomings of his proposals, the inaccuracy of the conclusions.

In order for criticism not to affect the feelings of the interlocutor, it is desirable to formulate comments in the form of reasoning, drawing attention to the discrepancy between the tasks of the work and the results obtained. It is useful to build a critical discussion of work as a joint search for solutions to complex problems.

Criticism of the arguments of the opponent in the dispute should be a comparison of these arguments with general provisions that do not cause doubts in the interlocutor, reliable facts, experimentally verified conclusions, reliable statistical data.

Criticism of the opponent's statements should not concern his personal qualities, abilities, character.

Criticism of joint work by one of its participants should contain constructive proposals, criticism of the same work by an outsider can be reduced to pointing out shortcomings, since the development of decisions is the business of specialists, and assessing the state of affairs, the effectiveness of the organization's work is the right of any citizen.

4.2.4. Speech distances and taboos

The distance in speech communication is determined by age and social status. It is expressed in speech by using the pronouns you and you. Speech etiquette defines the rules for choosing one of these forms.

In general, the choice is dictated by a complex combination of external circumstances of communication and individual reactions of interlocutors:

the degree of acquaintance of partners (you - to a friend, you - to a stranger);

the formality of the communication environment (you are unofficial, you are official);

The nature of the relationship (you are friendly, "warm", you are emphatically polite or strained, aloof, "cold");

Equality or inequality of role relations (by age, position: you are equal and inferior, you are equal and superior).

The choice of one of the forms of address depends not only on the formal position and age, but also on the nature of the relationship of the interlocutors, their mood for a certain degree of formality of the conversation, language taste and habits.

In Russian, YOU-communication in informal speech is widespread. A superficial acquaintance in some cases and a distant, long-term relationship of old acquaintances in others is shown by the use of the polite "you." You-communication indicates respect for the participants in the dialogue. You-communication is always a manifestation of spiritual harmony and spiritual closeness, the transition to You-communication is an attempt to intimize relationships. The possibility of choosing You-communication and You-communication depends on social roles and psychological distances (Culture of Russian speech. A textbook for universities. Edited by Prof. L.K. Graudina and Prof. E.N. Shiryaev. M .: NORMA Publishing Group – INFRA, 1998)

Thus, you are revealed to be kindred, friendly, informal, intimate, trusting, familiar; You are polite, respectful, formal, aloof.

Depending on the form of address for you or you, there are grammatical forms of verbs, as well as speech formulas of greeting, farewell, congratulations, expressions of gratitude.

Taboo is a ban on the use of certain words due to historical, cultural, ethical, socio-political or emotional factors.

Socio-political taboos are characteristic of speech practice in societies with an authoritarian regime. They may concern the names of certain organizations, the mention of certain persons objectionable to the ruling regime (for example, opposition politicians, writers, scientists), certain phenomena of social life officially recognized as non-existent in this society.

Cultural and ethical taboos exist in any society. It is clear that obscene vocabulary, the mention of certain physiological phenomena and parts of the body, is prohibited.

Neglect of ethical speech prohibitions is not only a gross violation of etiquette, but also a violation of the law.

Insult, that is, humiliation of the honor and dignity of another person, expressed in an indecent form, is considered by the criminal law as a crime (Article 130 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation).