The beats are divided into syllables. A syllable is a part of a measure, consisting of one or more sounds; however, not all sounds can form a syllable, i.e., be syllabic (or syllabic). For this, instantaneous sounds are not suitable in the composition of words, i.e. explosive and affricates 1. Long can be syllabic in terms of sonority, first of all, the most sonorous - vowels, second - sonorant consonants, and, finally, fricatives, cf. Russian finger, where is the syllabic e, Serbian prst, where is the syllabary R , and French pst!, where syllabic s . In languages ​​such as Serbian, syllabic consonants are special units (Serb. prst -"finger", SRP -"Serb", etc.).

In Russian speech, syllabic consonants are constantly encountered, and, above all, sonorants. But they are not special units, and their syllabic property usually replaces the disappeared weak vowel, for example [f7s7a27m7 / d7 "e7l" 772i7 e] from Indeed, where about between two m gone, and m became syllabic, or: [m7a27r "7i7v7a72n7n7a7) from Maria Ivanovna, where instead of the disappeared -ov- previous adjacent n became syllabic (cf. combination haze and bath, where there are no syllabic consonants, and there are one less syllables). These properties of Russian consonants explain such rhymes as Fedor - cheerful, registrar - theater(A. K. Tolstoy) or Vrubel - in ruble(I. Severyanin), brooms - on all fours, speakers - psychiatrists, volumes - descendants, stuffy - vents(V. V. Mayakovsky).

The definition of a syllable is very difficult, although every speaker can pronounce syllables. The usual definition of a syllable “a part of a measure consisting of one or more sounds and pronounced in one exhalation” encounters the objection that syllables can be pronounced without exhalation (for example, imitating the sound of a kiss or smacking on horses), but one syllable cannot be pronounced more than in one breath.

L. V. Shcherba proposed a theory of pulsation, that is, he explained syllables as segments of speech corresponding to the alternations of pumping and discharging the muscular tension of the speech apparatus during pronunciation 1.

The acoustic theory of the syllable, which recognizes the segmentation of the speech chain into segments with a sonority apex and a less sonorous environment, does not contradict the above articulation theories.

According to their sound structure, syllables can be divided into open (ends with a vowel) and closed (ends with a consonant), while syllables ending in sonorous consonants can be called half-open (this is important for understanding the syllable section); uncovered (beginning with a vowel) and covered (beginning with a consonant) . This can be shown in the following table:

(a – any vowel, t - any consonant)

Thus, for example, in the word willow first syllable ( and -) naked and open, and the second (- wa ) - covered and open; in a word and you second syllable (-to you) covered and covered.

There are also syllables in which there is more than one vowel; a combination of two vowels within a syllable is called a diphthong 1, while one of these vowels will be syllabic, the other non-syllabic. The syllabic vowel will be the one that has the longest duration and which can be stressed, although the latter is not necessary, since diphthongs can also occur in unstressed syllables, for example, in German Fraulein, Einheit etc.; where the stress is only on the first syllable.

If the first vowel in a diphthong is a syllabic one, then it is a descending diphthong, for example in German Faust, Eisen, in English boy, house, in Spanish Aires etc.; if the second vowel is syllabic, then it is an ascending diphthong, for example, in Spanish bu7e7nos, pu7e7rto, su7a7res, etc.

Diphthongs are alien to the Russian language, therefore, borrowing words with diphthongs from other languages, Russians decompose them into two syllabic monophthongs 1 , resulting in an extra syllable, or turn a non-syllabic diphthong vowel into a consonant, fitting them to their combinations oh oh, hey, yy, uy, aw: for example, the German one-syllable Faust either gives a two-syllable: Ф7а7у7с7т7 (literary hero), or a one-syllable combination with one vowel: F7a 7v7s7t7(given name).

Syllables are delimited by syllable sections. The definition of syllable divisions varies by language. So, for the Russian language, the syllable division usually passes between the most contrasting in sonority neighboring sounds, given the impossibility of closed syllables inside the word; for example, the word pack divided into syllables pa-chka, since the syllable section runs between a (the most sonorous sound is a vowel) and h (minimal sonorous sound - instant voiceless consonant); give the same contrasts P and a and to and a , but P cannot form a syllable, but the combination pack – a closed syllable within a word, which is not typical of the Russian language. The words stick, soldering, parka divided into syllables pa-ka, pay-ka, Par-ka, since the sonority contrast between a and l, d, r less than between l, d, r and to ; these are semi-closed syllables (see above) 1 .

Theories of the syllable:

a) expiratory theory .

However, experimental studies have shown that the number of syllables does not necessarily match the number of pushes.

b) sonor (acoustic) theory- the theory of the syllable, according to which the syllable is expiratory push of air, however, the top of the syllable forms a sound, most sonorous.

The weak side of the sonor theory is that the degree of sonority of a particular sound is not a constant. The same sound can be uttered with varying degrees of sound.

c) muscle theory- the theory of the syllable, according to which the syllable is the result of muscular tension during articulation (L.V. Shcherba)

The theory of muscle tension explains the complex phenomena of syllable formation only in terms of physiology, i.e. only articulatory.

d) articulatory-acoustic theory- the theory of the syllable, according to which the syllable is defined as the minimum pronunciation unit of speech, the elements of which are closely related to each other both acoustically and articulatory.

9. Intonation and its components. Stress and its types

Intonation is a set of rhythmic-melodic components of speech:

• melody (movement of the fundamental tone)
• rhythm
• pace
• intensity
• timbre
• pause
• stress

Word stress. Proclitics and enclitics. Weak words. Phrase, clock and logical stress.

word stress- this is a stronger pronunciation of one syllable in a word, which serves to unite this word phonetically.

Proclitic

[< гр. наклоняю вперёд] – лингв. безударное слово, стоящее впереди ударного, к которому оно и примыкает вотношении ударения, например, в словам “подо мной” – “подо” является проклитикой

Enclitics are words that have lost their own stress, rhythmically adjacent to the previous word. Enclitics are both monosyllabic particles and some disyllabic ones.

Weak words

Independent words have normal verbal stress, but first of all, service words can be unstressed; however, polysyllabic ones can have secondary stress, i.e. be weak. Most often, weakly stressed words are words that form, as it were, an intermediate group between the categories of independent words and service words. These are the prepositions-adverbs, many pronouns. Close to them are also numerals in a certain syntactic usage.

There can be several words in a speech tact, and therefore several stresses. However, these stresses are not the same: one of them, falling on a word that is more important in a semantic sense, is stronger, stands out in comparison with others, weaker ones. This is the accent of the speech tact, or bar stress, as opposed to the rest - word stresses, or word stress. Thus, one of the word stresses is at the same time a clock stress.

The speech beats that make up the whole utterance are also not the same in their beat stresses: one of them is stronger, stands out in comparison with the others; it falls on that speech tact, which seems to be more important in a semantic sense. This is the stress of a statement, phrase, or, in other words, phrasal stress. Thus, one of the bar stresses is at the same time a phrase stress. Bar and phrase stress is commonly referred to as logical stress.

