Achievements of Russia in the Middle Ages. Russia in the Middle Ages

AT In the Middle Ages, the formation of Western European civilization began, developing with greater dynamism than all previous civilizations, which was determined by a number of historical factors (the legacy of Roman material and spiritual culture, the existence of the empires of Charlemagne and Otto I in Europe, which united many tribes and countries, the influence of Christianity as a single religion for all, the role of corporatism, penetrating all spheres of social order).

AT the period of the late Middle Ages, the most important idea of the West takes shape: an active attitude to life, the desire to know the world around us and the conviction that it can be known with the help of reason, the desire to transform the world in the interests of man.

Questions for self-examination

1. What are the main economic, political, ideological characteristics of the development of Western European society in the Middle Ages?

2. What stages can be identified in the development of Western Europe during the Middle Ages? name leading countries of each stage.

3. What is the essence of the idea of the West? When is it issued?

4. When did the ethnic, economic, political, religious, cultural community of Western Europe begin to take shape?

5. What was the basis of the unity of Western European society during the Middle Ages?

6. When did the natural science revolution start? What were its causes and consequences? How does the organization of Western European science change in the late Middle Ages?

Chapter 6 Russia in the Middle Ages

Kievan Rus

The formation of civilization in the Russian lands

Formation and rise of the Muscovite state

6.1. Kievan Rus (IX - XII centuries)

Formation of the ancient Russian state. One of the largest states of the European Middle Ages was in IX-XII centuries Kievan Rus. Unlike other countries

Eastern and Western, the process of formation of Russian statehood had its own specific features. One of them is the spatial and geopolitical situation.

- The Russian state occupied a middle position between Europe and Asia and did not have pronounced, natural geographical boundaries within the vast plains. In the course of its formation, Russia acquired the features of both eastern and western state formations. In addition, the need for constant protection from external enemies of a large territory forced peoples with different types of development, religion, culture, language, etc. to rally, create a strong state power and have a significant people's militia.

Closest to the historical truth in the coverage of the initial phases of the development of Russia, apparently, was one of the early Russian historians, the monk-chronicler Nestor. In The Tale of Bygone Years, he presents the beginning of the formation of Kievan Rus as a creation in the 6th century. powerful union of Slavic tribes in the middle Dnieper. This union took the name of one of the tribes "Ros", or "Rus". The unification of several dozen separate small forest-steppe Slavic tribes in the VIII-IX centuries. turns into a superethnos centered in Kyiv. Russia of this period was equal in area to the Byzantine Empire.

Further, the chronicler Nestor claims that the tribes of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi and Chud, who were at war with each other, invited the Varangian prince to restore order. Prince Rurik (? - 879) allegedly arrived with the brothers Sineus and Truvor. He himself ruled in Novgorod, and his brothers in Beloozero and Izborsk. The Varangians laid the foundation for the grand ducal dynasty of Rurikovich. With the death of Rurik, under his young son Igor, King (Prince) Oleg (? - 912), nicknamed the Prophet, becomes the guardian. After a successful campaign against Kyiv, in 882 he managed to unite the Novgorod and Kyiv lands into the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus with its capital in Kiev, according to the definition of the prince - "the mother of Russian cities."

The initial instability of the state association, the desire of the tribes to maintain their isolation sometimes had tragic consequences. So, Prince Igor (? - 945), while collecting traditional tribute (polyudye) from subject lands, having demanded a significant excess of its size, was killed. Princess Olga, Igor's widow, having cruelly avenged her husband, nevertheless fixed the amount of tribute, setting "lessons", and determined the places (graveyards) and the timing of its collection. Their son Svyatoslav (942-972) combined state activity with significant military leadership. During his reign, he annexed the lands of the Vyatichi, defeated Volga Bulgaria, conquered the Mordovian tribes, defeated the Khazar Khaganate, conducted successful military operations in the North Caucasus and the Azov coast, repelled the onslaught of the Pechenegs, etc. But returning after a campaign against Byzantium, Svyatoslav's detachment was defeated by the Pechenegs , and Svyatoslav himself was killed.

The unifier of all the lands of the Eastern Slavs as part of Kievan Rus was the son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir (960-1015), nicknamed by the people "Red Sun" built a number of border fortresses to strengthen the borders of the state from the raids of numerous nomads.

Norman theory. The narrative of the chronicler Nestor about the calling of the Varangians to the Russian land later found a rather contradictory interpretation by historians.

The founders of the Norman theory are considered to be the German historians Gottlieb Bayer, Gererd Miller and August Schlozer. Being invited

to Russia during the reign of Anna Ioannovna and the heyday of Bironovism, the authors of this “theory” and its supporters exaggerated the role of the Scandinavian warriors in the formation of statehood in Russia. It was this "theory" that was raised to the shield by the Nazis in order to justify the attack in 1941 on our Motherland and accuse Russia of being unable to develop independently.

Meanwhile, the state as a product of internal development cannot be introduced from outside. This is a long and complicated process. For the emergence of statehood, appropriate conditions are necessary, an awareness by the majority of members of society of the need to limit tribal power, property stratification, the emergence of tribal nobility, the emergence of Slavic squads, etc.

Of course, the very fact of attracting the Varangian princes and their squads to the service of the Slavic princes is beyond doubt. The relationship between the Varangians (Normans - from the Scandinavian “man of the north”) and Russia is also indisputable. The invited leaders of the Rurik mercenary (allied) rati in the future, obviously, acquired the functions of arbitrators, and sometimes civil power. The subsequent attempt of the chronicler in support of the ruling dynasty of Rurikovich to show its peaceful, and not predatory, violent origins is quite understandable and understandable. However, rather controversial, in our opinion, is the “argument” of the Normans that the Varangian king Rurik was invited with the brothers Sineus and Truvor, the fact of whose existence history does not report anything else. Meanwhile, the phrase “Rurik came with relatives and squad” in Old Swedish sounds like this: “Rurik came with sine hus (his family) and true thief” (loyal squad).

In turn, the extreme point of view of the anti-Normanists, who prove the absolute originality of the Slavic statehood, the denial of the role of the Scandinavians (Varangians) in political processes, contradicts the known facts. The mixing of clans and tribes, overcoming former isolation, establishing regular relations with near and distant neighbors, and finally, the ethnic unification of North Russian and South Russian tribes (all these) are characteristic features of the advancement of Slavic society towards the state. Developing similarly to Western Europe, Russia simultaneously approached the boundary of the formation of a large early medieval state. And the Vikings (Varangians), as in Western Europe, stimulated this process.

At the same time, Norman statements can hardly be called a theory. They actually lack an analysis of sources, a review of known events. And they testify that the Varangians appeared in Eastern Europe when the Kievan state had already taken shape. It is also impossible to recognize the Varangians as the creators of statehood for the Slavs for other reasons. Where are any noticeable traces of the influence of the Varangians on the socio-economic and political institutions of the Slavs? To their language, culture? On the contrary, in Russia there was only Russian, not Swedish. and treaties of the 10th century. with Byzantium, the embassy of the Kyiv prince, which, by the way, included the Varangians of the Russian service, was issued only in two languages - Russian and Greek, without traces of Swedish terminology. At the same time, in the Scandinavian sagas, service to Russian princes is defined as a sure path to acquiring glory and power, and Russia itself is a country of untold wealth.

Social system. Gradually, in Kievan Rus, a state governance structure developed, at first, in many respects similar to the Western institution of vassalage, which included the concept of freedom, granting autonomy to vassals. So, the boyars - the highest stratum of society - were vassals of the prince and were obliged to serve in his army. At the same

for a time they remained full masters of their land and had lesser vassals.

The Grand Duke ruled the territory with the help of a council (Boyar Duma), which included senior warriors - the local nobility, representatives of cities, and sometimes the clergy. At the Council, as an advisory body under the prince, the most important state issues were resolved: the election of the prince, the declaration of war and peace, the conclusion of treaties, the issuance of laws, the consideration of a number of judicial and financial cases, etc. The Boyar Duma symbolized the rights and autonomy of vassals and had the right to "veto". The younger squad, which included boyar children and youths, yard servants, as a rule, was not included in the Prince's Council. But in resolving the most important tactical issues, the prince usually consulted with the squad as a whole. With the participation of princes, noble boyars and representatives of cities, they gathered and feudal congresses, which dealt with issues affecting the interests of all principalities. A management apparatus was formed that was in charge of legal proceedings, the collection of duties and tariffs.

The main cell of the social structure of Russia was the community - a closed social system, recognized to organize all types of human activity - labor, ritual, cultural. Being multifunctional, it relied on the principles of collectivism and leveling, was the collective owner of the land and lands. The community organized its internal life on the principles of direct democracy (election, collective decision-making) - a kind of veche ideal. In fact, the state structure was based on an agreement between the prince and the people's assembly (veche). The composition of the veche is democratic. The entire adult male population, with noisy approval or objection, made the most important decisions on issues of war and peace, disposed of the princely table (throne), financial and land resources, authorized collections of money, discussed legislation, removed the administration, etc.

An important feature of Kievan Rus, which developed as a result of constant danger, especially from the steppe nomads, was the general armament of the people, organized according to the decimal system (hundreds, thousands). In the urban centers there were thousands - the leaders of the military city militia. It was the numerous people's militia that often decided the outcome of battles. And it was not subordinate to the prince, but to the veche. But as a practical democratic institution, it was already in the 11th century. began to gradually lose its dominant role, retaining its strength for several centuries only in Novgorod, Kyiv, Pskov and other cities, continuing to exert a noticeable influence on the course of the socio-political life of the Russian land.

Economic life. The main economic occupations of the Slavs were agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, fishing, and crafts. Byzantine sources characterize the Slavs as tall, bright, settled people, as they "build houses, wear shields and fight on foot."

Gradually, the slash-and-slash system of agriculture is replaced by two- and three-field systems, which leads to the seizure of communal lands by strong people - the process of stripping the land is taking place.

By the X-XII centuries. in Kievan Rus, a large private landownership is taking shape. Feudal patrimony (patrimony, i.e., paternal possession) becomes a form of land ownership, not only alienable (with the right to buy and sell, donate), but also inherited. The patrimony could be princely, boyar, monastic, church. The peasants living on it not only paid tribute to the state, but became land dependent on the feudal lord (boyar), paying him rent in kind for using the land or working off corvée. However, a significant number of inhabitants were still independent peasants-communes, who paid tribute in favor of the state to the Grand Duke.

The key to understanding the socio-economic structure of the ancient Russian state can largely be served by the people - the collection of tribute from the entire free population (“people”), chronologically covering the end of the 8th - the first half of the 10th century, and locally until the 12th century. It was actually the most naked form of domination and submission, the exercise of the supreme right to land, the establishment of the concept of allegiance.

The wealth collected on a colossal scale (food, honey, wax, furs, etc.) not only met the needs of the prince and his squad, but also accounted for a fairly high proportion of ancient Russian exports. Slaves, servants from captives or people who fell into heavy bondage, who found demand in international markets, were added to the collected products. Grandiose, well-guarded military-trade expeditions, falling on the summertime, delivered the export part of the polyudye along the Black Sea to Bulgaria, Byzantium, and the Caspian Sea; Russian land caravans reached Baghdad on their way to India.

