Chemists around the world reflect the composition of simple and complex substances very beautifully and concisely in the form of chemical formulas. Chemical formulas are analogues of words that are written using letters - signs of chemical elements.
Let's use chemical symbols to express the composition of the most common substance on Earth - water. A water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Now let's translate this sentence into a chemical formula using the chemical symbols (hydrogen - H and oxygen - O). We write the number of atoms in the formula using indices - the numbers below to the right of the chemical symbol (the index 1 for oxygen is not written): H 2 0 (read "ash-two-o").
The formulas of simple substances of hydrogen and oxygen, the molecules of which consist of two identical atoms, are written as follows: H 2 (read "ash-two") and 0 2 (read "o-two") (Fig. 26).
Rice. 26.
Models of molecules and formulas of oxygen, hydrogen and water
To reflect the number of molecules, coefficients are used that are written in front of chemical formulas: for example, the entry 2CO 2 (read “two-ce-o-two”) means two carbon dioxide molecules, each of which consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.
Coefficients are written similarly when the number of free atoms of a chemical element is indicated. For example, we need to write down the expression: five iron atoms and seven oxygen atoms. Do it this way: 5Fe and 7O.
The sizes of molecules, and even more so of atoms, are so small that they cannot be seen even in the best optical microscopes, giving an increase of 5-6 thousand times. They can not be seen in electron microscopes, giving an increase of 40 thousand times. Naturally, the negligibly small size of molecules and atoms corresponds to their negligible masses. Scientists have calculated, for example, that the mass of a hydrogen atom is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 674 g, which can be represented as 1.674 10 -24 g, the mass of the oxygen atom is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 026 667 g, or 2.6667 10 -23 g, the mass of a carbon atom is 1.993 10 -23 g, and the mass of a water molecule is 3.002 10 -23 g.
Let's calculate how many times the mass of an oxygen atom is greater than the mass of a hydrogen atom, the lightest element:
Similarly, the mass of a carbon atom is 12 times greater than the mass of a hydrogen atom:
Rice. 27. The mass of a carbon atom is equal to the mass of 12 hydrogen atoms
The mass of a water molecule is 18 times greater than the mass of a hydrogen atom (Fig. 28). These values show how many times the mass of an atom of a given chemical element is greater than the mass of a hydrogen atom, i.e., they are relative.
Rice. 27. The mass of an atom of water is equal to the mass of 18 hydrogen atoms
Currently, physicists and chemists are of the opinion that the relative atomic mass of an element is a value showing how many times the mass of its atom is greater than 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom. Relative atomic mass is denoted Ar, where r is the initial letter of the English word relative, which means "relative". For example, A r (0) = 16, A r (C) = 12, A r (H) = 1.
Each chemical element has its own value of relative atomic mass (Fig. 29). The values of the relative atomic masses of chemical elements are indicated in the cells corresponding to them in the table of D. I. Mendeleev.
Rice. 29.
Each element has its own relative atomic mass.
Similarly, the relative molecular weight of a substance is denoted by M r, for example, M r (H 2 0) \u003d 18.
The relative atomic mass of the element A r and the relative molecular mass of the substance M r are quantities that do not have units of measurement.
To find out the relative molecular mass of a substance, it is not necessary to divide the mass of its molecule by the mass of the hydrogen atom. You just need to add the relative atomic masses of the elements that form the substance, taking into account the number of atoms, for example:
A chemical formula contains important information about a substance. For example, the formula C0 2 shows the following information:
Let us calculate the mass fractions of the elements carbon and oxygen in carbon dioxide CO 2 .
Keywords and phrases
- Chemical formula.
- Indices and coefficients.
- Relative atomic mass (A r).
- Relative molecular weight (M r).
- Mass fraction of an element in a substance.
Work with computer
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Questions and tasks
- What do the entries mean: 3H; 2H 2 O; 5O2?
- Write down the formula of sucrose if it is known that its molecule contains twelve carbon atoms, twenty-two hydrogen atoms and eleven oxygen atoms.
- Using Figure 2, write down the formulas of the substances and calculate their relative molecular weights.
- Which form of existence of the chemical element oxygen corresponds to each of the following records: 3O; 5O2; 4CO 2 ?
- Why do the relative atomic mass of an element and the relative molecular mass of a substance have no units of measurement?
- In which of the substances whose formulas are SO 2 and SO 3, the mass fraction of sulfur is greater? Support your answer with calculations.
- Calculate the mass fractions of elements in nitric acid HNO 3 .
- Give a complete characterization of glucose C 6 H 12 0 6 using the example of describing carbon dioxide CO 2.