Intonation

2. PHRASE AND LOGICAL STRESS.

An integral syntactic intonation-semantic rhythmic unit is called a syntagma or phrase. Syntagma can be one word or a group of words, for example: Autumn. All our poor garden is crumbling. From pause to pause, the words are pronounced together. This unity is dictated by the meaning, the content of the sentence. The group of words representing the syntagma has an accent on one of the words, mostly on the last one. From the end of August / the air begins to get colder (K. Ushinsky). Every day I becomes more and more golden leaves (K. Ushinsky). One of the words in the group stands out: phrasal stress falls on it: August, get colder, during the day, more, leaves. In practice, this is achieved by slightly amplifying or raising the voice, slowing down the tempo of pronouncing the word, and pausing after it.

It is necessary to distinguish logical stress from phrasal stress. (True, sometimes these types of stress coincide: the same word bears both phrasal and logical stress.) Words in a sentence that are important in thought stand out, they are brought to the fore by the tone of voice and the force of exhalation, subordinating other words. This "promotion by the tone of voice and the power of exhalation of the word to the fore in a semantic sense is called logical stress" . In a simple sentence, as a rule, there is one logical stress, for example: From the end of August, the air starts to get colder.

But often there are sentences with two or more logical stresses. For example: Dales, hills, fields flashed.

Here homogeneous members: valleys, hills, fields - logically stand out, become shock.

Logical stress is very important in oral speech. Calling it a trump card for the expressiveness of oral speech, K. S. Stanislavsky said: “Stress is the index finger, marking the most important word in a phrase or in a measure! In the highlighted word, the soul, the inner essence, the main points of the subtext are hidden! . Stanislavsky attached great importance to logical stress in artistic (stage) speech: “Stress is loving or malicious, respectful or contemptuous, open or cunning, ambiguous, sarcastic emphasis on a stressed syllable or word. This is his presentation, as if on a tray.

If the logical stress is incorrect, then the meaning of the whole phrase may also be incorrect. Let's see how the content of the statement changes from a change in the place of the logical stress in the sentence. We put the stress in turn on each word of the sentence:

You will you be at the theater today? (and not anyone else?)

You today you will in the theatre? (Will you come or not?)

You today will you be in the theatre? (and not tomorrow, not the day after tomorrow?)

You will be in today theater? (and not at work, not at home?)

The correct setting of logical stress is determined by the meaning of the entire work or its part (piece). The last phrase of Krylov's fable "The Pig under the Oak" sounds like this: Whenever up I could raise your snout, I would like you it is seen was, I that these acorns I on the to me growing... Of all the underlined stresses, the combination on me is the strongest. Such a logical separation is due to the content of the fable: the pig harmed the tree, the fruits of which she ate.

In each sentence, you need to find the word on which the logical stress falls. The practice of reading and speech has developed a number of guidelines on how to place logical stresses. These rules are set out, for example, in the famous book by Vsevolod Aksenov "The Art of the Artistic Word". With few exceptions, these rules help in reading the prepared text. Here are some of them:

1. Logical stress, as a rule, is placed on nouns and sometimes on verbs in cases where the verb is the main logical word and usually comes at the end of a phrase or when the noun is replaced by a pronoun. For example: Gathered in the hall spectators. The table was covered

2. Logical stress cannot be placed on adjectives and pronouns. For example: It's cold today day. Thanks to you. You sorry me.

3. When comparing, the setting of a logical stress does not obey this rule. For example: I don't like blue color, but zeleny. to me like it and not for you.

4. When combining two nouns, the stress always falls on the noun, taken in the genitive case and answering the questions whose? whom? what? For example: This is an order commander.(When rearranging words the same way: This commander order).

5. The repetition of words, when each subsequent one reinforces the meaning and meaning of the previous one, requires a logical stress on each word with increasing amplification. For example: But what is in me now boils, worries,infuriates.

6. Enumerations in all cases (as well as the account) require an independent stress on each word. For example me got up, washed up, got dressed and drank tea. Appeared in the clearing tank, behind him second, third, fourth...

7. When combining author's (or narrative) words with direct speech (when the text contains the own words of one of the characters), the logical stress is preserved on the main word of one's own speech. For example: - yes Good, in my opinion, - Fyodor gritted through his teeth. It is impossible to mechanically apply these or other rules for setting logical stresses. You should always take into account the content of the entire work, its leading idea, the whole context, as well as the tasks that the reader sets himself when reading the work in this audience. It is also not recommended to "abuse" logical stresses. Speech overloaded with stresses loses its meaning. Sometimes this overload is the result of the separation of words during pronunciation. “Separation is the first step towards emphasizing ... - the first step towards extending the stress to that which does not require stress; it is the beginning of that unbearable speech, where every word becomes "significant", where there is no more important, because everything is important, where everything matters, and therefore nothing means anything anymore. Such speech is unbearable, it is worse than obscure, because you cannot hear obscure or you can not listen, but this speech forces itself to listen, and at the same time it is impossible to understand, because when the stress does not help the clear disclosure of thought, it distorts and destroys it. ) .

One must learn not only to place stresses, but also to remove them or weaken them, obscuring the rest of the phrase - this obscuration should not mean a hasty and unclear pronunciation of the entire phrase. “Fussiness makes speech difficult. It makes it easier: her calmness and endurance. Removing stress from other words already highlights the stressed word. For example: Passed a whole a week,I before mother collected them on the road.11 Chuk and Gek I did not waste time too. 11 Chuk made himself dagger I from a kitchen knife, I and Huck found himself a smooth stick, I hammered a nail into it, I and it turned out peak... 11 Finally all the cases were finished. (A. Gaidar.) Strong stress on the word finished weakens the stress on the words on the road, too, dagger, pike, and with some words: stick, nail - removes the stress following the rules. Context suggests emphasizing some words and shading others.

American English

Within a semantic group (syntagma), not all words are pronounced the same; significant words that have an independent lexical meaning are highlighted in it with phrasal stress ...

Intonation and its components

Among the components of intonation, stress occupies a special place. It, like intonation itself, belongs to the supersegmental elements of the language. When they talk about stress, they usually mean verbal stress (i.e. ...

Intonation and its components

Logical stress is the selection of the most significant word from the point of view of a given situation with the help of intonational means. Any word in a phrase can be highlighted with logical stress. Phrase Student carefully reads ...

Intonation and its components

To characterize the emotional expressiveness of the word, Shcherba introduced the term "emphatic stress". This stress "puts forward" and enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the affective state of the speaker in connection with this or that word ...

Intonation as a stylistic means of expression

Melody and especially the second important component of intonation - loudness (intensity) are used to emphasize some parts of the statement, called phrasal stress ...

The main ways of expressing grammatical meanings in English

Stress is not the most typical way of expressing grammatical meaning, because in English the stresses are fixed and unmoving. There are several pairs of words that can be attributed to this method. Worth noticing...

Depending on the composition of which language unit this or that part stands out, there are verbal and phrasal stresses ...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

Depending on what phonetic means verbal stress is carried out, power, quantitative and musical stress are distinguished. V.N. Nemchenko in his textbook gives the following definitions of the types of stress: By power stress ...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

In some words in speech, along with the main stress, an additional stress may occur. Such an accent is called side. This stress is usually found in polysyllabic words. For example, aircraft construction, flax spinning ...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

In complex proper names and geographical names, the place of stress can be different. In some words it falls on the first component of the compound, in others on the second: Tempelhof, Scharlottenburg, Elberfeldt, Saarbrucken, Schonefeld, Heilbronn...