Features of the socio-economic system of Kievan Rus are reflected in "Russian Pravda" - authentic code of ancient Russian feudal law. Striking with a high level of lawmaking, developed for its time by the legal culture, this document was valid until the 15th century. and consisted of separate norms of the “Law of the Russian”, “The Ancient Truth” or “The Truth of Yaroslav”, Supplement to the “Truth of Yaroslav” (regulations on the collectors of court fines, etc.), “Pravda of the Yaroslavichs” (“The Truth of the Russian Land”, approved by the sons Yaroslav the Wise), the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, which included the "Charter on cuts" (percentage), "Charter on purchases", etc.; "Spread Truth".

The main trend in the evolution of Russkaya Pravda was the gradual expansion of legal norms from princely law to the environment of the squad, the definition of fines for various crimes against the person, a colorful description of the city to attempts to codify the norms of the early feudal law that had developed by that time, covering every inhabitant of the state from princely warriors and servants , feudal lords, free rural community members and townspeople to serfs, servants and those who did not own property and were in the full possession of their master, actual slaves. The degree of lack of freedom was determined by the economic situation of the peasant: smerds, ryadovichi, purchasers-farmers, who for one reason or another became partially dependent on the feudal lords, worked out a significant part of the time on patrimonial lands.

Pravda Yaroslavichi reflects the structure of the patrimony as a form of land ownership and organization of production. Its center was the mansions of the prince or boyar, the houses of his confidants, the stables, the barnyard. An ognischanin, the prince's butler, ruled the patrimony. The princely entrance was engaged in the collection of taxes. The work of the peasants was led by ratai (arable) and village elders. In the estate

organized on the principle of self-sufficiency, there were artisans and artisans.

Kievan Rus was famous for its cities. It is no coincidence that foreigners called it Gardarika - the country of cities. At first they were fortresses, political centers. Overgrown with new settlements, they became the center of handicraft production and trade. Even before the formation of Kievan Rus, the cities of Kyiv, Novgorod, Beloozero, Izborsk, Smolensk, Lyubech, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, and others formed on the most important water trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." In the X-XI centuries. a new generation of political and trade and craft centers is being created: Ladoga, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Murom, etc.

Cities also took over the functions of trade and exchange. In the largest of them (Kyiv, Novgorod) there was a wide and regular trade in rich and extensive bazaars, both out-of-town and foreign merchants permanently lived. Foreign economic ties acquired particular importance in the economic life of Kievan Rus. Russian merchants "ruzariy" were well known abroad, they were provided with significant benefits and privileges: treaties 907, 911, 944, 971. with Byzantium;

It is interesting that the internal trade in Russia, especially in the 11th-10th centuries, was predominantly “exchange” in nature. Then, along with the exchange, the monetary form appears. Initially, cattle (leather money) and furs (kuna-marten fur) acted as money. Russkaya Pravda also mentions metallic money. The hryvnia kuna (oblong silver ingot) served as the main counting metal monetary unit. The hryvnia kuna was subdivided into 20 nogat, 25 kuna, 50 rezan, etc. Having existed on the ancient Russian market until the 14th century, this monetary unit was replaced by the ruble. The minting of their own coins in Russia began in the X-XI centuries. Along with it, foreign coins also circulated.

The political and socio-economic life of the Slavs of the ancient Russian state was supplemented by spiritual life.

Christianization of Russia. With the formation and development of the ancient Russian state, the formation of a single Russian people, paganism, with its many deities in each tribe, the traditions of the tribal system and blood feud, human sacrifice, etc., ceased to meet the new conditions of social life. At the beginning of his reign, attempts made by the Kyiv prince Vladimir I (980-1015) to somewhat streamline the rituals, raise the authority of paganism, and turn it into a single state religion were unsuccessful. Paganism has lost its former naturalness and attractiveness in the perception of a person who has overcome tribal narrowness and limitation.

The neighbors of Russia - the Volga Bulgaria, which professed Islam, the Khazar Khaganate, which converted to Judaism, the Catholic West and the center of Orthodoxy - Byzantium, tried to gain common faith in the face of the rapidly gaining strength of the Russian state. And

The term "Middle Ages" entered the scientific circulation in the Renaissance, thereby humanist philosophers emphasized the connection of their time with antiquity: they were separated from the "golden age" of mankind by a certain middle, intermediate period, "dark ages", as Petrarch called them. Later, the term, of course, lost its semantic load, however, in historiography, as a generally accepted concept, the name “Middle Ages” was preserved, the time frame of which covers the period from the 5th century to the beginning of the 16th century. These boundaries are relative and vary in the history of different states.

Chronology Conventions

Chronology and periodization are relative criteria artificially introduced by researchers, used for the convenience of designating a particular time, comparing events in different countries, etc. This fully applies to the period called the “Middle Ages”, the spatial and time frames of which are Russian and foreign historians substantiate differently. As A. Ya. Gurevich correctly noted, the people of the Middle Ages, like those of antiquity, or did not give names to their era, did not realize that they were living in the period of the Middle Ages. When dividing into chronological segments, scientists are guided by some original features, qualitative characteristics inherent in a particular era.

periodization

How does the historiographic tradition designate the Western European Middle Ages? Time frame (centuries) - from the 5th century. until the beginning of the 16th century. Within this almost thousand-year period of time, the following stages are usually distinguished:

5th-11th centuries called the Early Middle Ages (or "Dark Ages", since this period in the history of human civilization remains the least studied due to the extremely poor reflection in the sources). It began after the fall of the Roman Empire. One of the most striking phenomena is the great migration of peoples, the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by Christians (the so-called Reconquista), the flourishing of Byzantium, the Frankish state.
XI-XIV centuries - This is the classical (or High) Middle Ages. The main events are the rapid growth of the population of Western Europe, the almost universal spread of Christianity, the development of cities and urbanization, the emergence and development of feudal relations.
XIV-XVI centuries attributed to the Late Middle Ages (some researchers rank this period as early as the New Age). This is a period of disasters, famine, plague, the Hundred Years War and the Mongol-Tatar invasions, which seriously devastated Western Europe. At the same time, this is the time of church reformation, great geographical discoveries, development of science, inventions, achievements in traditional medicine.

time frame for Russia

On the territory occupied by Slavic tribes, the formation of the feudal state was slower than in the West, therefore many historians attribute the beginning of the medieval era to the 9th century. And the New Age begins at the end of the 17th century. with the reign of Peter I. Within the era, separate periods are distinguished:

IX-XII centuries - the existence of a centralized Kievan state.
XII-XIII centuries - the beginning of feudal fragmentation and the fall of part of the land under the rule of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
XIV-XVII centuries - formation and development of the Russian state with the center in Moscow.

Characteristics of the era

This is how the Middle Ages looks chronologically, the time frame is associated with events that led to irreversible changes. At the end of the 5th century barbarian hordes broke into Rome - the main stronghold of ancient civilization at that time, and at the beginning of the 6th century. the last ancient school of philosophy ceased to exist.

The key characteristic of the Early Middle Ages is the decomposition of tribal relations among the barbarian tribes of Europe and the formation of feudal ones, which by the end of the period leads to the formation of ruling dynasties. The essence of economic relations changed radically in the Middle Ages. The spatial, temporal framework of the era is firmly connected with the spread of the Christian religion, which became spiritually a reflection of feudalism, just as paganism was once characteristic of the communal-tribal system.

Regarding the Slavic tribes, all of the above features are clearly visible in their history only from the 9th century, when the state was established with the center in Kyiv. At about the same time, Christianity of the Eastern (Orthodox) rite penetrated the Russian lands from Byzantium, and by the turn of the millennium it acquired the status of an official religion.

Classic Middle Ages

The High Middle Ages (the time frame of the 11th-14th centuries) begins in Western Europe with the formation of the state of Charlemagne and is characterized by the strengthening of the position of the Catholic Church, its dominant role at all levels of human activity - from politics to everyday life. The education system is dominated by scholastic teaching, worldview and material culture are deeply religious.

Christianity also defines the Russian Middle Ages, the time frames of which, as well as the event content of the periods, are very different from those of Western Europe. By the XII century. Orthodoxy became not only the official state religion: the last pagans who believed in the ancient Slavic gods remained only in remote forest areas and did not pose a threat to the existence of a centralized state. But the feudal civil strife, which shook more or less any state in the Middle Ages (the time frame in Russia - XII-XIII centuries), weakened the Kievan state and made it easy prey for the hordes of nomadic Mongol-Tatars who came from the east. Thus, the strengthening of the authority of the church was also facilitated by an external threat in the face of ethnically and religiously alien invaders.

Distinctive features of the European and Russian periods

The fundamental difference in this period of the history of Russia from Western Europe is obvious: for the empire of Charlemagne, this is the time of the maximum flourishing of culture, the creation of a canonical image of the Middle Ages, in Eastern Europe, in all spheres of life, there is a decline associated with the heavy burden of confronting a powerful Asian enemy.

After the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, it was no longer possible to restore the former integrity of Kievan Rus: the western lands united into the Galicia-Volyn principality, and in the east the Moscow princes gained increasing influence.

Final decades of the High Middle Ages

The end in the West is associated with a famine that struck many lands at the beginning of the 14th century, an epidemic of plague, peasant riots, and all these tragic events entailed the literally extinction of half of the population, and therefore a decline in all spheres of life.

At the same time, for Russia, the Middle Ages, the time frame of the XIV-XVII centuries, became the era of the formation and strengthening of the state around Moscow. Russia was strong enough at this time to throw off the burden of the Golden Horde yoke. Moreover, many domestic researchers are inclined to see the characteristic features of the Renaissance in the new Russian state, based on the Vladimir-Suzdal historical and cultural traditions. This is the flourishing of culture, architecture, painting, and the emergence of literary works, the focus of which is a person and his feelings, and not religious issues.

At the beginning of the XVII century. The Romanov dynasty ascends the throne of Moscow, whose representatives ruled the country until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1917.

Late Middle Ages and the transition to modern times

Such a shaky concept as the Late Middle Ages covers time frames and countries in different ways: somewhere the features of the New Age appear more clearly, and in some places the traditional feudal way of life is preserved. In the states of Western Europe, there is a movement for the reformation of the church, industrial revolutions are taking place, philosophy and world views are changing. And in the Moscow kingdom, for almost two centuries, everything remained without significant changes: therefore, the Middle Ages in Russia (the time frame of the 9th-17th centuries) ends much later.

The Western European Middle Ages, the time frame that completes this almost thousand-year period, refers to the end of the 15th - the beginning of the 16th centuries. The most common starting point is the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492.

In Russia, only Peter I managed to complete the period of the Middle Ages through a series of progressive and often unpopular reforms at the end of the 17th century.

Conclusions: the Middle Ages, Western European and Russian

Thus, the time frames of the Middle Ages in Russia and Western Europe vary greatly, although the essence of the period remains similar in most issues. This is the dominance of the church and religion in all spheres of life, and the strengthening of feudal relations, and the subsequent formation of the monarchy, which will continue into the New Age.

At the end of the Middle Ages, a clear technical progress began - blast furnaces, firearms were invented, the concept of educational institutions appeared. Progress is gradually manifested in all spheres of life. In the last decades of the Late Middle Ages, a rapid flowering of art began.