Basic laws of chemistry
The section of chemistry that considers the quantitative composition of substances and the quantitative ratios (mass, volume) between the reacting substances is called stoichiometry. In accordance with this, calculations of quantitative ratios between elements in compounds or between substances in chemical reactions are called stoichiometric calculations. They are based on the laws of conservation of mass, constancy of composition, multiple ratios, as well as gas laws - volumetric ratios and Avogadro. These laws are considered to be the basic laws of stoichiometry.
Law of conservation of mass- the law of physics, according to which the mass of a physical system is conserved in all natural and artificial processes. In the historical, metaphysical form, according to which matter is uncreated and indestructible, the law has been known since ancient times. Later, a quantitative formulation appeared, according to which the measure of the amount of a substance is weight (later - mass). The law of conservation of mass has historically been understood as one of the formulations the law of conservation of matter. One of the first to formulate it was the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles (V century BC): nothing can come from nothing, and that which is can never be destroyed. Later, a similar thesis was expressed by Democritus, Aristotle and Epicurus (in the retelling of Lucretius Cara). With the advent of the concept of mass as a measure amount of substance, proportional to weight, the formulation of the law of conservation of matter was refined: mass is invariant (conserved), that is, in all processes, the total mass does not decrease and does not increase(weight, as Newton already suggested, is not an invariant, since the shape of the Earth is far from an ideal sphere). Until the creation of the physics of the microcosm, the law of conservation of mass was considered true and obvious. I. Kant declared this law a postulate of natural science (1786). Lavoisier, in his "Elementary Textbook of Chemistry" (1789), gives an exact quantitative formulation of the law of conservation of the mass of matter, but does not declare it to be some new and important law, but simply mentions it in passing as a well-known and long-established fact. For chemical reactions, Lavoisier formulated the law as follows: nothing is happening either in artificial processes or in natural ones, and it is possible to put forward the position that in every operation [chemical reaction] there is the same amount of matter before and after, that the quality and quantity of the beginnings remained the same, only displacements, rearrangements took place.
In the 20th century, two new properties of mass were discovered: 1. The mass of a physical object depends on its internal energy. When external energy is absorbed, the mass increases, when it is lost, it decreases. It follows that the mass is conserved only in an isolated system, that is, in the absence of energy exchange with the external environment. Especially noticeable is the change in mass during nuclear reactions. But even in chemical reactions that are accompanied by the release (or absorption) of heat, mass is not conserved, although in this case the mass defect is negligible; 2. Mass is not an additive quantity: the mass of a system is not equal to the sum of the masses of its components. In modern physics, the law of conservation of mass is closely related to the law of conservation of energy and is carried out with the same restriction - it is necessary to take into account the exchange of energy between the system and the environment.
Law of constancy of composition(J.L. Proust, 1801-1808) - any certain chemically pure compound, regardless of the method of its preparation, consists of the same chemical elements, and the ratios of their masses are constant, and the relative numbers of their atoms are expressed in whole numbers. This is one of the basic laws of chemistry. The law of composition constancy holds for daltonides (compounds of constant composition) and does not hold for berthollides (compounds of variable composition). However, conventionally, for simplicity, the composition of many berthollides is recorded as constant.
Law of multiple ratios discovered in 1803 by J. Dalton and interpreted by him from the standpoint of atomism. This is one of the stoichiometric laws of chemistry: if two elements form more than one compound with each other, then the masses of one of the elements per the same mass of the other element are related as integers, usually small.
Moth. Molar mass
In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of quantity of a substance is the mole.
mole- this is the amount of a substance containing as many structural units (molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, etc.) as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of the carbon isotope 12 C.
Knowing the mass of one carbon atom (1.933 × 10 -26 kg), you can calculate the number of N A atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon
N A \u003d 0.012 / 1.933 × 10 -26 \u003d 6.02 × 10 23 mol -1
6.02 × 10 23 mol -1 is called constant Avogadro(designation N A , dimension 1/mol or mol -1). It shows the number of structural units in a mole of any substance.
Molar mass- a quantity equal to the ratio of the mass of a substance to the amount of a substance. It has the unit of kg/mol or g/mol. It is usually referred to as M.
In general, the molar mass of a substance, expressed in g/mol, is numerically equal to the relative atomic (A) or relative molecular weight (M) of that substance. For example, the relative atomic and molecular masses of C, Fe, O 2, H 2 O are 12, 56, 32, 18, respectively, and their molar masses are respectively 12 g/mol, 56 g/mol, 32 g/mol, 18 g /mol.
It should be noted that mass and quantity of a substance are different concepts. Mass is expressed in kilograms (grams), and the amount of a substance is expressed in moles. There are simple relationships between the mass of a substance (m, g), the amount of a substance (ν, mol) and the molar mass (M, g / mol)
m = νM; ν = m/M; M = m/ν.