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

To express grammatical meanings, only stress can be used, which can change: monotonic mobile stress; polytonic (musical) stress. Mobile stress is used, for example ....

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings in morphology

Stress, like meaningful alternation, is a way of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word by phonetic means. Dynamic monotonic stress can become a grammatical way...

Theory of translation from English

The sentences in the paragraph are ways of developing the thought in the paragraph. They are closely related to the Key Sentence (fragment)...

Type. Sometimes the term "intonation center" is used in this sense. In most languages, it is realized in the zone of the last stressed syllable of the phrase; It is made out of various types by combinations of intonational means - melody, intensity, duration. In neutral pronunciation, the F. zone at. is not perceived as especially highlighted, marked, therefore F. y. sometimes referred to as neutral or automated (“Today is good weather”, “The east is burning like a new dawn”). Initially F. at. called logical(i.e., semantic), however, such an idea of ​​F. at. did not allow to distinguish between neutral utterance and utterance with deliberate emphasis: “Please give me a coat” and “Please give me coat” (not a hat). In Soviet linguistics, the term "logical stress" is usually assigned to the underlined emphasis of a word in a phrase. The following types of logical stress are distinguished: contrastive and emphatic. An example of a contrastive stress: "U me these problems do not exist" (and others do), "Today will arrive Masha(and not someone else). Emphatic stress conveys the attitude of the speaker to the message: “I very liked your daughter. Sometimes only the presence or absence of such an accent helps to assess the meaning of the phrase, cf.: “We send teachers there every month” and “We monthly we send teachers there” (it is clear that often).

When analyzing the content side of the statement F. y. often associated with the expression of any meaningful categories: certainty/uncertainty, novelty, actual articulation, importance. However, F.'s attachment at. makes it insufficient to express these categories, therefore, for example, in the Slavic languages ​​F. u. correlates with neutral word order, in which new, indefinite names are placed towards the end of the utterance, cf.: “A woman told me an extraordinary story” → “A woman told me an extraordinary story” (object ambiguity remains) → “A woman told me an extraordinary story (subject becomes defined).

A special kind of stress is presented in phrases like “Hush, grandmother sleeping!”, “ Dad come!”, “ Chaplin died!”, where emphasis does not mean either contrast or emphasis on this particular word, but refers to the entire statement as a whole. Such accents can be called accents of “extraordinary introduction to the situation” and such phrases can be considered a communicative inversion of neutral phrases with F. at.

Logical stress helps to distinguish between the diverse semantic shades of the message, for example: John amused Mary ‘John ​​entertained Mary’ (one-time event), John amused Mary (effectively and repeatedly); Bill's Actions fed up him” (“he” = “Bill”), “Bill’s actions bored him” (“he” ≠ “Bill”). It is debatable whether the logical stress is imposed on F. at. (then, in the case of a non-finite position, there is a shift of F. at.), or they exist independently. In the latter case, it remains unresolved how many logical stresses can be in one phrase and how (quantitatively and qualitatively) the F. at. is expressed in this case. The ratio of phrasal and syntagmatic stresses remains unclear, mainly the question is about their quantitative expression.

In the English tradition, the term "phrase" (phrase) does not correspond to the Russian term "phrase" (in the meaning of "statement"), but rather a Russian full-valued phonetic word or phrase, therefore, terminological misunderstandings are possible: for the phrase "Today I have no rest" in the English tradition we can talk about three F. at. (in the words "today", "no", "peace"), in Russian - about one F. u. on the word "peace" in a neutral pronunciation.

Ugh. is known to almost all languages, but its expression differs not only depending on the communicative type of utterance, but also from language to language. The degree of expression of phrasal prosody also differs: in those languages ​​and constructions where it is expressed more clearly, verbal prosody is more subordinate to phrasal prosody, and phrasal intonation is more grammaticalized.

• Shcherba L. V., Phonetics of the French language, M., 1963;
• Bryzgunova E. A., Sounds and intonations of Russian speech, M., 1969;
• Torsueva I. G., Intonation and meaning of the statement, M., 1979;
• Svetozarova N. D., Intonation system of the Russian language, L., 1982;
• Nikolaev T. M., Semantics of emphasis, M., 1982;
• Schmerling S. F., Aspects of English sentence stress, Austin, 1976.

Question# 2: Segmentandsupersegmentphoneticunits. Phrase, speechtact, phoneticword, syllable, soundhowsegmentspeechflow. Our speech is a stream of sounds, a sound chain. This chain is divided into segments, separate units, distinguished by various phonetic means. In Russian, such units are a phrase, a phonetic syntagma, a phonetic word, a syllable, and a sound. A phrase is a segment of speech, united by a special intonation and phrasal stress, and enclosed between two fairly long pauses. The phrase corresponds to a statement that is relatively complete in meaning. However, the phrase cannot be identified with the sentence. A phrase is a phonetic unit, and a sentence is a grammatical one, they belong to different tiers of the language and may not coincide linearly. A phrase can be divided into phonetic syntagms. The phonetic syntagma is also characterized by a special intonation and syntagmic stress, but the pauses between syntagmas are not obligatory, and they are shorter than interphrase pauses. The division of the speech stream into phrases and syntagmas is determined by the meaning, meaning that the speaker puts into the statement. Phonetic syntagmas, consisting of more than one word, are characterized by semantic and syntactic integrity. Thus, a phrase and a phonetic syntagma are distinguished by rhythmic-intonational means, the division of a speech stream into phrases and phonetic syntagmas is associated with meaning and syntactic division. A phonetic syntagma may consist of one or more phonetic words. A phonetic word is a segment of a sound chain, united by one verbal stress. A phonetic word can correspond to one or more lexical items. A phonetic word is divided into syllables, and syllables are divided into sounds. Sound, syllable, phonetic word, phonetic syntagma, phrase are different segments of the speech flow. Such linear segments are called segment units. Sound is the smallest segment unit. Each next largest segmental unit consists of smaller ones: a syllable of sounds; phonetic word - from syllables; phonetic syntagma - from phonetic words; phrase - from syntagmas.