2/ Feudal fragmentation is a natural historical process. Western Europe and Kievan Rus during the period of feudal fragmentation

1. Formation of Old Russian statehood. Spiritual, moral, political and socio-economic foundations of the formation of the Russian ethnos

Kievan Rus is the successor of Ancient Russia and the next stage in the formation of the Russian ethnos. Kievan Rus is a society with a relatively high degree of development of statehood.

The early Middle Ages knew two types of statehood: the eastern one, based on the relationship of allegiance, and the European statehood, built on cooperation between government and society.

An example of a strong statehood of the eastern type was the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium remained a centralized state throughout its history. The bearer of supreme power was the emperor, endowed with great powers. There was a bureaucratic apparatus with strict subordination, a tax system, secret police, and financial services. The foreign policy department had a special influence, which could weaken its enemies with bribes, bribery and intrigues. The state owned large areas of land. Crafts and trade were under the control of government services, a developed system of state monopolies for the production and sale of individual products operated. The presence of a strong state power led to the fact that in Byzantium neither private property, nor a vassal-fief hierarchy, nor immunity had reached maturity. Roman law remained the most important element of Byzantine life. Byzantium was the legal state of the Middle Ages.

The special role of the state principle in the Byzantine Empire received an ideological justification. It was believed that along with the one God, the one true faith and the one true church, there should also be a single Christian empire, the defender of faith and the church. The imperial power acquired sacred functions, for by its very existence it ensured the salvation of the human race. These ideas were a factor in the viability of the Byzantine civilization, they created a spiritual support for resisting external onslaught.

Islam gave a peculiar direction to the development of statehood among the Arabs. The Qur'an recognized no distinction between church and state. Caliphs had supreme religious and secular power. All land was the property of the caliph. State land ownership prevailed over other forms of land ownership, the existence of which did not contradict the Koran. In the field of state administration, the Arabs borrowed those forms that existed in the territory newly included in the Caliphate. Thus, the Arab Caliphate was a kind of strong sacred (sacred) state power, which was fundamentally different from the European one.

Kievan Rus, as a political association, begins to take shape during the expansion of the Varangians from Novgorod to the south immediately after Rurik and his retinue came to reign. In 882, Rurik's combatants Askold and Dir freed the glades from paying tribute to the Khazars and remained to rule Kyiv. Rurik's relative Prince Oleg (882-912) tricked Askold and Dir out of the city, killed them, and then united the Novgorod and Kiev principalities, making Kyiv the capital of a new state. Unification of Southern and Northern Russia at the end of the 9th century. - the starting point for the formation of Kievan Rus as a new stage of the Old Russian state. In the future, the activities of the Kyiv princes will be aimed at expanding the territory of the Kyiv principality. Oleg conquered the Drevlyans and imposed tribute on the Northerners and Radimichi. Prince Igor (912-945) will have to reattach the Drevlyans and pacify the Uglichs. Igor's wife Olga (945-964) continued the work of her husband, and by force of arms, as well as by diplomacy, she significantly strengthened the Old Russian statehood. The case of Igor and Olga was continued by their son Svyatoslav (964-972), who annexed the Vyatichi and conquered Danube Bulgaria.

The formation of Kievan Rus as a political and cultural center under Vladimir I Svyatoslavovich (980-1015), the unification of the Western Slavs, Volhynians, Croats and the adoption of Christianity is being completed.

The most important milestone in the formation of the Russian ethnos is the adoption of Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy as the state religion of Kievan Rus. The specific act of the adoption of Orthodoxy was the famous baptism on the Dnieper of the population of the city of Kyiv by Prince Vladimir in 988. However, the adoption of Orthodoxy is not limited to this act. It has a long history: the spread of Christianity in Russia began long before the baptism on the Dnieper and continued for another century and a half.

Orthodox sources connect the penetration of Christianity into the territory of Kievan Rus with the missionary activity of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called in the 1st century AD. e., who allegedly after the death, Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus Christ went to preach his teachings in Byzantium, and then "and passed the Black Sea to the Dnieper and the Dnieper up to Kyiv, and from Kyiv further to Veliky Novgorod." There are no historical sources confirming the version of the missionary activity of the Apostle Andrew. However, there are sources indicating that Vladimir's grandmother, Princess Olga, was a Christian. Some prominent warriors of Prince Vladimir were also Christians.

Historians have always faced questions: what is the reason for the Christianization of Russia and why did Prince Vladimir choose Orthodoxy? The answer to these questions should be sought both in the personality of Prince Vladimir and in the analysis of the socio-political and spiritual processes that were taking place at that time in Kievan Rus.

Prince Vladimir was a major statesman of his time. He had long been aware that pagan polytheism did not meet the political and spiritual needs of the state. In 980, Vladimir undertook the first religious reform, the essence of which was an attempt to merge the heterogeneous gods of all the tribes of Kievan Rus into a single pantheon headed by the princely god Perun. However, the attempt to spread the cult of Perun everywhere failed. The pagan god was opposed by other pagan gods, who were worshiped by the Slavic and non-Slavic tribes of Kievan Rus. Paganism did not ensure the ethno-cultural unity of all the tribes and lands of Kievan Rus. Historical practice has shown that this unity is best ensured by the so-called world religions: Christianity and Islam.

The Orthodox version of the adoption of Christianity claims that this event was preceded by a procedure of "choosing faiths." Kievan Rus in its geopolitical position was in close contact with the Khazar Kaganate, which was dominated by Judaism, the Arab-Muslim world, which professed Islam, Orthodox Byzantium and the Catholic states of Western Europe. Vladimir allegedly sent his ambassadors to all these regions to determine the best faith. Having completed the task of the Grand Duke, the ambassadors returned and unequivocally gave preference to Orthodoxy because of the beauty of its churches and the spiritual uplift that they felt in them.

However, these circumstances did not play a major role in the adoption of Orthodoxy. The decisive factor in turning to the religious and ideological experience of Byzantium was the traditional political, economic, cultural ties of Kievan Rus with Byzantium. In the system of Byzantine statehood, spiritual power occupied a subordinate position from the emperor. This corresponded to the political aspirations of Prince Vladimir. Not the last role was played by dynastic considerations. The adoption of Orthodoxy opened the way for the marriage of Vladimir with the sister of the Byzantine emperor, Princess Anna - and thus further strengthened friendly relations with such an influential power as Byzantium. Friendship with Byzantium not only opened the way to expanding trade, economic and cultural ties, but also to some extent protected Russia from the raids of numerous nomadic tribes that inhabited the Great Steppe to the north of the Black Sea, which Byzantium constantly used in the fight against its northern neighbor .

And one more moment played its role in the choice of Orthodoxy. In Catholicism, worship took place in Latin, the texts of the Bible and other liturgical books - in the same language. Orthodoxy did not bind itself by linguistic canons. In addition, during this period, Orthodoxy was established in Slavic Bulgaria. Thus, the liturgical books and the entire rite were linguistically related to the population of Kievan Rus. Through Bulgarian liturgical books and Bulgarian clergy, Orthodoxy began to establish itself in the spiritual life of Russian society.

The establishment of Orthodoxy as the state religion of Kievan Rus was associated with significant difficulties. Religion is not just a belief in some gods and spirits, a system of rituals. This is a way of life, a certain system of ideas, beliefs, ideas about a person, his place in the world, etc. Religious beliefs are associated with such important aspects of life as marriage and family relations, moral norms, the food system, etc. Therefore, the process of Christianization meant breaking the existing way of life, worldview, culture, and way of life.

Christianization everywhere met with resistance from the population. Prince Vladimir, his warriors, the clan nobility had to make a lot of efforts, and sometimes even use direct force in order to establish Christian rituals, beliefs, and a way of life. Repeatedly rose uprisings against Christianization. History knows the largest of them: in Suzdal, Kyiv, Novgorod.

A significant role in the Christianization of Russia was played by the monasteries that appeared on its territory in the middle of the 11th century. In the monasteries, cadres of clergymen were trained, the dogma was comprehended, the spiritual and moral foundations of the new rituals, Christian life, etc. were formed. Monasteries played a significant role in the dissemination of letters, were custodians and transmitters of cultural heritage. From the monasteries, missionary activities were carried out in all cities and rural areas of the ancient Russian state. By the middle of the XIII century. about 80 monasteries functioned in Russia.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the entire Russian society. Christianity has created a broad basis for the unification of all the peoples of this society. The border between the Rus and the Slav, the Finno-Ugric and the Slav, etc., disappeared. All of them were united by a common spiritual basis. Christianity gradually began to supplant pagan rites and traditions, and on this basis the humanization of society took place. A significant cultural upheaval was the introduction of a single script. The adoption of Christianity contributed to the formation of urban culture in a predominantly agricultural country. Under the influence of Christians, temple construction, book publishing, literature, history and philosophy developed.

On the basis of Christianization, a new type of statehood is emerging in Kievan Rus, which largely takes on a Byzantine form. A close relationship is being established between secular and ecclesiastical authorities, with the primacy of the former over the latter. In the first half of the XI century. ecclesiastical jurisdiction begins. Matters of marriage, divorce, family, some inheritance cases are transferred to the jurisdiction of the church. By the end of the XII century. the church began to supervise the service of weights and measures. A significant role is assigned to the church in international affairs related to the deepening of relations with Christian states and churches.

In general, thanks to the adoption of Christianity, Kievan Rus was included in the European Christendom, and therefore became an equal element of the European civilizational process. However, the adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox version had its negative consequences. Orthodoxy contributed to the isolation of Russia from Western European civilization. With the fall of Byzantium, the Russian state and the Russian Orthodox Church were, in fact, isolated from the rest of the Christian world. It is this circumstance that may partly explain the refusal of Western

Europe to come to the aid of Russia in its confrontation with the infidels (Tatar-Mongols, Turks and other conquerors).

The structure of the system of power. Kievan Rus was not a static society. Its political structure and economic relations underwent certain changes. At the first stage of its existence, Kievan Rus was relatively centralized state. It was headed by the prince of Kyiv, to whom the princes of the subject lands were subordinate. During the life of the prince-father, his sons sat as governors in the main cities and paid tribute. admitted in Russia tribal suzerainty. Power over the territory belonged to the entire ruling family of Rurikovich. Representatives of the ruling dynasty ruled part of the territory, that is, they co-ruled through the institution of communion. But this did not mean collective leadership, there should be a person who was the eldest - princeps - this is the Kyiv prince, that is, there was a principate system - eldership. Who became a principle? Elder in the family. Inheritance followed a straight descending male line. But this principle was often violated, which made the situation extremely confusing. This system continued until the end of the 11th century.

The Kyiv prince was a legislator, military leader, supreme judge and tax collector. Around the prince there was a squad that lived in the prince's court and shared tribute and military booty with its head. The feasts that the prince arranged in his courtyard were also a kind of remuneration for the squad.