Using these formulas, it is easy to calculate the mass of a certain amount of a substance, or to determine the number of moles of a substance in its known mass, or to find the molar mass of a substance.
Relative atomic and molecular masses
In chemistry, not absolute values of masses are traditionally used, but relative ones. Since 1961, the unit of relative atomic masses has been taken to be the atomic mass unit (abbreviated a.m.u.), which is 1/12 of the mass of the carbon-12 atom, that is, the carbon isotope 12 C.
Relative molecular weight(M r) of a substance is called a value equal to the ratio of the average mass of a molecule of the natural isotopic composition of a substance to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom 12 C.
The relative molecular mass is numerically equal to the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms that make up the molecule, and is easily calculated by the formula of the substance, for example, the formula of the substance is B x D y C z, then
M r \u003d xA B + yA D + zA C.
The molecular weight has the dimension a.m.u. and numerically equal to the molar mass (g/mol).
Gas laws
The state of a gas is completely characterized by its temperature, pressure, volume, mass, and molar mass. The laws that relate these parameters are very close for all gases, and absolutely accurate for ideal gas , which has no interaction between particles, and whose particles are material points.
The first quantitative studies of reactions between gases belong to the French scientist Gay-Lussac. He is the author of the laws on thermal expansion of gases and the law of volumetric ratios. These laws were explained in 1811 by the Italian physicist A. Avogadro. Avogadro's Law - one of the important basic provisions of chemistry, stating that " equal volumes of different gases, taken at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules».
Consequences from Avogadro's law:
1) the molecules of most simple atoms are diatomic (H 2, O 2, etc.);
2) the same number of molecules of different gases under the same conditions occupy the same volume.
3) under normal conditions, one mole of any gas occupies a volume equal to 22.4 dm 3 (l). This volume is called molar volume of gas(V o) (normal conditions - t o \u003d 0 ° C or
T o \u003d 273 K, R o \u003d 101325 Pa \u003d 101.325 kPa \u003d 760 mm. rt. Art. = 1 atm).
4) one mole of any substance and an atom of any element, regardless of the conditions and state of aggregation, contains the same number of molecules. it Avogadro's number (Avogadro's constant) - Empirically established that this number is equal to
N A \u003d 6.02213 10 23 (molecules).
In this way: for gases 1 mol - 22.4 dm 3 (l) - 6.023 ∙ 10 23 molecules - M, g / mol;
for substance 1 mol - 6.023 10 23 molecules - M, g / mol.
According to Avogadro's law: at the same pressure and the same temperatures, the masses (m) of equal volumes of gases are related as their molar masses (M)
m 1 / m 2 \u003d M 1 / M 2 \u003d D,
where D is the relative density of the first gas over the second.
According to R. Boyle's law - E. Mariotte , at constant temperature, the pressure produced by a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the volume of gas
P o / P 1 \u003d V 1 / V o or PV \u003d const.
This means that as the pressure increases, the volume of the gas decreases. This law was first formulated in 1662 by R. Boyle. Since the French scientist E. Mariotte was also involved in its creation, in countries other than England, this law is called a double name. It is a special case ideal gas law(describing a hypothetical gas, ideally obeying all the laws of the behavior of gases).
By J. Gay-Lussac's law : at constant pressure, the volume of a gas changes in direct proportion to the absolute temperature (T)
V 1 /T 1 \u003d V o /T o or V / T \u003d const.
The relationship between gas volume, pressure, and temperature can be expressed by a general equation combining the Boyle-Mariotte and Gay-Lussac laws ( combined gas law)
PV / T \u003d P about V about / T about,
where P and V are the pressure and volume of gas at a given temperature T; P o and V o - pressure and volume of gas under normal conditions (n.o.).
Mendeleev-Clapeyron equation(ideal gas equation of state) establishes the ratio of mass (m, kg), temperature (T, K), pressure (P, Pa) and volume (V, m 3) of gas with its molar mass (M, kg / mol)
where R is the universal gas constant equal to 8,314 J / (mol K). In addition, the gas constant has two more values: P - mm Hg, V - cm 3 (ml), R \u003d 62400 ;
P - atm, V - dm 3 (l), R = 0.082.
Partial pressure(lat. partialis- partial, from lat. pars- part) - the pressure of a single component of the gas mixture. The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of its components.