Question# 3: Syllable, stress, intonationhowsupersegmentunits. The supersegmental units of speech include stress and intonation. They serve to unite segment units in a speech stream. Stress is an essential feature of a word. May be verbal. Word stress - highlighting with the help of phonetic means one of the syllables in the word, the stressed syllable. Russian stress is quantitative, i.e. the stressed syllable is characterized by a longer duration. This feature is the basis of the methodological technique used by teachers in elementary school. In addition, Russian stress is characterized as dynamic or forceful, because the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater force. Combining both characteristics, stress can be called quantitative-dynamic. Russian stress is free, it can fall on any of the syllables. Russian stress can move from syllable to syllable when changing the form of the same word. There are words with fixed stress. With the development of the language, the word stress can change. There are options when the stress depends on the style of pronunciation. The word has one stress, but there are compound words. They can have two stresses: one is the main one, the second is a side (d about skein a ny) In addition to verbal stress, there is logical stress - highlighting the most significant, from the point of view of the speaker, word. This is essentially new information that sounds in the phrase - remma, and that which is already known and is not new - the topic. In addition to logical stress, there is: Emphatic - the transmission of emotions. It makes the words emotionally charged. If the emotions are positive, then the vowel sound, which is under stress, is pronounced more elongated, for a long time. With negative emotions, the consonant sound is lengthened at the beginning. Intonation is a set of means in organizing sounding speech or a rhythmic-melodic pattern of speech. The elements of intonation include: Melody - the movement of the main tone of the voice. Speech tempo - the speed of speech in time. The timbre of speech - the sound coloring of speech , conveying emotionally expressive shades. The intensity of speech is the power of pronunciation associated with an increase or decrease in exhalation.

Question# 4: Acousticandarticulatorycharacteristicssounds. Phonetics is a section of linguistics that studies the sound side of a language. Acoustic phonetics studies the physical features of speech sounds. Sound in acoustics is understood as the result of oscillatory movements of the body in a certain environment, available for auditory perception. Speech apparatus - a set of organs of the human body, adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers the central nervous system, the organs of hearing and vision, as well as the organs of speech. According to the role in the pronunciation of sounds, the organs of speech are divided into active and passive. The active organs of speech produce those or other movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus of particular importance for their formation. The active organs of speech include: the vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, and the entire lower jaw. Passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw. For the formation of each sound of speech, a complex of works of the organs of speech in a certain sequence is necessary, that is, a well-defined articulation is needed. Articulation is the work of the organs of speech, necessary for the pronunciation of sounds. The complexity of sound articulation also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation are distinguished: this is an attack (excursion), exposure and retreat (recursion). An attack of articulation consists in the fact that the organs of speech move from a calm state to a position necessary for pronouncing a given sound. Exposure is the preservation of the position necessary to pronounce a sound. The indentation of articulation consists in the translation of the organs of speech into a calm state.

Question# 5: Classificationvowelssoundsonplaceanddegreesriselanguage, onavailabilityorabsencelabialization. AT basis classification vowels sounds lie the following signs: 1) the participation of the lips; 2) the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically relative to the palate; 3) the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward horizontally. Accordingly, vowels are divided into the following classification groups: 1) rounded (labialized): y [o], y [y]; uncircumscribed - [a], [e], [i], [s]; 2) according to the degree of elevation of the tongue in relation to the sky, the following groups are distinguished: a) high vowels (narrow): [i], [s], [ y]; b) mid-rise vowels [e], [o] c) low-rise vowels (wide): [a3) according to the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or its retraction backwards, vowels differ horizontally: a) front row: [i], [e]; b) middle row [s], [a]; c) back row [y], [o]. Along with sounds, open and closed vowels are distinguished - "shades" of sounds that are pronounced with greater openness or closeness, with less or more rise of the tongue. They can be more or less advanced forward or backward. For example: 1) the vowels [ä], , [ö], [ÿ] are front-mid, pronounced between soft consonants 2) the vowel [e¬] is pronounced under stress after hard consonants ;3) vowels [ie], [ыъ], [аъ] are only in an unstressed position; 4) vowel - mid-back; 5) vowels [ä], [аъ], - mid-low, etc. An even finer analysis of vowels is possible.

Question# 6: Classificationconsonantssoundsonplaceeducation. According to the place of formation, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. Labial consonants are called, during the pronunciation of which the barrier is formed with the help of the lips. In some cases, when only lips are involved (the lower lip approaches the upper one), labial consonants are formed, for example, [b], [p], [m]. In other cases, when the lower lip approaches the upper teeth, labial-dental consonants are formed: for example, [v], [f]. Lingual consonants are called, during the pronunciation of which the barrier is formed with the help of different parts of the tongue, in different places of the oral cavity. All consonants of the Russian language are lingual, except for labials. Depending on which part of the tongue and in which part of the oral cavity forms a barrier, the consonants of the anterior lingual, posterior lingual and middle lingual are distinguished. Anterior-lingual consonants are called, during the formation of which a barrier is created in the front of the oral cavity by bringing the front of the back of the tongue and its tip closer to the teeth (lower or upper), alveoli or anterior palate. These include most of the lingual consonants: for example, [d], [t], [h], [s], [g], [w], [c], [h], [n], [p]. Back-lingual consonants are consonants, during the formation of which an obstruction occurs in the back of the oral cavity as a result of the convergence of the back of the back of the tongue with the palate. This is, for example, [g], [k], [x]. Middle-lingual consonants are consonants, during the formation of which a barrier is created in the middle part of the oral cavity, where the middle part of the back of the tongue approaches the palate. Middle-language are, for example, the sound [j].

Question# 7: Classificationconsonantssoundsonwayeducation. An obstacle to the air flow during the formation of a consonant sound is created by different articulatory organs (they determine the place of sound formation), but the barrier can be formed in different ways and the air flow can also overcome it in different ways. One of the key characteristics of the consonant in Russian depends on how the air overcomes the obstacle in its path - the way the sound is formed. To produce a consonant sound, three main methods of articulation are used: 1) a bow, when with the help of the articulatory organs the air flow is completely blocked for some time, and then, under air pressure, the barrier formed by the articulatory organs opens and the air pushes out. To the ear, such a sound is perceived as a very short noise, or explosion. This is how stop, or explosive, consonants [n], [n "], [b], [b "], [t], [t "], [d], [d "], [k], [k "], [g], [g"]; 2) a gap, when the entire air flow goes out through a narrow channel, which is formed by the organs of articulation, while the air stream passes with force between them and due to friction and air turbulence between the walls of the formed cracks sound arises; to the ear, such a sound is perceived as a hiss. This is how fricative, or fricative, sounds are formed [f], [f "], [c], [c"], [s], [s"], [h], [h "], [w], [w "], [zh], [zh"], [j], [x], [x"]; 3) vibration, when the tip of the tongue vibrates in the outgoing air stream (in Russian, only one type of consonant sounds is formed this way - trembling sonorants, or vibrants, [p] / [p "]). consonants, or affricates [ts] and [h "]. The bow of the organs of articulation may be accompanied by the exit of a part of the air stream through additional channels: through the nose for nasal consonants (this is how nasal sonorant consonants [m], [m "], [n], [n"]) and on the side of the tongue between its edges and upper teeth (this is how only one type of sounds is formed in Russian - consonants [l] / [l"], also called lateral, or lateral consonants).