There are two types of relations between power and subjects: vassal and subject. Vassal relations were established between the Kyiv prince and the retinue. The prince consulted with the combatants on all issues, otherwise he could lose their support. The most experienced, senior warriors made up the council (duma) and were called boyars. The younger warriors were called "lads" or "gridi". The boyars often acted as governors, while the youths became junior administrators. At first, the combatants replaced the general armament of the people, then they turned into an administrative-military layer, and later - into the estate of feudal lords. The princely retinue power was for the time being limited to elements of self-government, preserved from previous times. This "veche" - the people's assembly, "the elders of the city." These institutions were especially strong on the outskirts of the country.

Socio-economic relations. The formation of feudal relations in Russia proceeded on the whole according to the pan-European type: from state forms to seigneurial (patrimonial) ones. But unlike Western Europe, where the traditions of private property in antiquity led to the rapid growth of senior landownership, in Russia this process was much slower.

Until the middle of the tenth century the nature of socio-economic relations was determined by tributary relations. Method - collection of tribute during polyudya. On the basis of the collection of tribute, an institution arises feeding. Tribute entered the prince's treasury, then the prince redistributed part of the tribute among the combatants in the form of gifts, feasts. In addition to tribute, the treasury received various kinds of fines imposed in the form of punishment on offenders, as well as court fees.

Socio-economic relations also determined the social structure of ancient Russian society. We can judge the nature of this structure on the basis of studying the code of laws of that time - "Russian Truth", the first part of which was compiled on the initiative of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). According to Russkaya Pravda, there were two groups of the population in Kievan Rus: “people who served and those who did not serve,” “people who sat down as princes” and ordinary people. The former personally served the prince in the military, civil or economic field. The latter paid tribute to the prince, forming rural and urban tax societies. Among the princely husbands, the boyars stood out - the top of the nobility, and among the common people - smerds, purchases and ryadovichi.

The bulk of the population of the Old Russian state were free community members.(people) who lived in societies (rope). Rural societies were no longer tribal, but territorial, moreover, wealthy families often stood out from them. For a long time, communal people were confused with smerds. However, a different monetary fine was due for their murder, and besides, the smerds were closely connected with the prince. Apparently, it was a non-free or semi-free population, princely tributaries who sat on the ground and carried duties in favor of the prince.

Many articles in Russkaya Pravda are devoted to slaves known as servants or serfs. Most historians are inclined to believe that “servants” is a term of an earlier period, which is used along with the new name “serf”. The serfs were completely powerless - a serf who hit a free man could be killed with impunity. They did not have the right to testify in court, for their murder the owner was subjected only to church repentance.

In addition to serfs, Russkaya Pravda names purchases, ryadoviches and outcasts. A purchase is a bankrupt community member who has gone into debt bondage for a loan (kupa) taken and not repaid. The status of Ryadovich is not entirely clear, although the name comes from a certain agreement (row). An outcast is a person who has lost his social status (people who have broken with the community, serfs who have been set free). Ryadovichi and outcasts, as well as purchases, were subjected to corporal punishment, had no full rights in court and were not responsible for some crimes themselves (the owner paid a penalty for them).

2. Feudal fragmentation is a natural historical process. Western Europe and Kievan Rus during the period of feudal fragmentation

In the history of the early feudal states of Europe in the X-XII centuries. are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rules of law. "There is no land without a lord." The peasants found themselves for the most part in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords.

Having received a monopoly on land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to litigate and mint money, the maintenance of their own military force, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society is now taking shape, which has legal consolidation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which was inferior in size to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, had only formal suzerainty, and the big lords behaved completely independently. Thus began to take shape the foundations of feudal fragmentation.

It is known that on the territory that collapsed in the middle of the 9th century. In the empire of Charlemagne, three new states arose: French, German and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the base of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration embraced each of these new formations. So, in the territory of the French kingdom at the end of the 9th century. there were 29 possessions, and at the end of the tenth century. - about 50. But now they were for the most part not ethnic, but patrimonial seigneurial formations.

The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by the royal power to the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from the peasants and their lands. As a result of this, the feudal lord (secular or ecclesiastical), who received such an award, becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The private property of the feudal lords grew, they became economically stronger and sought greater independence from the king.

The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Duke of Normandy William the Conqueror. As a result, the country, moving towards feudal fragmentation, turned into a cohesive state with strong monarchical power. This is the only example on the European continent in this period.

The point was that the conquerors deprived many representatives of the former nobility of their possessions, carrying out mass confiscation of landed property. The king became the actual owner of the land, who transferred part of it as fiefs to his warriors and part of the local feudal lords who expressed their readiness to serve him. But these possessions were now in different parts of England. The only exceptions were a few counties, which were located on the outskirts of the country and were intended for the defense of the border areas. The dispersion of feudal estates (130 large vassals had land in 2-5 counties, 29 - in 6-10 counties, 12 - in 10-21 counties), their private return to the king served as an obstacle to turning the barons into independent landowners, as it was, for example, in France.

The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain originality. Until the 13th century it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then the process of internal political fragmentation begins to develop rapidly here, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state consolidation. The fact is that the German emperors, in order to maintain their power over dependent countries, needed the military assistance of the princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, if in other countries of Europe the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, then in Germany the process of legislative consolidation of the highest state rights for the princes developed. As a result, the imperial power gradually lost its positions and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords.

In addition, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the tenth century. cities (the result of the separation of craft from agriculture), did not develop, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and the cities. Therefore, the German cities were unable to play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And, finally, Germany has not formed, like England or France, a single economic center that could become the core of political unification. Each principality lived separately. As the princely power strengthened, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.

In Byzantium at the beginning of the XII century. the formation of the main institutions of feudal society was completed, a feudal estate was formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, presenting wide privileges to secular and church feudal lords, contributed to their transformation into all-powerful patrimonials, who had an apparatus of judicial and administrative power and armed squads. It was the payment of the emperors to the feudal lords for their support and service.

The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to the fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of the state, which did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve self-government, like Western European cities. The townspeople, subjected to cruel fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the positions of feudal lords in the cities, establishing their control over trade and marketing of their products, undermined the well-being of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became absolute masters in the cities.

Increasing tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin Empire and several other states were formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization of state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In its content, it was a natural and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, the expansion of the area of cultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of labor tools, the use of animal draft power and the transition to three-field cultivation, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be cultivated - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, and not make them themselves.

The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of handicraft production improved. The craftsman turned into a small commodity producer working for trade. Ultimately, these circumstances led to the separation of craft from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of crafts and trade.

As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably submitted to him. The townspeople, most of whom were mainly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of the townspeople to free themselves from such dependence led to a struggle between cities and lords for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the X-XIII centuries. went down in history under the name of "communal movement". All rights and privileges won or acquired for a ransom were recorded in the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities achieved self-government, became commune cities. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and court. The inhabitants of such cities in England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A fugitive peasant who lived in the cities of these countries for a year and one day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new estate appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its own status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in the countries of Western Europe. This became possible thanks to the strengthening of the central government, first in England, then in France.

The development of commodity-money relations and the involvement of the countryside in this process undermined the subsistence economy and created conditions for the development of the domestic market. The feudal lords, seeking to increase their incomes, began to transfer land to the peasants for hereditary holding, reduced the lord's plowing, encouraged internal colonization, willingly accepted fugitive peasants, settled uncultivated lands with them and provided them with personal freedom. The estates of the feudal lords were also drawn into market relations. These circumstances led to a change in the forms of feudal rent, the weakening, and then the complete elimination of personal feudal dependence. Quite quickly this process took place in England, France, Italy.

The development of social relations in Kievan Rus is probably following the same scenario. The onset of a period of feudal fragmentation fits into the framework of the all-European process. As in Western Europe, tendencies towards political fragmentation in Russia appeared early. Already in the tenth century after the death of Prince Vladimir in 1015, a struggle for power breaks out between his children. However, a single ancient Russian state existed until the death of Prince Mstislav (1132). Since that time, historical science has been counting down the feudal fragmentation in Russia.

What are the reasons for this phenomenon? What contributed to the fact that the unified state of the Rurikovich quickly disintegrated into many large and small principalities? There are many such reasons.

Let's highlight the most important of them.

The main reason is the change in the nature of relations between the Grand Duke and his warriors as a result of the settlement of warriors on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other requisitions. As the combatants received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that the income from military robbery booty is less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the XI century. the process of "settlement" of the squad on the ground intensified. And from the first half of the XII century. in Kievan Rus, the votchina becomes the predominant form of ownership, the owner of which could dispose of it at his own discretion. And although the possession of a fiefdom imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to perform military service, his economic dependence on the Grand Duke was significantly weakened. The incomes of the former feudal combatants no longer depended on the mercy of the prince. They made their own existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence also weakens.

A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Russia was played by the developing institution feudal immunity, providing for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the boundaries of his fiefdom. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and administered court. As a result, a state apparatus, a squad, courts, prisons, etc., are formed in independent principalities-patrimonies, and specific princes begin to dispose of communal lands, transfer them on their own behalf to boyars and monasteries. Thus, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. Of great importance in this process was the introduction of the institution of heredity on the earth and the people inhabiting it. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between the local principalities and Kyiv changed. Service dependence is being replaced by relations of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.

All these economic and political processes politically meant fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This disintegration, as it was in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: Vladimir-Suzdal principality (North-Eastern Rus), Galicia-Volyn principality (South-Western Rus) and Novgorod land (North-Western Rus). Both within these principalities and between them, fierce clashes took place for a long time, destructive wars that weakened the power of Russia, led to the destruction of cities and villages.

Foreign conquerors did not fail to take advantage of this circumstance. The uncoordinated actions of the Russian princes, the desire to achieve victory over the enemy at the expense of others, while maintaining their own army, the lack of a unified command led to the first defeat of the Russian army in the battle with the Tatar-Mongols on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223. Serious disagreements between the princes, which did not allow them to act as a united front in the face of the Tatar-Mongol aggression, led to the capture and destruction of Ryazan (1237). In February 1238, the Russian militia on the Sit River was defeated, Vladimir and Suzdal were captured. In October 1239, Chernigov was besieged and taken; in the fall of 1240, Kyiv was captured. Thus, from the beginning of the 40s. 13th century the period of Russian history begins, which is usually called the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted until the second half of the 15th century.

It should be noted that the Tatar-Mongols during this period did not carry out the occupation of Russian lands, since this territory was of little use for the economic activity of nomadic peoples. But this yoke was very real. Russia found itself in vassal dependence on the Tatar-Mongol khans. Each prince, including the Grand Duke, had to receive permission from the khan to rule the "table", the khan's label. The population of the Russian lands was subject to heavy tribute in favor of the Mongols, there were constant raids of the conquerors, which led to the devastation of the lands and the destruction of the population.

At the same time, a new dangerous enemy appeared on the northwestern borders of Russia - in 1240 the Swedes, and then in 1240-1242. German crusaders. It turned out that the Novgorod land had to defend its independence and its type of development under pressure from both the East and the West. The struggle for the independence of the Novgorod land was led by the young prince Alexander Yaroslavich. His tactics were based on the struggle against the Catholic West and concession to the East (Golden Horde). As a result, the Swedish troops that landed in July 1240 at the mouth of the Neva were defeated by the retinue of the Novgorod prince, who received the honorary nickname "Nevsky" for this victory.