The partial pressure of a gas dissolved in a liquid is the partial pressure of that gas that would form in the gassing phase in equilibrium with the liquid at the same temperature. The partial pressure of a gas is measured as the thermodynamic activity of the gas molecules. Gases will always flow from an area of high partial pressure to an area of lower pressure; and the bigger the difference, the faster the stream will be. Gases dissolve, diffuse and react according to their partial pressure and are not necessarily dependent on the concentration in the gas mixture. The law of addition of partial pressures was formulated in 1801 by J. Dalton. At the same time, the correct theoretical substantiation, based on the molecular-kinetic theory, was made much later. Dalton's laws - two physical laws that determine the total pressure and solubility of a mixture of gases and formulated by him at the beginning of the 19th century:
The law of the solubility of the components of a gas mixture: at a constant temperature, the solubility in a given liquid of each of the components of the gas mixture above the liquid is proportional to their partial pressure
Both Dalton's laws are strictly fulfilled for ideal gases. For real gases, these laws are applicable provided that their solubility is low and their behavior is close to that of an ideal gas.
Law of Equivalents
The amount of an element or substance that interacts with 1 mole of hydrogen atoms (1 g) or replaces this amount of hydrogen in chemical reactions is called the equivalent of a given element or substance(E).
Equivalent mass(M e, g / mol) is the mass of one equivalent of a substance.
The equivalent mass can be calculated from the composition of the compound if the molar masses (M) are known:
1) M e (element): M e \u003d A / B,
where A is the atomic mass of the element, B is the valence of the element;
2) M e (oxide) \u003d M / 2n (O 2) \u003d M e (elem.) + M e (O 2) \u003d M e (elem.) + 8,
where n(O 2) is the number of oxygen atoms; M e (O 2) \u003d 8 g / mol - equivalent mass of oxygen;
3) M e (hydroxide) \u003d M / n (he-) \u003d M e (elem.) + M e (OH -) \u003d M e (elem.) + 17,
where n (he-) is the number of OH groups - ; M e (OH -) = 17 g / mol;
4) M e (acids) \u003d M / n (n +) \u003d M e (H +) + M e (acid. Rest.) \u003d 1 + M e (Acid. Rest.),
where n (n+) is the number of H + ions; M e (H +) \u003d 1 g / mol; M e (acid. Rest.) - the equivalent mass of the acid residue;
5) M e (salts) \u003d M / n me V me \u003d M e (elem.) + M e (acidic rest.),
where n me is the number of metal atoms; In me - the valency of the metal.
When solving some problems containing information about the volumes of gaseous substances, it is advisable to use the value of the equivalent volume (V e).
equivalent volume called the volume occupied under given conditions
1 equivalent of a gaseous substance. So for hydrogen at n.o. the equivalent volume is 22.4 1/2 \u003d 11.2 dm 3, for oxygen - 5.6 dm 3.
According to the law of equivalents: the masses (volumes) of substances m 1 and m 2 reacting with each other are proportional to their equivalent masses (volumes)
m 1 / M e1 \u003d m 2 / M e2.
If one of the substances is in a gaseous state, then
m / M e \u003d V about / V e.
If both substances are in the gaseous state
V o1 / V e 1 \u003d V o2 / V e2.
Periodic law and
The structure of the atom
The periodic law and the periodic system of elements served as a powerful impetus for research into the structure of the atom, which changed the understanding of the laws of the universe and led to the practical implementation of the idea of using nuclear energy.
By the time the periodic law was discovered, ideas about molecules and atoms were just beginning to be affirmed. Moreover, the atom was considered not only the smallest, but also an elementary (that is, indivisible) particle. Direct evidence of the complexity of the structure of the atom was the discovery of the spontaneous decay of atoms of certain elements, called radioactivity. In 1896, the French physicist A. Becquerel discovered that materials containing uranium illuminate a photographic plate in the dark, ionize the gas, and cause the glow of fluorescent substances. Later it turned out that not only uranium has this ability. P. Curie and Maria Sklodowska-Curie discovered two new radioactive elements: polonium and radium.
Cathode rays, discovered by V. Crookes and J. Stoney in 1891, proposed to call electrons- as elementary particles of electricity. J. Thomson in 1897, studying the flow of electrons, passing it through electric and magnetic fields, established the value of e / m - the ratio of the electron charge to its mass, which led the scientist R. Milliken in 1909 to establish the value of the electron charge q = 4.8∙10 -10 electrostatic units, or 1.602∙10 -19 C (Coulomb), and, accordingly, to the electron mass -
9.11∙10 -31 kg. Conventionally, consider the charge of an electron as a unit of negative electric charge and assign it a value (-1). A.G. Stoletov proved that electrons are part of all atoms found in nature. Atoms are electrically neutral, meaning they generally have no electrical charge. And this means that the composition of atoms, in addition to electrons, must include positive particles.
Thomson and Rutherford models
One of the hypotheses about the structure of the atom was put forward in 1903 by J.J. Thomson. He believed that the atom consists of a positive charge, evenly distributed throughout the volume of the atom, and electrons oscillating inside this charge, like seeds in a "watermelon" or "raisin pudding." To test the Thomson hypothesis and more accurately determine the internal structure of the atom in 1909-1911. E. Rutherford, together with G. Geiger (later the inventor of the famous Geiger counter) and students, set up original experiments.