Question# 8: Classificationconsonantssoundsonlevelnoise, participationornon-participationvoteineducationsound, onhardness – softness. According to the noise level: a) sonorous: [p], [l], [m], [n], and their soft pairs, [j]; b) noisy: [b], [c], [d], [ d], [g], [h], [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [c], [h], [w] and others; According to the participation or non-participation of the voice in the formation of sound, deaf and voiced are distinguished; a) tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced voices, their articulation implies the obligatory work of the vocal cords. All sonorants [p], [l], [m], [n], [j] are voiced. Among noisy consonants, the voiced sounds include the following sounds: [b], [c], [d], [e], [g], [h] and their soft pairs. b) deaf consonants are pronounced without a voice when the vocal cords remain relaxed . The voiced of this type include only noisy ones: [k], [n], [s], [t], [f], [x], [sh] and their soft pairs [c], [h ']. By availability or the absence of a voice, many agree to form pairs. It is customary to distinguish 12 pairs of consonants opposed by deafness-voicedness: b-p, v-f, d-t, s-s, w-w, g-k and their soft pairs. Consonants [ts], [sh ], [zh], and for soft unpaired ones - consonants [h '], [w: '], [zh: '] and [j]. Consonants form 15 pairs of sounds opposed in hardness / softness. All of them are either hard pairs or soft pairs: [b] - [b '] [c] - [c '] [g] - [g '] [d] - [d '] [h] - [h ' ] [n] - [n '] [f] - [f '] [k] - [k'[t] - [t '] [s] - [s '] [m] - [m '] [n ] - [n '] [p] - [p '] [l] - [l '] [x] - [x ']

Question№ 9: The syllable from the articulatory and acoustic points of view. Various theories of the syllable. Types of syllables. Phonetic words are divided into syllables. There are various definitions of a syllable, which are based on attention to its articulatory or acoustic features. The most common articulatory definition of a syllable is the following: a syllable is a part of a phonetic word consisting of one or more sounds pronounced with one push of exhaled air. The articulatory definition of a syllable proposed by L .AT. Shcherboy, based on pulsation theory. According to this theory, a syllable is a segment of speech corresponding to the alternation of pumping and discharging the muscular tension of the speech apparatus. In this case, the syllable is formed by each increase followed by a fall; there may be no increase at the beginning of the chain, and a fall at the end. In other articulatory definitions, a syllable is characterized as a sequence of speech movements, which is formed by one respiratory impulse (R. Stetson) or is the result of one control command (L.A. Chistovich). Acoustic definition syllable connected with sonor theory, proposed by the Danish linguist O. Jespersen and, in relation to the Russian language, developed by R.I. Avanesov; this theory is the most recognized in modern Russian linguistics. According to this theory, a syllable is a segment with a peak of sonority and a less sonorous environment, a wave of rising and falling sonority. There are more than a dozen theories or interpretations of a syllable. Consider the most famous of them. expiratory or expiratory. As the name itself says, this theory is based on the physiological process of exhalation during speaking. The German phoneticist Eduard Sievers calls that part of a word a syllable that is pronounced with one push of exhaled air. According to this theory, speaking does not occur as a uniform "outflow" of air and a uniform production of sounds one after another, but in the form of portions of exhaled air, which produce not a single sound, but a group of sounds more closely related to each other than the sounds produced by the next a push of air. This theory is the most ancient and perhaps the most understandable and close to us. Even Priscian gave a similar definition ("with one accent and one exhalation"), and we ourselves often observe this phenomenon when we need to pronounce a word separately, i.e. by syllables, as well as in group speaking, chanting, etc. Ballistic theory, or theory of motion. This theory was proposed by R. Stetson. The ballistic theory of the syllable is based on the premise that all movements regularly performed by a person, after a while, become automated and are already performed without control from the corresponding center of higher nervous activity. Moreover, once automated, these movements are no longer subject to conscious control or, at best, are very difficult to correct.

Question№ 10: Syllabary in Russian. The structure of a syllable in Russian obeys the law of ascending sonority. This means that the sounds in the syllable are arranged from the least sonorous to the most sonorous. The law of ascending sonority can be illustrated in the words below, if the sonority is conventionally indicated by numbers: 3 - vowels, 2 - sonorous consonants, 1 - noisy consonants. Wow: 1-3/1-3; boat: 2-3/1-1-3; ma-slo: 2-3/1-2-3; wave: 1-3-2/2-3. In the examples given, the basic law of the syllable division is implemented at the beginning of a non-initial syllable. The initial and final syllables in Russian are built according to the same principle of increasing sonority. For example: le-to: 2-3/1-3; glass: 1-3 / 1-2-3. The syllable section when combining significant words is usually preserved in the form that is characteristic of each word included in the phrase: us Turkey - us-Tur-tsi-i; nasturtiums (flowers) - on-stur-qi-i. A particular pattern of the syllable division at the junction of morphemes is the impossibility of pronouncing, firstly, more than two identical consonants between vowels and, secondly, identical consonants before the third (other) consonant within one syllable. This is more often observed at the junction of a root and a suffix and less often at the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition and a word. For example: Odessa [o/de/sit]; art [and/beauty/stvo]; part [ra / become / sya]; from the wall [ste / ny], therefore more often - [with / ste / ny].

Question№ 11: stress. Word stress. The phonetic nature of Russian stress. Place of stress in a word. Stress - highlighting (a syllable, word) by the power of the voice or raising the tone. Stress is an essential feature of a word. It can be verbal. Word stress - highlighting one of the words in the word of the stressed syllable using phonetic means. What is the phonetic nature of stress?, Russian nature, i.e. stressed syllable. This feature is the basis of the methodological technique used by a teacher in elementary school. In addition, Russian stress is characterized by dynamic or force, because the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater force. Combining both characteristics, stress can be called quantitatively dynamic Russian stress is free .It can be initial, middle or final. Russian stress can move from syllable to syllable when the form of the same word changes. For example, table (stress falls on O) - tables (stress falls on Y) - such stress is called mobile. There are words that have a fixed stress - a chair (the stress falls only on U). With the development of the language, the word stress can change. For example, in the 19th century A.S. Pushkin wrote music (with an emphasis on Y). There are options for setting verbal stress, which depend on the style of stress. A word, as a rule, has one stress, but there are complex words. of the speaking word. This is essential, as a rule, new information in the phrase-rheme. And the information that is known and is not new is the topic. Aliphatic stress is the transfer of emotions, it makes words emotionally saturated. If the emotions are positive, then the vowel sound is pronounced longer. If the emotions are negative, the consonant sound is pronounced longer.

Question№ 12: The semantic function of Russian stress. Fixed and moving accent. Clitics. The semantic function is the ability of linguistic means to serve to distinguish between lexical units and statements. The semantic function in Russian can be performed by sounds (the semantic role of sound) (house - tom), stress (torment - flour), intonation (Is this your computer. - Is this your computer?). .e. in the formation of grammatical forms of a word, it remains on the same syllable, and in others it is mobile, i.e. in the formation of different grammatical forms of a word, it is transferred from one syllable to another (inflectional mobility of stress). Wed different forms of two such words as head and head: head, head, head, head, head, head, head and head, head, head, head, head, head, head; the first of them has a fixed accent, the second - a movable one. Another example: strigý, you cut, shear, strigýt (fixed stress), can, can, can, can (mobile). Clitics is a word (for example, a pronoun or particle), grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent. Clitics, by definition, are, in particular, all words that do not make up a syllable (for example, the prepositions в, к, с). Clitics can join the stressed word form of any one part of speech (for example, Romance pronominal forms in indirect cases - only to the verb) or to word forms of any part of speech (such are Russian particles, are they); the latter are called transcategorical.