Following the Swedes, German knights attacked the Novgorod land, which at the beginning of the 13th century. settled in the Baltics. In 1240 they captured Izborsk, then Pskov. Alexander Nevsky, who led the fight against the crusaders, managed to liberate Pskov in the winter of 1242, and then on the ice of Lake Peipsi in the famous battle on the ice (April 5, 1242) inflicted a decisive defeat on the German knights. After that, they no longer made serious attempts to seize Russian lands.

Thanks to the efforts of Alexander Nevsky and his descendants in the Novgorod land, despite the dependence on the Golden Horde, the traditions of Western orientation were preserved and the features of allegiance began to form.

However, in general, by the end of the XIII century. North-Eastern and Southern Russia fell under the influence of the Golden Horde, lost ties with the West and the previously established features of progressive development. It is difficult to overestimate the negative consequences that the Tatar-Mongol yoke had for Russia. Most historians agree that the Tatar-Mongol yoke significantly delayed the socio-economic, political and spiritual development of the Russian state, changed the nature of statehood, giving it the form of relations characteristic of the nomadic peoples of Asia.

It is known that in the fight against the Tatar-Mongols, the princely squads took the first blow. The vast majority of them died. Together with the old nobility, the traditions of vassal-druzhina relations left. Now, with the formation of the new nobility, the relationship of allegiance was established.

Relations between princes and cities changed. Veche (with the exception of the Novgorod land) has lost its significance. The prince in such conditions acted as the only protector and master.

Thus, Russian statehood begins to acquire the features of oriental despotism with its cruelty, arbitrariness, complete disregard for the people and the individual. As a result, a peculiar type of feudalism was formed in Russia, in which the “Asian element” is quite strongly represented. The formation of this peculiar type of feudalism was facilitated by the fact that, as a result of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Russia developed for 240 years in isolation from Europe.

Plan

1. Formation of the ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus (IX-XII centuries).

2. Concepts of the emergence of the ancient Russian state:

a) Norman theory;

b) the anti-Norman theory.

3. The formation of civilization in the Russian lands. states (XI-XV centuries).

4. Formation and rise of the Muscovite state (XIII-XV centuries).

Key concepts and terms: European Middle Ages, Old Russian state, Russia, Kievan Rus, tribes "ros" ("Rus"), Vikings (Varangians), tribute (polyudye), "lessons", places (graveyards), people's militia, rural community, veche, feudal patrimony , squad, communal peasants, cuts, purchases, serfs, codification of law, “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, feudal fragmentation, city-republic, posadnik, thousand, bishop, Mongol-Tatar yoke, Baskak, centralized state, estate, Sudebnik

1. Kievan Rus (IX-XII centuries)

Formation of the Old Russian state . One of the largest states of the European Middle Ages became in the IX-XII centuries. Kievan Rus. Unlike other Eastern and Western countries, the process of formation of Russian statehood had its own specific features. One of them is the spatial and geopolitical situation - the Russian state occupied a middle position between Europe and Asia and did not have pronounced, natural geographical boundaries within the vast plains. In the course of its formation, Russia acquired the features of both eastern and western state formations. In addition, the need for constant protection from external enemies of a large territory forced peoples with different types of development, religion, culture, language, etc. to rally, create a strong state power and have a significant people's militia.

Closest to the historical truth in the coverage of the initial phases of the development of Russia, apparently, was one of the early Russian historians, the monk chronicler Nestor. AT "Tales of Bygone Years" he presents the beginning of the formation of Kievan Rus as a creation in the VI century. powerful union of Slavic tribes in the middle Dnieper. This union took the name of one of the tribes "Ros", or "Rus". The unification of several dozen separate small forest-steppe Slavic tribes in the VIII-IX centuries. turns into a superethnos centered in Kyiv. Russia of this period was equal in area to the Byzantine Empire.

Further, the chronicler Nestor claims that the tribes of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi and Chud, who were at war with each other, invited the Varangian prince to restore order. Prince Rurik (? -879) allegedly arrived with the brothers Sineus and Truvor. He himself ruled in Novgorod, and his brothers in Beloozero and Izborsk. The Varangians laid the foundation for the grand ducal dynasty of Rurikovich. With the death of Rurik, under his young son Igor, the king (prince) Oleg (? -912), nicknamed the Prophet, becomes the guardian. After a successful campaign against Kyiv, he manages to unite the Novgorod and Kyiv lands in 882 into an ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus with the capital in Kyiv, according to the definition of the prince - "the mother of Russian cities."

The initial instability of the state association, the desire of the tribes to maintain their isolation sometimes had tragic consequences. So, Prince Igor (?-945) when collecting traditional tribute (polyudye) from subject lands, having demanded a significant excess of its size, he was killed. Duchess Olga , Igor's widow, having cruelly avenged her husband, nevertheless fixed the amount of tribute, setting "lessons", and determined the places (graveyards) and the timing of its collection. Their son Svyatoslav (942-972) combined state activity with significant military leadership. During his reign, he annexed the lands of the Vyatichi, defeated Volga Bulgaria, conquered the Mordovian tribes, defeated the Khazar Khaganate, conducted successful military operations in the North Caucasus and the Azov coast, repelled the onslaught of the Pechenegs, etc. But returning after a campaign against Byzantium, Svyatoslav's detachment was defeated by the Pechenegs , and Svyatoslav himself was killed.

The unifier of all the lands of the Eastern Slavs as part of Kievan Rus was the son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir (960-1015), nicknamed the “Red Sun” by the people, who built a number of border fortresses to strengthen the borders of the state from the raids of numerous nomads.

Norman theory . The narrative of the chronicler Nestor about the calling of the Varangians to the Russian land later found a rather contradictory interpretation by historians. The founders of the Norman theory are considered to be German historians. Gottlieb Bayer, Gererd Miller and August Schlozer. Being invited to Russia during the reign of Anna Ioannovna and the heyday of Bironovism, the authors of this "theory" and its supporters exaggerated the role of the Scandinavian warriors in the formation of statehood in Russia. It was this "theory" that was raised to the shield by the Nazis in order to justify the attack in 1941 on our Motherland and accuse Russia of being unable to develop independently.

But the state, as a product of internal development, cannot be introduced from outside. This is a long and complicated process. Appropriate conditions are necessary for the emergence of statehood, the awareness by the majority of members of society of the need to limit tribal power, property stratification, the emergence of tribal nobility, the emergence of Slavic squads, etc. Of course, the very fact of attracting the Varangian princes and their squads to the service of the Slavic princes is beyond doubt. The relationship between the Varangians (Normans - from the Scandinavian “man of the north”) and Russia is also indisputable. The invited leaders of the Rurik mercenary (allied) rati in the future, obviously, acquired the functions of arbitrators, and sometimes civil power. The subsequent attempt of the chronicler in support of the ruling dynasty of Rurikovich to show its peaceful, and not predatory, violent origins is quite understandable and understandable. However, rather controversial, in our opinion, is the “argument” of the Normans that the Varangian king Rurik was invited with the brothers Sineus and Truvor, the fact of whose existence history does not report anything else. Meanwhile, the phrase “Rurik came with relatives and squad” in Old Swedish sounds like this: “Rurik came with sine hus (his family) and true thief” (loyal squad).

In turn, the extreme anti-Norman point of view proving the absolute originality of the Slavic statehood, the denial of the role of Scandinavians (Varangians) in political processes contradicts known facts. The mixing of clans and tribes, overcoming former isolation, establishing regular relations with near and distant neighbors, and finally, the ethnic unification of North Russian and South Russian tribes (all these) are characteristic features of the advancement of Slavic society towards the state. Developing similarly to Western Europe, Russia simultaneously approached the boundary of the formation of a large early medieval state. And the Vikings (Varangians), as in Western Europe, stimulated this process.

social order . Gradually, in Kievan Rus, a state governance structure developed, at first, in many respects similar to the Western institution of vassalage, which included the concept of freedom, granting autonomy to vassals. So, the boyars - the highest stratum of society - were vassals of the prince and were obliged to serve in his army. At the same time, they remained full masters of their land and had lesser vassals. The Grand Duke ruled the territory with the help of a council (Boyar Duma), which included senior warriors - the local nobility, representatives of cities, and sometimes the clergy. At the Council, as an advisory body under the prince, the most important state issues were resolved: the election of the prince, the declaration of war and peace, the conclusion of treaties, the issuance of laws, the consideration of a number of judicial and financial cases, etc. The Boyar Duma symbolized the rights and autonomy of vassals and had the right to "veto". The younger squad, which included boyar children and youths, yard servants, as a rule, was not included in the Prince's Council. But in resolving the most important tactical issues, the prince usually consulted with the squad as a whole. With the participation of princes, noble boyars and representatives of cities, feudal congresses also met, at which issues affecting the interests of all principalities were considered. A management apparatus was formed that was in charge of legal proceedings, the collection of duties and tariffs.

The main cell of the social structure of Russia was the community - a closed social system, recognized to organize all types of human activity - labor, ritual, cultural. Being multifunctional, it relied on the principles of collectivism and leveling, was the collective owner of the land and lands. The community organized its internal life on the principles of direct democracy (election, collective decision-making) - a kind of veche ideal. In fact, the state structure was based on an agreement between the prince and the people's assembly (veche). The composition of the veche is democratic . The entire adult male population with noisy approval or objection made the most important decisions on issues of war and peace, disposed of the princely table (throne), financial and land resources, authorized collections of money, discussed legislation, removed the administration.

An important feature of Kievan Rus , which has developed as a result of constant danger, especially from the steppe nomads, has become general arming of the people , organized by decimal system (hundreds, thousands). In urban centers there were thousands - the leaders of the military city militia. It was the numerous people's militia that often decided the outcome of battles. And it was not subordinate to the prince, but to the veche. But as a practical democratic institution, it was already in the 11th century. began to gradually lose its dominant role, retaining its strength for several centuries only in Novgorod, Kyiv, Pskov and other cities, continuing to exert a noticeable influence on the course of the socio-political life of the Russian land.

Economic life. The main economic occupations of the Slavs were agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, fishing, and crafts. Byzantine sources characterize the Slavs as tall, bright, settled people, as they "build houses, wear shields and fight on foot."

A new level of development of the productive forces, the transition to arable, settled and mass agriculture, with the formation of relations of personal, economic and land dependence, gave the new production relations a feudal character. Gradually, the slash-and-slash system of agriculture is replaced by two and three fields, which leads to the seizure of communal lands by strong people - the process of stripping the land is taking place.

By the X-XII centuries. in Kievan Rus, a large private landownership is taking shape. The feudal patrimony (patrimony, i.e. paternal possession) becomes a form of land ownership, not only alienable (with the right to buy and sell, donate), but also inherited. The patrimony could be princely, boyar, monastic, church. The peasants living on it not only paid tribute to the state, but became land dependent on the feudal lord (boyar), paying him rent in kind for using the land or working off corvée. However, a significant number of residents were still independent peasants-communes, who paid tribute in favor of the state to the Grand Duke.

The key to understanding the socio-economic structure of the ancient Russian state can largely be polyudie - the collection of tribute from the entire free population (“people”), chronologically covering the end of the 8th - the first half of the 10th century, and locally until the 12th century. It was in fact the most naked form of domination and submission, the exercise of the supreme right to land, the establishment of the concept of citizenship.