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Planetary model of the structure of the atom
The essence of the planetary model of the structure of the atom can be seen in the following statements:
1. In the center of the atom is a positively charged nucleus, which occupies an insignificant part of the space inside the atom;
2. The entire positive charge and almost the entire mass of an atom are concentrated in its nucleus (the mass of an electron is 1/1823 a.m.u.);
3. Electrons revolve around the nucleus. Their number is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
This model turned out to be very illustrative and useful for explaining many experimental data, but it immediately revealed its shortcomings. In particular, an electron, moving around the nucleus with acceleration (a centripetal force acts on it), should, according to the electromagnetic theory, continuously radiate energy. This would lead to the fact that the electron would have to move around the nucleus in a spiral and, in the end, fall into it. There was no evidence that atoms continuously disappear, hence it follows that E. Rutherford's model is somewhat erroneous.
Moseley's law
X-rays were discovered in 1895 and intensively studied in subsequent years, their use for experimental purposes began: they are indispensable for determining the internal structure of crystals, the serial numbers of chemical elements. G. Moseley managed to measure the charge of the atomic nucleus using X-rays. It is in the charge of the nucleus that the main difference between the atomic nuclei of different elements lies. G. Moseley called the nuclear charge element number. Unit positive charges were later called protons(1 1 p).
X-ray radiation depends on the structure of the atom and is expressed Moseley law: the square roots of the reciprocals of the wavelengths are linearly dependent on the ordinal numbers of the elements. Mathematical expression of Moseley's law:
,
where l is the wavelength of the maximum peak in the X-ray spectrum; a and b are constants that are the same for similar lines of a given X-ray series. Serial number(Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus. But only by 1920 the name " proton and studied its properties. The charge of a proton is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the charge of an electron, that is, 1.602 × 10 -19 C, and conditionally (+1), the mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10 -27 kg, which is approximately 1836 times greater than the mass of an electron . Thus, the mass of a hydrogen atom, consisting of one electron and one proton, practically coincides with the mass of a proton, denoted by 1 1 p.
For all elements, the mass of an atom is greater than the sum of the masses of the electrons and protons that make up their composition. The difference between these values arises due to the presence in atoms of another type of particles, called neutrons(1 about n), which were discovered only in 1932 by the English scientist D. Chadwick. Neutrons are nearly equal in mass to protons but have no electrical charge. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons contained in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass number of the atom. The number of protons is equal to the atomic number of the element, the number of neutrons is equal to the difference between the mass number (atomic mass) and the atomic number of the element. The nuclei of all atoms of a given element have the same charge, that is, they contain the same number of protons, and the number of neutrons can be different. Atoms that have the same nuclear charge, and therefore identical properties, but a different number of neutrons, and, consequently, different mass numbers are called isotopes ("isos" - equal, "topos" - place ). Each isotope is characterized by two values: a mass number (shown at the top left of the chemical sign of the element) and an ordinal number (shown below to the left of the element's chemical sign). For example, a carbon isotope with a mass number of 12 is written as: 12 6 C or 12 C, or the words: "carbon-12". Isotopes are known for all chemical elements. So, oxygen has isotopes with mass numbers 16, 17, 18: 16 8 O, 17 8 O, 18 8 O. Potassium isotopes: 39 19 K, 40 19 K, 41 19 K. It is the presence of isotopes that explains those permutations that in D.I. made his time Mendeleev. Note that he did this only on the basis of the properties of substances, since the structure of atoms was not yet known. Modern science has confirmed the correctness of the great Russian scientist. So, natural potassium is formed mainly by atoms of its light isotopes, and argon - by heavy ones. Therefore, the relative atomic mass of potassium is less than that of argon, although the serial number (nucleus charge) of potassium is greater.
The atomic mass of an element is equal to the average value of all its natural isotopes, taking into account their abundance. So, for example, natural chlorine consists of 75.4% of an isotope with a mass number of 35 and 24.6% of an isotope with a mass number of 37; the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453. Atomic masses of elements given in the periodic system
DI. Mendeleev, there are average mass numbers of natural mixtures of isotopes. This is one of the reasons why they are different from integer values.
Stable and unstable isotopes. All isotopes are divided into: stable and radioactive. Stable isotopes do not undergo radioactive decay, which is why they are preserved in natural conditions. Examples of stable isotopes are 16 O, 12 C, 19 F. Most natural elements are composed of a mixture of two or more stable isotopes. Of all the elements, tin has the largest number of stable isotopes (10 isotopes). In rare cases, such as aluminum or fluorine, only one stable isotope occurs in nature, and the remaining isotopes are unstable.