Question number 13: Phrase, bar and logical stress.

Phrase stress - Emphasizing one of the words in a phrase by increasing word stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech tact (syntagma): There is an initial / short / but marvelous time in autumn / /. different words into one syntagma. The syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the speech tact: There is an initial / short / but marvelous time in autumn / /. The speech tact usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech uttered by one pressure of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of the speech tact as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonational design. On the stressed syllable of the word as part of the speech tact, the intonation center is concentrated - the tact stress: On dry aspen / gray crow / ... Each speech tact is formed by one of the intonational structures. A speech tact is sometimes called a syntagma. The main means of dividing into syntagmas is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sharp changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last one) is characterized by the strongest stress (In logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma). The phrase usually stands out, contains several speech measures, but the boundaries of the phrase and measure may coincide: Night. // The outside. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy // (Block). The selection of speech measures can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine and Field / behind the ravine. Word stress - A type of stress defined within a word and consisting in highlighting one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (clock), syllabic stress. S. at. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish. Within the beat (less often - phrases) there are two types of clock (phrasal) stress, depending on the functions - logical and emphatic.

Question№ 14: Intonation. Intonation constructions, their types. Functions of intonation: tact-forming, phrase-forming, meaningful, emotional. Intonation (lat. intonō “I speak loudly”) is a set of prosodic characteristics of a sentence: tone (speech melody), loudness, tempo of speech and its individual segments, rhythm, phonation features. Together with stress, it forms a prosodic system of the language. Intonation construction (IC), intotoneme, phoneme tone - a set of intonational features sufficient to differentiate the meanings of statements and convey such parameters of the statement as communicative type, the semantic importance of its constituent syntagmas, actual articulation. Being a kind of linguistic sign (namely, a suprasegmental unit), it has an expression plan and a content plan. Differential features for distinguishing intonation structures are the direction of the tone on the vowel center and the ratio of the tone levels of the constituent parts of the IC, as well as the duration of the vowel center, the strengthening of verbal stress on it and the presence - the absence of a closure of the vocal cords at the end of the pronunciation of the vowel in the center of the IC, perceived as a sharp break intonation construction is implemented on a speech segment, which can be a simple or complex sentence, the main or subordinate part of a complex sentence, a phrase, a separate word form of an independent word or a function word. In practice, intonational constructions are types that reduce the whole variety of melodic patterns of statements .Types of intonation structures There are seven types of intonational structures (IC) in Russian: IK-1 (decrease in tone on the vowel of the center): After the conversation, he thought. IK-2 (on the vowel of the center the tone movement is even or descending, the verbal stress is increased): Where should I go? IK-3 (a sharp rise in tone on the vowel of the center): How can I forget? IK-4 (on the vowel of the center, a decrease in tone, then an increase; a high level of tone is maintained until the end of the construction): But what about dinner? IK-5 (two centers; rise in tone on the vowel of the first center, decrease in tone on the vowel of the second center): I haven’t seen her for two years! differs from IC-4 by a higher tone level on the center vowel, for example, when expressing bewilderment or appreciation): What an interesting movie! SG-7 (raising the tone on the center vowel, for example, when expressing expressive negation): Did you complete the task? - Done! Intonation plays a phrase-forming role: the movement of tone, characteristic of a particular intonational construction, ends - the phrase ends. Intonation is one of the most important phonetic means of a language that performs the following functions in speech. Provides phonetic wholeness of the statement or its part.2. It serves to divide the whole coherent text into parts that have signs of semantic and phonetic wholeness.3. It conveys the most important communicative meanings - such as narration, question, motivation, etc.4. Indicates certain semantic relations between the units that form the statement, and between statements.5. It conveys the attitude of the speaker to the content of his statement or the statement of the interlocutor.6. Carries information about the emotional state of the speaker.

Question№ 15: Phonology. Sounds of speech and sounds of language. The concept of a phoneme. The concept of alternation. Phonology (from the Greek φωνή - “sound” and λόγος - “learning”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in a language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is the oppositions (oppositions) of phonemes that together form the phonological system of the language. A phoneme is a unit of the sound structure of a language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to identify and distinguish between significant units of a language (words, morphemes). Therefore, a phoneme is sometimes defined as a series of positionally alternating sounds. Phonemes are able to distinguish significant units of a language due to the fact that they are material are expressed, have known acoustic and articulatory properties, are perceived by the human hearing organs. In speech, the realization of phonemes occurs through sounds. Position is a condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole. A strong position is the position of distinguishing phonemes, i.e. the position at which the greatest number of units differs. The phoneme appears here in its basic form, which allows it to perform its functions in the best possible way. For Russian vowels, this is the position under stress. For voiceless, voiced consonants, position before all vowels. For hard, soft, this is the position of the end of the word. A weak position is the position of indistinguishability of phonemes, i.e. a position in which fewer units are distinguished than in a strong position, since phonemes have limited opportunities to perform their distinctive function. In this position, two or more phonemes coincide in one sound, i.e. their phonological opposition is neutralized. Neutralization is the elimination of differences between phonemes in certain positional conditions. Phonemes, like other linguistic units (signed and non-signed), perform certain functions in the language. Usually, two main functions of phonemes are distinguished: the function of forming other (more complex) units of the language, or the drill function, and the function of distinguishing significant units of the language (morphemes, words), or the distinguishing function. In speech, phonemes can change, i.e. used as different sounds. The modification of a phoneme in speech is called its variation, and specific sounds representing a particular phoneme in a speech stream are phoneme variants. Sound is the most important unit of the phonetic level of a language. The concept of speech sound can be explained based on the closest generic concept - sound as an acoustic phenomenon. The sound of speech is an element of spoken speech, formed by the speech organs. With the phonetic articulation of speech, a sound is a part of a syllable, the shortest, then indivisible sound unit, pronounced in one articulation. Vowel. Consonant sound. The sound of speech can be defined as a sound created with the help of human speech organs, serving as a means of communication between people, devoid of linguistic meaning. Each phoneme is a speech sound, but not every speech sound is a phoneme. Phonemes are considered to be such speech sounds that not only form more complex units of the language, but are also able to distinguish these units, oppose them to each other. Speech sounds, like all other sounds, are characterized by a number of acoustic features: 1) the presence of tone or noise 2) strength , volume 3) pitch 4) longitude, duration 5) timbre The presence of tone or noise depends on the nature of the vibration of the elastic body that forms the sound (for example, the vocal cords). On this basis, tones and noises are distinguished among sounds. A tone is formed when the vibration has an ordered, rhythmic character, i.e. is uniformly periodic. Tones include, for example, the sounds produced by a musical instrument. Noise occurs under the condition that there is no rhythm, periodicity in the oscillations. Noises are the sounds that occur when the wheel of the car moves. The strength of the sound varies depending on the scope, the amplitude of the vibrations of elastic bodies, including the human vocal cords. The amplitude of body oscillations, in turn, depends on the size of the oscillating body and the force of influence on it.

The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of the vibration.