Features of the socio-economic system Kievan Rus are reflected in "Russian Truth" - the true code of ancient Russian feudal law. Striking with a high level of lawmaking, developed for its time by the legal culture, this document was valid until the 15th century. and consisted of separate norms of the “Law of the Russian”, “The Ancient Truth” or “The Truth of Yaroslav”, Supplement to the “Truth of Yaroslav” (regulations on the collectors of court fines, etc.), “Pravda of the Yaroslavichs” (“The Truth of the Russian Land”, approved by the sons Yaroslav the Wise), the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, which included the "Charter on cuts" (percentage), "Charter on purchases", etc.; "Spread Truth".

The main trend in the evolution of "Russian Pravda" there was a gradual expansion of legal norms from the princely law to the environment of the squad, the definition of fines for various crimes against the person, a colorful description of the city to attempts to codify the norms of the early feudal law that had developed by that time, covering every inhabitant of the state from princely warriors and servants, feudal lords, free rural community members and townspeople to serfs, servants and those who did not own property and were in the full possession of their master, the actual slaves. The degree of lack of freedom was determined by the economic situation of the peasant: smerdy, ryadovichi, purchasers-farmers, for one reason or another, fell into partial dependence on the feudal lords, worked out a significant part of the time on the patrimonial lands.

Kievan Rus was famous for its cities. It is no coincidence that foreigners called her Gardarikoy - the country of cities . At first they were fortresses, political centers. Overgrown with new settlements, they became the center of handicraft production and trade. Even before the formation of Kievan Rus, the city Kyiv, Novgorod, Beloozero, Izborsk, Smolensk, Lyubech, Pereyaslavl, Chernihiv and others developed on the most important water trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." In the XXI century. a new generation of political and trade and craft centers is being created: Ladoga, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Murom, etc.

In Kievan Rus, more than 60 types of crafts were developed (carpentry, pottery, linen, leather, blacksmithing, weapons, jewelry, etc.). The products of artisans sometimes diverged for tens and hundreds of kilometers around the city and abroad. Cities also took over the functions of trade and exchange. In the largest of them (Kyiv, Novgorod) there was a wide and regular trade in rich and extensive bazaars, both out-of-town and foreign merchants permanently lived. Foreign economic ties acquired particular importance in the economic life of Kievan Rus. Russian merchants "ruzariy" were well known abroad, they were provided with significant benefits and privileges: treaties 907, 911, 944, 971. with Byzantium, etc. Among the five most important main trade routes Constantinople-Byzantine, Trans-Caspian-Baghdad, Bulgarian, Reginsburg and Novgorod-Scandinavian the first two were the most important.

It is interesting that the internal trade in Russia, especially in the 19th century, was predominantly "exchange" character . Then, along with the exchange, the monetary form appears. Initially, cattle (leather money) and furs (kuns - marten fur) acted as money. Russkaya Pravda also mentions metallic money. The hryvnia kun (oblong silver ingot) served as the main counting metal monetary unit. The hryvnia kuna was subdivided into 20 nogat, 25 kuna, 50 rezan, etc. Having existed on the ancient Russian market until the 14th century, this monetary unit was replaced by the ruble. The minting of its own coin in Russia began in the 21st century. Along with it, foreign coins also circulated. The political and socio-economic life of the Slavs of the ancient Russian state was supplemented by spiritual life.

Christianization of Russia. With the formation and development of the ancient Russian state, the formation of a single Russian people, paganism, with its many deities in each tribe, the traditions of the tribal system and blood feud, human sacrifice, etc., ceased to meet the new conditions of social life. Undertaken Prince Vladimir of Kyiv I (980-1015), at the beginning of his reign, attempts to somewhat streamline the rites, raise the authority of paganism, turn it into a single state religion were unsuccessful. Paganism has lost its former naturalness and attractiveness in the perception of a person who has overcome tribal narrowness and limitation.

Neighbors of Russia – Volga Bulgaria who professed Islam Khazar Khaganate who converted to Judaism Catholic West and the center of Orthodoxy - Byzantium tried to gain common faith in the face of the rapidly gaining strength of the Russian state. And Vladimir I, at a special Council in Kyiv, after listening to ambassadors from neighbors, decided to send Russian embassies to all lands to get acquainted with all religions and choose the best. As a result, Orthodox Christianity was chosen, which impressed the Russians with the splendor of the decoration of cathedrals, the beauty and solemnity of services, the grandeur and nobility of the Orthodox Christian idea - a kind of idyll of forgiveness and unselfishness.

The first reliable information about the penetration of Christianity into Russia dates back to the 11th century. Christians were among the combatants of Prince Igor, Princess Olga was a Christian, who was baptized in Constantinople and encouraged her son Svyatoslav to do this. In Kyiv there was a Christian community and the church of St. Elijah. In addition, long-standing trade, cultural and even dynastic ties (Vladimir the Red Sun himself was married to the sister of the Byzantine emperors Anna) of Kievan Rus and Byzantium played an important role in this choice. By the way, the close family relations of the ruling dynasties, in turn, excluded the vassal dependence of the young Russian state on the Byzantine center of Christianity.

Prince Vladimir of Kyiv, who was baptized in 988, began vigorously to establish Christianity on a national scale. By his order, the inhabitants of Kyiv were baptized in the Dnieper. On the advice of Christian priests, mostly immigrants from Bulgaria and Byzantium, the children of the "best people" were handed over to the clergy for literacy, Christian dogmas and upbringing in the Christian spirit. Similar actions were carried out in other lands. In the north of the country, where pagan traditions remained strong, attempts at baptism sometimes met with difficulties and led to uprisings. So, to conquer the Novgorodians, even a military expedition of the people of Kiev, led by the uncle of the Grand Duke Dobrynya, was required. And for a number of subsequent decades and even centuries, dual faith existed in rural areas - a kind of combination of previous ideas about the world of the supernatural, pagan mounds, violent holidays of native antiquity with elements of the Christian worldview, worldview.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the further development of the ancient Russian state. It ideologically consolidated the unity of the country. Conditions were created for the full cooperation of the tribes of the East European Plain in the political, commercial, cultural fields with other Christian tribes and nationalities on the basis of common spiritual and moral principles. Baptism in Russia created new forms of inner life and interaction with the outside world, tore Russia away from paganism and the Mohammedan East, bringing it closer to the Christian West.

Christianity in Russia was adopted in the eastern, Byzantine version, later called - Orthodoxy, i.e. true faith . Russian Orthodoxy oriented a person towards spiritual transformation. However, Orthodoxy did not provide incentives for social progress, for the transformation of people's real lives. In the future, such an understanding of the goals of life began to diverge from the European-type attitude to transformative activity, and began to slow down development.

The formation of civilization in the Russian lands (XI-XV centuries)

Feudal fragmentation . Russia majestic and vast still remained unstable public entity . State unity was maintained to a large extent by the military power of the Kievan princes. The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia is an inevitable step in the evolution of feudal society, the economic basis of which is a subsistence economy with its isolation and isolation. The strengthening of the feudal aristocracy in Novgorod, Rostov, Ryazan and other lands led to a struggle for independence. Economic development, the growth of cities were also accompanied by a desire for independence. Already in the middle of the XI century. in ancient Russia, signs of the fragmentation of the state began to be more and more clearly revealed, and by the end of the century its disintegration began. Vladimir the Red Sun distributed allotments in different lands to his 12 sons. Other princes did the same. After his death, a time of strife, conflicts, rivalry came.

As a result of this tough struggle, in 1019 the great prince of Kyiv became Yaroslav (c. 978-1054), later named Wise . Under him, Kievan Rus reached the peak of its power, and secured itself from the raids of the Pechenegs. During the years of his reign, a grandiose 13-domed St. Sophia Cathedral , which had a pronounced stepped-pyramidal composition, which differed from the Byzantine architectural tradition, the Pechersky Monastery was founded. Widely held literacy, correspondence and translation of books from Greek into Russian, in St. Sophia Cathedral was arranged book depository.

The compilation of "Russian Truth" is associated with the name of Yaroslav. Under him, for the first time in 1051, not a Byzantine, but a Russian statesman and writer Hilarion became the Metropolitan of Kyiv.

O wide international recognition of the Russian state The period of Yaroslav the Wise and his descendants is also evidenced by the extensive dynastic ties between the Kievan and European ruling houses. So, Yaroslav himself was married to a Swedish princess, daughter Anna was married to the French king, daughter Elizabeth was married to the Hungarian king, the third daughter Anastasia was the wife of the Norwegian king. His son Vsevolod became the son-in-law of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh. Therefore, the grandson Vladimir receives the nickname Monomakh. Yaroslav's sister married the Polish king, and her granddaughter married the German emperor. Before his death, Yaroslav, urging his sons to live peacefully, divides the state between his five sons in the hope that now not one person, but the entire princely family will rule the state. But the strife did not subside, each of the sons sought to take possession of the Kyiv principality, many sovereign lands arose - principalities. Their number grew: by the middle of the XII century. - 15, by the beginning of the 13th century. - about 50 now.

AT period of feudal fragmentation local princes showed great concern for the well-being, cultural and economic development of their lands: new cities appeared, handicraft and trade grew noticeably, estates left by inheritance, the areas of cultivated land expanded, methods of its processing were improved. So, if in the XI century. written sources include 60 new cities, then in the XII century. - over 130.

And yet such rapid growth lasted until the normal, natural development was not affected by the factor of external conquest. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the country's overall military potential was extremely weakened. The intensity of international trade has significantly decreased. But the main thing is that the constant strife and the increasing fragmentation of possessions made it easier for foreigners to conquer Russian lands.

The Union of Yaroslavichs, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, breaks up in the course of princely civil strife and popular unrest. At the initiative of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125) at the Lyubech Congress at the end of the 11th century. (1097) the complete independence of local feudal centers was even recognized: "... each maintains his own patrimony." Since that time, the Russian land has ceased to be the total possession of a whole family. The possessions of each fiefdom became hereditary property.

Vladimir Monomakh tried to maintain and strengthen the international authority of Russia. Under him, the “Charter of Vladimir Monomakh” was published, which improved the legal status of the merchants, streamlined the collection of interest by usurers, regulated the entry into servility and the institute of purchasing . During his reign, the initial Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled. The crown of Russian tsars was introduced in Russia - the cap of Monomakh. The son of Vladimir Monomakh - Mstislav (1076-1132) was able to maintain the unity of the Russian lands for some time. But then the country finally broke up into a dozen and a half principalities-states. In the second half of the XII century. Russia turns into a kind of federation of principalities, headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, whose power was weakening more and more. The period of feudal fragmentation lasted from the 30s. 12th century until the end of the 15th century.

The main princely lands. The most significant in the territory of Kievan Rus, not inferior to the large European states in terms of occupied territory, were south-west - Galicia-Volyn, in the north-west - Novgorod, in the north-east - Vladimir-Suzdal lands .

The history of the rise of the Galician principality is associated with the name Yaroslav Osmomysl , so named for the knowledge of eight foreign languages. Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich (? -1205) carried out the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities (1199), captured Kyiv, forming one of the largest states in Europe. His son Daniel (1201-1264), after a long and fierce struggle for the throne, unites southwestern Russia and the Kyiv land, becoming one of the most powerful Russian princes.