Radioactive isotopes are subdivided, in turn, into natural and artificial, both of which spontaneously decay, while emitting α- or β-particles until a stable isotope is formed. The chemical properties of all isotopes are basically the same.
Isotopes are widely used in medicine and scientific research. Ionizing radiation can destroy living tissue. Tissues of malignant tumors are more sensitive to radiation than healthy tissues. This makes it possible to treat cancers with γ-radiation (radiation therapy), which is usually obtained using the radioactive isotope cobalt-60. The radiation is directed to the area of the patient's body affected by the tumor, the treatment session usually lasts several minutes and is repeated for several weeks. During the session, all other parts of the patient's body must be carefully covered with radiation-impervious material to prevent the destruction of healthy tissues.
In method labeled atoms radioactive isotopes are used to trace the "route" of some element in the body. So, a patient with a diseased thyroid gland is injected with a preparation of radioactive iodine-131, which allows the doctor to monitor the passage of iodine through the patient's body. Because the half-life
iodine-131 is only 8 days, then its radioactivity decreases rapidly.
Of particular interest is the use of radioactive carbon-14 to determine the age of objects of organic origin based on the radiocarbon method (geochronology) developed by the American physical chemist W. Libby. This method was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1960. When developing his method, W. Libby used the well-known fact of the formation of the radioactive isotope carbon-14 (in the form of carbon monoxide (IV)) in the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere during the bombardment of nitrogen atoms by neutrons that are part of cosmic rays
14 7 N + 1 0 n → 14 6 C + 1 1 p
Radioactive carbon-14 in turn decays, emitting β-particles and turning back into nitrogen
14 6 C → 14 7 N + 0 -1 β
Atoms of different elements that have the same mass numbers (atomic masses) are called isobars. In the periodic system With There are 59 pairs and 6 triplets of isobars. For example, 40 18 Ar 40 19 K 40 20 Ca.
Atoms of different elements that have the same number of neutrons are called isotones. For example, 136 Ba and 138 Xe - they have 82 neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Periodic law and
covalent bond
In 1907 N.A. Morozov and later in 1916-1918. Americans J. Lewis and I. Langmuir introduced the concept of education chemical bond by a common electron pair and suggested that valence electrons be denoted by dots
A bond formed by electrons belonging to two interacting atoms is called covalent. According to Morozov-Lewis-Langmuir:
1) when atoms interact between them, shared - common - electron pairs are formed that belong to both atoms;
2) due to common electron pairs, each atom in the molecule acquires eight electrons at the external energy level, s 2 p 6;
3) the s 2 p 6 configuration is a stable configuration of an inert gas, and in the process of chemical interaction each atom tends to reach it;
4) the number of common electron pairs determines the covalence of the element in the molecule and is equal to the number of electrons in the atom, missing up to eight;
5) the valency of a free atom is determined by the number of unpaired electrons.
Depicting chemical bonds is customary in different ways:
1) with the help of electrons in the form of dots placed at the chemical symbol of the element. Then the formation of a hydrogen molecule can be shown by the scheme
H× + H× ® H: H;
2) using quantum cells (orbitals) as the placement of two electrons with opposite spins in one molecular quantum cell
The layout diagram shows that the molecular energy level is lower than the initial atomic levels, which means that the molecular state of a substance is more stable than the atomic state;
3) often, especially in organic chemistry, a covalent bond is represented by a dash (for example, H-H), which symbolizes a pair of electrons.
A covalent bond in a chlorine molecule is also carried out using two common electrons, or an electron pair.
As you can see, each chlorine atom has three lone pairs and one unpaired electron. The formation of a chemical bond occurs due to the unpaired electrons of each atom. Unpaired electrons bond into a common pair of electrons, also called a shared pair.
Valence bond method
Ideas about the mechanism of formation of a chemical bond, using the example of a hydrogen molecule, also apply to other molecules. The theory of chemical bond, created on this basis, was called valence bond method (MVS). Basic provisions:
1) a covalent bond is formed as a result of the overlap of two electron clouds with oppositely directed spins, and the formed common electron cloud belongs to two atoms;
2) the covalent bond is the stronger, the more the interacting electron clouds overlap. The degree of overlap of electron clouds depends on their size and density;
3) the formation of a molecule is accompanied by compression of electron clouds and a decrease in the size of the molecule compared to the size of atoms;
4) s- and p-electrons of the outer energy level and d-electrons of the pre-external energy level take part in the bond formation.
Sigma (s) and pi (p) bonds
In the chlorine molecule, each of its atoms has a completed external level of eight electrons s 2 p 6, and two of them (an electron pair) equally belong to both atoms. The overlap of electron clouds during the formation of a molecule is shown in the figure.