Question№ 19: Phonetic alternations of consonant sounds, differing in deafness and sonority, hardness and softness, place and method of formation. Deafness / sonority of consonants remains an independent, independent sign in the following positions: 1) before vowels: [su]d court - [zu]d itching, [ta]m there - [yes]m ladies; 2) before sonorants : [last] layer - [evil] oh evil, [tl '] I aphid - [dl '] I for; 3) before [in], [in ']: [sv '] ver check - [sv '] here is a beast. In these positions, there are both deaf and voiced consonants, and these sounds are used to distinguish words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in terms of deafness / voicedness. In other cases, the appearance of a deaf / voiced sound is predetermined by its position in the word or the proximity of a particular sound. Such deafness / sonority turns out to be dependent, “forced”. The positions in which this happens are considered weak according to the indicated feature. In Russian, there is a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of a word, cf. ointments - ma[s'] ointment. In the examples given, the phonetic alternation of consonants in terms of deafness / voicedness is fixed: [b] // [p] and [h '] // [s ']. In addition, positional changes relate to situations when voiceless and voiced consonants are nearby. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of the deaf are necessarily likened to them in deafness, as a result, a sequence of deaf sounds arises, cf. ready [in ']it is preparing - ready [f't ']e cook (i.e. [in '] // [f '] in front of the deaf). Deaf consonants facing voiced noisy (except [in], [ in ']), change to voiced, there is an assimilation by voicing, cf. about [s '] and´t to ask - pro [s'b] and a request (i.e. [s '] // [s '] before voiced). Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio 'similarity'). Thus, assimilation by deafness and assimilation by voicedness was described above. The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not arising due to positional changes, is fixed in the following strong positions: 1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu] to bow - [l'u] to the hatch, [but] from the nose - [n'o] s carried, past [t e´] le pastel - pos [t 'e´] le bed; Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in primordially Russian words, paired hard ones - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings were no longer perceived as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, both hard and soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e] became possible in common words. 2) at the end words: ko [n] con - ko [n '] horse, zha [r] heat - zha [r '] fry; 3) for sounds [l], [l '] regardless of their position: in [l] ná wave - in [l '] ná is free; 4) for consonants [c], [c '], [h], [h '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '] (in front lingual) - in position before [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x' ] (before back-lingual): gó [r] ka hill - gó [r '] ko bitterly, bá [n] ka bank - bá [n '] ka banka; - in position before [b], [b '], [ n], [n '], [m], [m '] (before the lips): and [h] bá izba - re [z '] bá carving; In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence sounds to each other. Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of a combination of soft [n '] with hard [s], cf. cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before solid). A pair of June [n’] June - June’s [n’s] cue June does not follow this pattern. But this exception is the only one. Assimilation by softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not respected by all speakers. He does not know the indentation of indentations, only replacing [n] with [n '] before [h '] and [w: '], cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'h ']ik drum, gó [n] ok racing - gó [n 'w: '] ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n '] before soft). The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other. Before the anterior palatine noisy teeth are replaced on the anterior palate.

Question№ 22: The subject of orthoepy. The meaning of orthoepic norms. "Older" and "younger" norms. Pronunciation styles. Reasons for deviations from literary pronunciation. The term orthoepy (from Greek orthos - correct, epos - speech) is used to denote: 1) a set of rules for standard literary pronunciation; 2) a section of linguistics that studies the functioning of literary norms and develops pronunciation recommendations - orthoepic rules. The subject of orthoepy is the composition of the main sounds of the language, phonemes, their quality and changes in certain phonetic conditions, i.e. the same as phonetics. But phonetics considers these issues in terms of describing the sound structure of the language; for orthoepy, it is important to establish the norms of literary pronunciation. The need to establish such norms is determined by the fact that, while listening to oral speech, we do not think about its sound, but directly perceive the meaning. Each deviation from the usual pronunciation distracts the listener from the meaning of the statement. Orthoepy is a section of linguistics that has an applied character. Orthoepic norms are very important in speech activity, since incorrect pronunciation or stress distract attention from the meaning of the statement, make it difficult to understand, and often simply make an unpleasant impression on the listener. In Russian orthoepy, it is customary to distinguish between “older” and “ junior" norm. The "older" norm preserves the features of the old Moscow pronunciation of individual sounds, sound combinations, words and their forms. The “younger” norm reflects the features of modern literary pronunciation. There are styles of high, neutral and colloquial outside the literary norms of colloquial style. High - slow and careful pronunciation (theater). Neutral is our everyday speech in compliance with all orthoepic norms at a faster pronunciation rate .Spoken language is characterized by great emotionality at an even faster pace and less strict adherence to the rules of literary pronunciation. 1. The main source of variants of deviations from the norms of literary pronunciation is the native dialect of the speaker. For example, speakers of South Russian dialects often violate the literary norm by pronouncing instead of explosive [r] fricative [Ɣ ].2. The second reason for the deviation from the literary pronunciation is writing, since we join the literary language through writing, through reading literature, which leads to the emergence of pronunciation in accordance with what is written. For example, as a result of letter-by-letter pronunciation can be heard [h "] in the words: what, to, boring, of course. But on the other hand, deviations can win the right to exist and then they are a source of development of variants of norms: I dare [s] and I dare [s "]. 3. Deviations from literary pronunciation are also caused by the influence of the phonetic system of another language: Ukrainian .

Question№ 24: The value of writing in the history of Russian society. Origin and main stages of development of Russian writing. The invention of writing by a person as a system for fixing speech for transmitting it in space and time was one of the most important discoveries that largely determined the progress of modern society. The main advantage of writing is that it allows you to overcome the barrier of time, makes it possible to communicate between different generations, to pass on to their descendants their knowledge about the world. With the help of writing, people created various business papers (documents), recorded their knowledge and experiences in books. and did not come up with another system equal to writing and capable of performing these functions to the same extent. Writing is an additional means of communication. It arose because of the need to convey the idea to another tribe and descendants. Writing is one of the greatest inventions of mankind. Writing helps people to communicate in cases where communication in spoken language is either impossible or difficult. 1) The first historical type of writing was pictography, i.e. picture letter. Pictograms - units of such a letter were scratched out, and then drawn on the walls of caves, stones, rocks, animal bones, on birch bark. In pictography, the designator is a schematic drawing of a person, boat, animal, etc. 2) Ideogram. Ideography is a writing in which graphic signs do not convey words in their grammatical and phonetic design, but the meanings behind these words. The transition from pictography to ideography is associated with the need for graphic transmission of what is not visual and does not lend itself to a pictorial image. So, for example, the concept of "wakefulness" cannot be drawn, but one can draw the organ through which it manifests itself. i.e. through the image of the eye. In the same way, “friendship” can be conveyed by the image of two hands shaking one another, “enmity” by the image of crossed weapons, etc. The drawing in these cases appears in a figurative, and thus in a conditional meaning. Hieroglyphs - "sacred writings" were cut into bones and other materials. 3) phonography - a type of writing that reflects the pronunciation of words. Sound alphabet for writing; phonetic writing system. A) syllabic (each written sign denotes a certain syllable) b) vocal-sound (letters denote mainly speech sounds) Stages of development of writing: As a result of the evolution of pictograms, ideograms and syllabograms, a letter appears - a sign of vocal - sound writing. (Ex: ancient Greek. The letter A was called "alpha" and denoted the vowel [a]). But the history of writing is not only the history of the inscription of letters, but at the same time it is also the history of the formation of modern alphabets and graphics.