Galicia-Volyn principality , distinguished by very favorable natural and climatic conditions, wealth, crowdedness and beauty of cities (Galych, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kholm, Berestye (Brest), Lvov, Przemysl, etc.), crossed by the most important trade routes of pan-European significance, turned out to be very tempting for the invaders. First, the Mongol-Tatars, then the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Volhynia) and Poland (Galych) deprived these lands of their independence.

The largest center of Russian Slavs was in the northwest Novgorod . Developing relatively independently, it was distinguished by its closeness to the European type of development. It was very favorable for the fate of Novgorod that he was not subjected to strong Tatar-Mongol plunder, although he paid tribute. In the struggle for the independence of Novgorod, Prince Alexander Nevskiy (1220-1263), who not only repelled the onslaught of the German-Swedish aggression (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice - 40s of the XIII century), but showed a flexible policy, making concessions to the Golden Horde and organizing resistance to the offensive of Catholicism from the West .

The development of the Novgorod Republic (the end of the 195th century) was carried out, perhaps, similarly to the city-republics of the Hanseatic League, as well as the city-republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence). She possessed a huge land fund and the richest crafts. Favorable position at the crossroads of trade routes Western Europe - Russia-East-Byzantium. Remoteness from the raids of nomads, etc. All this allowed the strong, wealthy, corporate united boyars to avoid a monarchical form of government, to establish a feudal boyar republic. The actual power belonged to the boyars, the higher clergy and eminent merchants. All the highest executive bodies - posadniks (head of government), thousand (head of the city militia and judge for commercial affairs), bishop (head of the church, manager of the treasury, controlled the external relations of Veliky Novgorod), etc. were replenished from the boyar nobility. However, senior officials were elected. So, for example, in the second half of the XII century. Novgorodians, like no other in the Russian lands, began to choose their own spiritual shepherd - the bishop (archbishop of Novgorod), which brings the republic closer to the Protestant tradition. On this land, perhaps earlier than in Europe, reformist tendencies appeared in relation to the church, anticipating the European reformation, and even atheistic moods. The position of the prince was also peculiar. He did not have full state power, did not inherit Novgorod land, but was invited only to perform representative and military functions (professional warrior, head of the squad). Any attempt by the prince to interfere in internal affairs inevitably ended in his expulsion: over 200 years, there were 58 princes.

And yet, the rights of the highest authority belonged to the people's assembly - the veche, which had broad powers: considering the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy, inviting the prince and concluding an agreement with him, electing a trade policy so important for Novgorod, a posadnik, a commercial court, etc.

In the northeast of Russia, a large and independent Vladimir-Suzdal (first called Rostov-Suzdal) principality . Remoteness from the steppe nomads in the south, landscape obstacles for easy penetration of the Varangians from the north, possession of the upper reaches of the water arteries (Volga, Oka), through which rich Novgorod merchant caravans passed, significant immigration from the south, developed since the 11th century. a network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.), etc., made this principality rich and powerful. In addition, the principality was headed by very energetic and ambitious princes.

The names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Yuri Dolgoruky (1090-1157) are associated with the formation and development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, who were distinguished by their desire to expand their territory and subjugate Kyiv. In addition to Moscow, built by him on the site of the boyar estate and first mentioned in the annals in 1147, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Pereyaslavl, Kostroma and others were created or strengthened under him. In turn, the share of the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh Andrey Bogolyubsky (1111-1174), nicknamed so for a significant reliance on the church in the struggle for power, the unification of Russian lands and the transfer of the center of all Russian political life from the rich boyar Rostov, first to a small town, and then with unprecedented splendor built up Vladimir-on- Klyazma.

The policy of Andrei, who died as a result of the boyar conspiracy, was continued by his brother Vsevolod Big Nest , nicknamed so for his large family. Under him, there was a significant strengthening of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which became the strongest in Russia and one of the largest feudal states in Europe, the core of the future Muscovite state, which again gathered Russia in the 15th century. Vsevolod influenced the politics of Novgorod, received a rich inheritance in the Kiev region. Almost completely disposed of the Ryazan principality, etc. Having completed the fight against the boyars, he finally established a monarchy in the principality. By this time, the nobility was increasingly becoming the backbone of princely power. It was made up of servants, military men, householders, servants, dependent on the prince and receiving land from him for temporary possession (estate), monetary payment in kind, or the right to collect princely income. The economic rise of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued for some time under the sons of Vsevolod. However, this process was interrupted in 1238 by the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

It should be noted that Europe also did not escape the collapse of the early medieval states, fragmentation and local wars. Then the process of formation of secular nation-states, which still exist, was developed here. Perhaps, Ancient Russia, having gone through a period of disintegration, could come to a similar result. And here a national state could form, a single people could form. But that did not happen. And although, as in Europe, the 13th century became a turning point in the history of Russia, for Europe it was the time of the beginning of active advancement along the path of a progressive type of development, but for our state the fate turned out to be different.

The fight against the Mongol-Tatar conquerors . Political fragmentation, constant princely strife facilitated the implementation of large-scale plans of the Mongolotatars, begun by the leader of the Mongol tribes, Prince Temuchin (Temujin), named Genghis Khan (Great Khan) - the rulers of the world (c. 1155-1227). The Mongols attacked Northern China, conquered Siberia, invaded Khorezm, Northern Iran and other lands and began to move towards the Russian lands. Genghis Khan proved to be not only a skilled and cruel commander, but also an outstanding ruler.

The Mongols led a nomadic lifestyle, had an unprecedented cavalry army with excellent organization and iron discipline, with a single command. Well-armed with bows and sharp sabers, wearing helmets and cuirass of sealskin, moving easily on fast horses, they were almost invulnerable to arrows. Even the highest Chinese military equipment for that time was used.

Already in first major collision in the Azov steppes on the river Kalke (1223) the combined Russian forces and the Polovtsy could not resist the Mongols, clearly organized and welded into a single whole, where every ten was bound by mutual responsibility (everyone was punished for the fault of one). In addition, serious disagreements between the Russian princes came to light; there was no support from the powerful princes of Kyiv and Vladimir. For the first time, Russia suffered such heavy damage - nine-tenths of the combined forces were killed, but the Tatar-Mongols were exhausted, they could not move forward and turned back.

In 1237, having returned from the steppes under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson Batu (1208-1255), the conquerors crossed the Volga and invaded Russia. Ryazan, Vladimir, Suzdal, Moscow were plundered and burned, the southern Russian lands (Chernigov, Kyiv, Galicia-Volyn, etc.) were devastated. During February 1238, 14 Russian cities were destroyed. In 1241, the Mongols also invaded Europe, devastating Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, the Balkans, and reached the borders of Italy and Germany. But, having lost significant forces on Russian soil, not daring to leave the Russians in the rear, Batu returned to the Volga region, where he formed the powerful Golden Horde (1242).

The defenders of the Russian fatherland put up unprecedented, heroic, selfless and stubborn resistance. However disparate forces, the lack of a unified command, insufficiently strong fortifications of cities, the militia, which constitutes the bulk of the Russian army and consists of urban and rural workers, inferior in numbers, weapons, and fighting qualities and skills to warlike nomads, all this caused a terrible disaster for Russia. The damage inflicted by the Golden Horde was colossal: dozens of destroyed cities, many people destroyed or driven into slavery, a significant Horde exit (an annual tribute to the Horde), which was collected by military detachments led by the Baskaks according to a specially conducted census, interrupted ties with Europe, etc. d. Nevertheless, the scattered, depopulated, decaying Russian land not only retained its statehood, but, as rightly noted A.S. Pushkin, "... torn to pieces and drained of blood, stopped the Mongol-Tatar invasion on the edge of Europe", saved European civilization.

Severe trials could not but affect the future of Russia. Perhaps it was the 250-year-old Mongol-Tatar yoke that determined that "Asian beginning", which then turned into heavy serfdom and fierce autocracy for Russia. In fact, the Mongol-Tatars broke the Russian historical fate and stimulated another.

Formation and rise of the Muscovite state (XIII-XV centuries)

Features of occurrence Moscow state. The Mongol-Tatar yoke bled the Russian land. It weakened it not only economically, it also slowed down political life. Under conditions of economic development slowed to the limit, it was rather difficult to overcome feudal fragmentation and achieve the formation of a national state similar to its Western counterpart. The character of Russian history began to differ more and more noticeably from that of Europe. In Russia, to create a strong unified state, a huge centralization of power was required, which was acquiring more and more despotic, cruel features. Almost the entire population of the country was involved in the formation of serf relations.

By the end of the XIII century. The devastated Russian land was made up of dozens of specific principalities, which continued to be fragmented with each new generation of princes. There was a fierce struggle between the princes for the grand princely throne of Vladimir, who sought to receive a label (letter) for reigning from the Horde Khan. A particularly sharp rivalry flared up between the descendants of Alexander Nevsky - princes of Tver and Moscow appanages. Grandson of Alexander Nevsky, Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita (purse for money) (? -1341), managed to eliminate the opponent, not without the help of the Horde. Tver was burned, and the principality was ruined. Having abandoned the Basque (Baskak - Mongol tribute collector), the Horde now entrusted its collection to the Moscow prince.

So, the great reign of Vladimir finally passed to the Moscow princes. Hiding part of the "Horde exit", Ivan Kalita, and then his successor sons, significantly increased the power of their principality. They also expanded its territory, where by buying, and where by seizing land by force. Feeling confident in his abilities, the grandson of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich (1350-1389), nicknamed Donskoy, at the head of the Russian army in 1380 on the Kulikovo field at the confluence of the Nepryadva River with the Don, defeated the Horde of Mamai (? -1380 ). After this defeat, Mamai hoped to assemble a new army for a campaign against Russia. But upon returning to the Horde, he was overthrown, fled to the Crimea and was killed there. The victory of the Russians on the Kulikovo field was a serious beginning of the expulsion of the Mongol-Tatars.

Formation of the Moscow centralized state . The process of collecting lands and strengthening their power, begun by the first Moscow princes, continued actively. And after many years of hard struggle between the princes, Moscow irreversibly turns into the political center of the fragmented Russian lands, into the capital of an emerging powerful state, the size of which shook the imagination of contemporaries.

Ivan III (1440-1505) annexes Novgorod (1478), canceling the veche and installing his governor. This was followed by the particularly important politically Tver land and Vyatka. The cautious and prudent politician Ivan III managed to complete the expulsion of the Horde by a long "standing" on the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). And in November 1480 the Horde yoke ended. Ivan III was faced with the task of uniting the Russian lands around Moscow and centralizing the grand duke's power.

Along with the expansion of territory and the struggle for independence, the Moscow princes set themselves the task of strengthening the economy, creating a strong system of government and a large army. During this period, they expand the practice of granting estates to their service people. Unlike estates, these lands remained state property and were given for temporary use only for the period of service, especially military. Under Ivan III, the Sudebnik was adopted (1497), which marked the beginning of the attachment of peasants to the land. Now the peasant could move from one landowner to another only once a year (a week before and a week after St. George's Day - November 26), subject to payment of the elderly - compensation to the landowner for the loss of labor.