Scheme of the formation of a chemical bond in the molecules of chlorine Cl 2 (a) and hydrogen chloride HCl (b)
A chemical bond for which the line connecting the atomic nuclei is the symmetry axis of the bonding electron cloud is called sigma (σ)-bond. It occurs when the "frontal" overlapping of atomic orbitals. Bonds with overlapping s-s-orbitals in the H 2 molecule; p-p orbitals in the Cl 2 molecule and s-p orbitals in the HCl molecule are sigma bonds. Possible "lateral" overlapping of atomic orbitals. When overlapping p-electron clouds oriented perpendicular to the bond axis, i.e. along the y- and z-axes, two areas of overlap are formed, located on both sides of this axis. This covalent bond is called pi(p)-bond. The overlap of electron clouds during the formation of a π bond is less. In addition, the areas of overlap lie farther from the nuclei than in the formation of a σ-bond. Due to these reasons, the π-bond is less strong than the σ-bond. Therefore, the energy of a double bond is less than twice the energy of a single bond, which is always a σ bond. In addition, the σ-bond has axial, cylindrical symmetry and is a body of revolution around the line connecting the atomic nuclei. The π-bond, on the contrary, does not have cylindrical symmetry.
A single bond is always a pure or hybrid σ bond. A double bond consists of one σ- and one π-bonds located perpendicular to each other. The σ-bond is stronger than the π-bond. In compounds with multiple bonds, there is always one σ-bond and one or two π-bonds.
Donor-acceptor bond
Another mechanism for the formation of a covalent bond is also possible - a donor-acceptor one. In this case, the chemical bond arises due to the two-electron cloud of one atom and the free orbital of another atom. Consider, as an example, the mechanism of formation of the ammonium ion (NH 4 +). In the ammonia molecule, the nitrogen atom has a lone pair of electrons (two-electron cloud)
The hydrogen ion has a free (not filled) 1s-orbital, which can be denoted as Н + (here the square means a cell). When an ammonium ion is formed, a two-electron cloud of nitrogen becomes common for nitrogen and hydrogen atoms, that is, it turns into a molecular electron cloud. So, there is a fourth covalent bond. The process of formation of the ammonium ion can be represented by the scheme
The charge of the hydrogen ion becomes common (it is delocalized, i.e. dispersed between all atoms), and the two-electron cloud (lone electron pair) belonging to nitrogen becomes common with H +. In diagrams, the image of the cell is often omitted.
An atom that provides a lone electron pair is called donor , and the atom that accepts it (that is, provides a free orbital) is called acceptor .
The mechanism of formation of a covalent bond due to a two-electron cloud of one atom (donor) and a free orbital of another atom (acceptor) is called donor-acceptor. A covalent bond formed in this way is called a donor-acceptor or coordination bond.
However, this is not a special type of bond, but only a different mechanism (method) for the formation of a covalent bond. The properties of the N-H quarter bond in the ammonium ion are no different from the other three.
For the most part, donors are molecules containing N, O, F, Cl atoms bound in it with atoms of other elements. An acceptor can be a particle with vacant electronic levels, for example, atoms of d-elements with unfilled d-sublevels.
Properties of a covalent bond
Link length is the internuclear distance. A chemical bond is stronger the shorter its length. The bond length in molecules is: HC 3 -CH 3 1.54 ; H 2 C \u003d CH 2
1,33 ; HC≡SN 1.20 .In terms of single bonds, these values increase, the reactivity of compounds with multiple bonds increases. The measure of bond strength is the bond energy.
Bond energy determined by the amount of energy required to break the bond. It is usually measured in kilojoules per mole of a substance. As the bond multiplicity increases, the bond energy increases and its length decreases. Bond energies in compounds (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes): С-С 344 kJ/mol; C=C 615 kJ/mol; С≡С 812 kJ/mol. That is, the energy of a double bond is less than twice the energy of a single bond, and the energy of a triple bond is less than three times the energy of a single bond, so alkynes are more reactive from this group of hydrocarbons.
Under satiety understand the ability of atoms to form a limited number of covalent bonds. For example, a hydrogen atom (one unpaired electron) forms one bond, a carbon atom (four unpaired electrons in an excited state) - no more than four bonds. Due to the saturation of the bonds, the molecules have a certain composition: H 2 , CH 4 , HCl, etc. However, even with saturated covalent bonds, more complex molecules can be formed according to the donor-acceptor mechanism.
Orientation covalent bond determines the spatial structure of molecules, that is, their shape. Let us consider this using the example of the formation of HCl, H 2 O, NH 3 molecules.
According to the MVS, a covalent bond occurs in the direction of maximum overlap of the electron orbitals of the interacting atoms. When an HCl molecule is formed, the s-orbital of the hydrogen atom overlaps with the p-orbital of the chlorine atom. Molecules of this type have a linear shape.
The outer level of the oxygen atom has two unpaired electrons. Their orbitals are mutually perpendicular, i.e. located relative to each other at an angle of 90 o. When a water molecule is formed
The international unit of atomic mass is equal to 1/12 of the mass of the 12C isotope, the main isotope of natural carbon.
1 amu = 1/12 m (12C) = 1.66057 10-24 g
Relative atomic mass (Ar) is a dimensionless quantity equal to the ratio of the average mass of an element atom (taking into account the percentage of isotopes in nature) to 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom.
The average absolute mass of an atom (m) is equal to the relative atomic mass times the amu.
(Mg) = 24.312 1.66057 10-24 = 4.037 10-23 g
Relative molecular weight (Mr) is a dimensionless value showing how many times the mass of a molecule of a given substance is greater than 1/12 of the mass of a 12C carbon atom.
Mg = mg / (1/12 ma(12C))
mr is the mass of the molecule of the given substance;
ma(12C) is the mass of the carbon atom 12C.
Mg = Σ Ag(e). The relative molecular mass of a substance is equal to the sum of the relative atomic masses of all elements, taking into account the indices.
Mg (B2O3) \u003d 2 Ar (B) + 3 Ar (O) \u003d 2 11 + 3 16 \u003d 70
Mg(KAl(SO4)2) = 1 Ar(K) + 1 Ar(Al) + 1 2 Ar(S) + 2 4 Ar(O) =
1 39 + 1 27 + 1 2 32 + 2 4 16 = 258
The absolute mass of a molecule is equal to the relative molecular mass times the amu. The number of atoms and molecules in ordinary samples of substances is very large, therefore, when characterizing the amount of a substance, a special unit of measurement is used - the mole.
Amount of substance, mol. Means a certain number of structural elements (molecules, atoms, ions). Denoted ν, measured in mol. A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon. Avogadro diQuaregna number (NA). The number of particles in 1 mol of any substance is the same and equal to 6.02 1023. (Avogadro's constant has the dimension - mol-1).
How many molecules are there in 6.4 g of sulfur? The molecular weight of sulfur is 32 g / mol. We determine the amount of g / mol of a substance in 6.4 g of sulfur:
ν(s) = m(s) / M(s) = 6.4g / 32 g/mol = 0.2 mol
Let us determine the number of structural units (molecules) using the Avogadro constant NA
N(s) = ν(s) NA = 0.2 6.02 1023 = 1.2 1023
Molar mass indicates the mass of 1 mole of a substance (denoted by M).
The molar mass of a substance is equal to the ratio of the mass of the substance to the corresponding amount of the substance.
The molar mass of a substance is numerically equal to its relative molecular mass, however, the first value has the dimension g / mol, and the second is dimensionless.
M = NA m(1 molecule) = NA Mg 1 a.m.u. = (NA 1 amu) Mg = Mg
This means that if the mass of a certain molecule is, for example, 80 a.m.u. (SO3), then the mass of one mole of molecules is 80 g. Avogadro's constant is a proportionality factor that ensures the transition from molecular to molar ratios. All statements regarding molecules remain valid for moles (with the replacement, if necessary, of a.m.u. by g) For example, the reaction equation: 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl, means that two sodium atoms react with one chlorine molecule, or that the same thing, two moles of sodium react with one mole of chlorine.
Stoichiometry. The law of conservation of mass of substances. The law of the constancy of the composition of substances of the molecular structure. Avogadro's law and its consequences.
stoichiometry(from other Greekστοιχειον "element" + μετρειν "measure") - section chemistry about the ratios of reagents in chemical reactions.
Allows you to theoretically calculate the required volumes reagents.
Law of constancy of composition was discovered by the French scientist Louis Jeanne Proust in 1799 and is formulated:
Any pure substance has a constant qualitative and quantitative composition, regardless of its location in nature and the method of production in industry.
For example: H 2 O a) qualitative composition - elements H and O
b) quantitative composition - two hydrogen atoms H, one oxygen atom O.
Water can be obtained:
1. 2H 2 + O 2 \u003d 2H 2 O - the reaction of the compound.
2. Cu(OH) 2 t°C H 2 O + CuO - decomposition reaction.
3. HCl + NaOH \u003d H 2 O + NaCl - neutralization reaction.
The meaning of the law of constancy of composition:
On the basis of the law, the concepts of "chemical compound" and "mixture of substances" were distinguished
· Various practical calculations can be made on the basis of the law.
The law of conservation of mass of matter was discovered by M.V. Lomonosov in 1748 and formulated.