The system of central government is beginning to develop. It included the treasury (financial, foreign policy and other national affairs), palaces (management from the center of the newly annexed lands), governors (appointed from the center of the rulers of the districts), etc. The Moscow princes took measures to strengthen their power. All aspects of public life were subject to a specially designed solemn ritual.

The long process of gathering the fragmented Russian lands into a single state was coming to an end. Ivan III took the title of Grand Duke of All Russia. He had the seal of the great sovereign, on one side of which was depicted a double-headed eagle, on the other a rider fighting a dragon, and an inscription around: "John, by the grace of God, ruler of all Russia." Moscow became the center of a large Russian centralized state. It is declared the successor of Byzantium and the center of Orthodoxy. The idea of the union of princely power with the Christian world was embodied in philosophy: “Moscow is the third Rome”.

Thus, Kievan Rus (IX-XII centuries) - a society of military democracy, a country of trade and cities - was most actively involved in European affairs. This is essentially an early medieval society in which personally free people were the predominant social category.

However, from the middle of the XII century. centrifugal forces intensified here, which led to the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus: it broke up into a dozen and a half independent principalities. This factor led to the weakening of the defensive power of the state, Russia was invaded by foreign conquerors (Swedes, Lithuanians, Germans) and at the beginning of the 13th century. was enslaved by the Golden Horde.

The long Mongol-Tatar yoke pushed back Russia, delayed its development for 2-3 centuries, and possibly caused the Eurasian Russianness. In the second half of the XIII-XIV centuries. Moscow princes began the process of collecting lands and strengthening their power, which took place in difficult conditions of confrontation with the Golden Horde, as well as overcoming the separatism of the specific princes. It was accompanied by the promotion of a new estate to the historical arena of Russia - the military-service nobility (landlords) as a social support of the grand duke's power and the approval of the local system of land tenure. This process ended with the formation at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. a powerful state that demanded a rigid centralization of power. The progressive process of the formation of a unified state was accompanied by the gradual enslavement of the peasants in the legislative order.

The Slavic ethnic group is considered young. long before its appearance on the planet, many states, civilizations, cultures were formed, flourished and perished. Among the most ancient is the native culture of Egypt and the culture of the Mayan peoples (4 thousand BC), the culture of the island of Crete, and the culture of the pre-Aryan civilization in the region of the Indus River (3 thousand BC).

Among the most ancient states is the Sumerian state (3 thousand BC) Babylon, Shan Yin, the Egyptian kingdom (2 thousand BC). Greek and Roman civilization (1000 BC - 1000 AD) is considered to be the original peaks of the originality of antiquity.

Scientists are still arguing about the origin of the Slavs, a variety of concepts and theories are being discussed.

I. Migration theories - supporters of these theories believe that the Slavs were born in the era of the great migration of peoples and, as a result of complex migration processes, managed to gain a foothold on the territory of the Danube River (the former Roman province of Noricum)

II. Autochthonous - i.e. theories local The origin of the Slavs, the birthplace of the Slavic ethnic group is called the land east of the Elba River, west of the Dnieper River, south of the Pripyat River, north of the Ross River.

Most scientists believe that the 6th century AD became a turning point in the history of the Slavs. it was at this time that the Slavic massif began into 4 categories into the Slavs of the northern and southern, western and eastern. The Eastern Slavs managed to gain a foothold in the area of the Dnieper River and gradually extended their influence to the Baltic and Black Seas. 7-8 in the AD began the process of formation of the basic prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

State is a system of various institutions designed to ensure the survival, existence and development of a community of people living in the same territory.

Causes of the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

I. a sharp aggravation of social contradictions within the East Slavic tribes. Largely associated with the beginning of the technical revolution (active use of iron tools)

II. the need to ensure the security of the territory that the Eastern Slavs already considered their own. (The main threat comes from the east, the Khazar Khaganate), (South - Byzantine Empire), (West - Bulgarian state, Hungarian, Polish, etc.), (North - Varangians)

III. the need to ensure the coexistence of the Eastern Slavs with the tribes of other ethnic groups living on the territory of the East European Plain.

In the history of the formation of the ancient Russian state, there are several reference points.

862 - the leader of the hired Varangian squad Rurik established control over the situation in Novgorod.

882 – Oleg united the lands of Novgorod and Kyiv under his rule.

911 - one of the first Russian-Byzantine treaties.

988 - Baptism of Russia Vladimir 1

1019-1054 the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the heyday of the state.

1097 congress of princes in Lyubyach (each keeps his own fatherland)

1113-1125 - reign of Vladimir Monomakh.

Characteristic features of the ancient Russian state

1) a weak state apparatus. Its functions were not clearly defined, the prestige among the population was not very high, it was not very numerous. The basis of the state apparatus was the family of the Grand Duke and his retinue (about 1000 people), while the number of all-Russian militia, which gathered for military campaigns, reached 50,000 people.

2) a very complex social structure of the population, a motley ethnic composition. By the 10th century, the total population of the state was about 4.5 mil people who belonged to a wide variety of ethnic groups.

3) Christianity as dominant state religion.

4) the rapid emergence of written laws. 11 in Russkaya Pravda 3, the main editions are short, lengthy, abbreviated over a hundred lists.

5) a high level of cultural development. Culture is a system of material and spiritual values created by man. Most of the achievements of ancient Russian culture are in one way or another connected with the Russian Orthodox Church (tithe church, St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod)

P.S. scientists note the very low standard of living of the majority of the inhabitants of the ancient Russian state; short life expectancy, a young man from 14 was considered an absolutely adult, and girls of 12 years old were marriageable.

At 17, Fristophorus Zillarius, a professor at the Gallic University, proposed dividing world history into antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. Disputes about when the Middle Ages began in European countries have been going on for many years and are far from over (395 - division of the Roman Empire into western and eastern. 476 - abdication of Romulus Augustulus. Id.)

Today, the term Middle Ages or the Middle Ages is understood as a special historical era in the development of European states. This era implies a number of essential features in the life of these states.

A) a feudal system of land tenure. (with such a system, land owners, feudal lords or seigneurs, provide their vassals with land holdings (feuds) for service, serfs work on these allotments, who pay dues or work out the master)

B) the system of vassalage. (This is a system of special hierarchical relations between feudal lords based on the principle of personal dependence.)

C) the dominance of the church in the cultural and political life of the state.

D) the ideals of monasticism and chivalry.

The history of the Russian Middle Ages, most scholars begin with the era of feudal fragmentation, the reasons for the onset of which there are different points of view, among the main reasons for feudal fragmentation in Russia are usually called.

I. The development of the system of feudal land tenure. (already by 10 the exploitation of dependent peasants had become more profitable L than the traditional collection of tribute and duties) = fiefdoms are becoming a mass phenomenon. The owners of the estates were interested in creating a strong local government L, able to quickly and effectively protect from the interest. (What are the interests)

II. The rapid growth of cities. 10 in the sources record 25 large Russian cities that have become the centers of political, cultural, economic life, having accumulated great wealth, the cities began to interfere in the relationship of the princes, violating the traditional procedure for the transfer of power.

III. The weakening of the pressure of the nomads in the east, which coincided with the growing pressure on the Russian lands from the west.

IV. The crisis of the control system (the process of constant expansion of the territories of the ancient Russian state by the end of the 10th century led to its logical result, the Grand Duke of Kyiv lost the ability to control the situation throughout the state) (weak information flows); weak transport communications;

V. The crisis of the norms of ancient Slavic ethics (the fall of morality).

The first turmoil began in 972 (after the death of Grand Duke Svyatoslav) Yaropol and Vladimir.

1016- after the death of Vladimir, Svyatopolk and Yaroslav, Boris, Gleb.

1073 after the death of Yaroslav the Wise.

1093 - after the death of Vsevolod.

By the middle of the 12th century, 15 independent principalities already existed on the territory of the former Old Russian state, in the 13th century there were about 50. In the 14th century there were 250. But simultaneously with the processes of disintegration in the 12th-13th centuries, the processes of unification of Russian lands were going on. The new centers of the new Russian statehood were the Galicia-Volyn principality, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, and Novgorod land.

Consequences of feudal fragmentation.

One side

1) the rapid development of crafts, agriculture, trade, in some lands and principalities.

2) the formation of institutions of political power on the ground (power has become closer to the people).

3) the heyday of medieval Russian culture. (Assumption Cathedral in Galich, Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir, Church of the Intercession on the Nerl.)

But on the other side.

1) Destruction of material and spiritual values during strife.

2) death of people. Russians kill Russians.

3) weakening of the military potential of the Russian lands.

Mongol invasion.

Scientists know very little about the Mongolian ethnos, it is known that it originated on the border of the steppes and deserts of Central Asia (Baikal), it is known that its formation took place in the 11-12 centuries, it is known that Genghis Khan played a special role in its history. Scientists argue about the reasons for the migration of the Mongols, which began at the end of the 11th century and was very stable. Perhaps this was due to the search for new pastures, perhaps the Mongols were looking for the shortest paths to the rich regions of the world, perhaps the movement of the Mongols was associated with the peculiarities of their worldview (the last sea).

The first clash of the Mongols and Russia May 1, 1223 on the river. Kalka(Sea of Azov), despite the victory, the Mongol troops did not go deep into the Russian lands. In 1235, at the kurultai in the town of Karakorum, a decision was made on a large campaign. The advance of troops began in 1237. The main hostilities began in 1238. On March 4, 1238, the Mongols defeated the troops of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri on the Sit River. 14 cities of northeastern Russia were devastated. But at the same time, Novgorod was not ruined. In 1239, the Mongols undertook a campaign against southwestern Russia, through which they went to Eastern Europe, at the same time, the inhabitants of Novgorod had to repel an attack by the Swedes (1240) at the mouth of the Neva River and the Germans (1242) at Lake Peipus.

In the middle of the 13th century, a state of the Golden Horde was formed on a vast territory from the Danube to Altai. Russian lands were declared part of this state. A very ambiguous relationship developed between the Golden Horde and the Russian lands. The nature of these relationships continues to be debated to this day.

I. The Solovyov-Horde yoke became the main reason for the slow development of Russia, but it did not change the essence of Russian statehood. Arguments: a) the Mongols did not create their own ruling dynasty in Russia. B) Mongolian laws did not apply in Russian lands. C) the Mongols did not touch the spiritual basis of Russian statehood - Orthodoxy.

II. The Karamzin-Horde yoke changed the essence of Russian statehood. Arguments: a) veche institutions of power have disappeared in many Russian cities. B) the nature of the relationship between the princely power and its environment has fundamentally changed (vassal relations have been replaced by relations of servitude. c) a sharp drop in the general level of culture, the death penalty, torture, the number of books and literate people is sharply decreasing.

III. Gumilyov - there was no Horde yoke, but there was a mutually beneficial compromise between the Russian lands and the Golden Horde. the essence of the compromise - the horde received huge material and human resources of Russia, Russia received protection from Western states that sought to extend their influence to the territory of Russia. The Mongols stimulated the trade of Russian merchants from the east, brought Eastern culture into Russian cultural traditions, updated the highest echelons of the Russian nobility.

At the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, the process of unification of Russian lands within the framework of a single state began, in comparison with Western Europe, it began late, was of a forced nature and went through the following chronological stages.

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