Question№ 26: The composition of the modern Russian alphabet. Names of letters. Phonetic and positional principles of Russian graphics. The designation of the phoneme [j] in writing. Russian alphabet - (alphabet) - a set of graphic signs - letters in the established sequence, which create the written and printed form of the national Russian language. Includes 33 letters: a, b, c, d, e, e, e, f, h, i, d, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, y, f, x, c, h, w, u, b, s, b, e, u, i. Most letters in writing are graphically different from printed ones. Except for ъ, ы, ь, all letters are used in two versions: uppercase and lowercase. In printed form, the variants of most letters are graphically identical (they differ only in size; compare, however, B and b), in writing, in many cases, the spelling of uppercase and lowercase letters differ from each other (A and a, T and t, etc.). The Russian alphabet conveys the phonemic and sound composition of Russian speech: 20 letters convey consonant sounds (b, p, c, f, e, t, s, s, g, w, h, c, u, g, k, x, m, n, l, p), 10 letters are vowels, of which a, e, o, s, i, y are only vowels, i, e, e, u - the softness of the previous consonant + a, e, o, y or combinations j + vowel ("five", "forest", "ice", "hatch"; "pit", "ride", "tree", "young"); the letter "y" conveys "and non-syllable" ("battle") and in some cases the consonant j ("yogi"). Two letters: "b" (hard sign) and "b" (soft sign) do not denote separate independent sounds. The letter "b" serves to indicate the softness of the preceding consonants, paired in hardness - softness ("mol" - "mole"), after the letters of hissing "b" is an indicator in writing of some grammatical forms (3rd declension of nouns - "daughter", but “brick”, imperative mood - “cut”, etc.). The letters "ь" and "ъ" also act as a dividing sign ("rise", "beat"). Russian graphics are based on two basic principles - phonemic and positional. The essence of the phonemic principle of Russian graphics comes down to the fact that the letter does not denote a sound, but a phoneme. But there are more phonemes in Russian than letters. Another principle helps to smooth out such a discrepancy - positional (syllabic, letter-combining), which allows you to clarify the sound meaning of a letter by means of another one following it. The positional principle of Russian graphics is its great advantage, since thanks to it the transmission of hard and soft consonants is halved in writing (for example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there are special letters for denoting soft consonants: w - soft l, w - soft n). The positional principle is used to convey the hardness / softness of consonant phonemes and to denote lt;jgt. The positional principle for the transfer of hardness / softness of consonant phonemes is implemented in the following way:

at the end of the word, the softness of the consonant is indicated by a soft consonant, and the hardness by a space: coal_- angle_softness of the consonant before a hard consonant is conveyed by a soft sign: free - wave; softness and hardness of a consonant before vowels are distinguished using these vowels: single letters indicate the hardness of the consonant phoneme, and polysemantic vowels - for softness: mayor, pestilence, onion, varnish, bast, but chalk, chalk, mil, crushed. Phoneme designation [j]

In modern Russian, there are two variants of the pronunciation of the sound [j]. The first (and main) meaning of the sound [j] is manifested in the position before the vowel: tree - lka, understand - understand. But at the end of a word or at the end of a syllable, the sound [j] is reduced, becomes short, approaching in sound the vowel sound [i]. It must be remembered that [j] does not coincide with e [i]: loaf, wait. On the letter, the letter y denotes only the second version of the pronunciation of the sound [j]. In some borrowed words, the initial syllable [j] is indicated by this letter y: yod, yogi, etc. The phoneme [j] is not indicated by an independent letter when it is before a vowel. Since in this position (at the beginning of a word between vowels, before a vowel) in writing, the combination of the sound [j] and the vowel is conveyed by one letter i-ma; spruce; Christmas tree; u - la. When the phoneme [j] stands before the vowel after the consonant, then the letters ъ and ь are written before the letters e, e, u, i: six, drink, departure. One should not think that in this case the letters ъ and ь denote the sound [j]. The letters b and b are only indicators that following these letters e, e, u, I should be read not as [e, o, y, a], but as.

Question№ 27: Designation on the letter of hardness-softness of consonants. Vowels after hissing and C. Meanings of vowels. The meanings of the letters b and b. The softness of consonants is indicated as follows. For consonants paired in hardness / softness, softness is indicated by: 1) the letters i, e, e, u, and: small - crumpled, they say - shallow, peer - pen, storm - bureau, soap - cute (before that is, in borrowing, a consonant can be hard: mashed potatoes); 2) a soft sign - at the end of a word (horse), in the middle of a word y [l '] before any consonant (polka), after a soft consonant before a hard one (very, earlier) , and in a soft consonant standing in front of soft [g '], [k'], [b '], [m '], which are the result of a change in the corresponding hard ones (earrings - cf. earring) - see positions strong in hardness / softness .In other cases, a soft sign in the middle of a word to indicate the softness of paired consonants is not written (bridge, song, perhaps), because positional softness, like other positional changes in sounds, is not reflected in the letter. For unpaired consonants, there is no need for an additional designation of softness , therefore, the graphic rules “cha, shcha write with a” are possible. x consonants are indicated by the absence of a soft sign in strong positions (kon, bank), writing after the consonant the letters a, o, y, s, e (small, they say, mule, soap, peer); in some borrowings, a hard consonant is pronounced before e (phonetics). The hardness of unpaired hard consonants, as well as unpaired soft ones, does not require additional designation, so there may be a graphic rule for writing zhi and shi, spelling rules for writing and and s after c (circus and gypsies), o and e after w and sh (rustle and whisper). , s (thicket, bold). This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and compound words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interbureau). Under stress after hissing, it is written in, if you can pick up related words or another form of this word, where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then it is written about (to clink glasses, rustle). It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words. A fluent vowel sound under stress after hissing is indicated by the letter o (sheath - knife "n). Spelling of vowels after c. At the root after c is written and (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsies, on tiptoe, tsyts, chicks are their cognate words. The letters i, u are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich). Under stress after c, it is written o (tso "cat). Choice of vowels; and or e. In foreign words, e (adequate) is usually written; exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives. If the root begins with the letter e, then it is preserved and after prefixes or a cut with the first part of a compound word (save, three-story). - these are sounds that consist only of a voice, in the formation of vowels, the participation of the vocal cords and the absence of an obstruction in the oral cavity are mandatory.The exhaled air passes through the mouth without encountering any obstructions. , o, s, e, i, u, e, i, e)... Vowels 6 - [A] [O] [U] [S] [I] [E]. In Russian, there are more vowels than vowels sounds, which is associated with the peculiarities of the use of letters i, u, e, e (iotated)... They perform the following functions: 1) designation start 2 sounds ([th "a], [th" y], [th "o], [th" e]) in position after vowels, separators and at the beginning of a phonetic word: yama [th "aìma], my [ may "am", embrace [aby "amt"]; 2) denote the vowel and the softness of the previous paired consonant in terms of hardness / softness: chalk [m "ol] - cf .: pier [mol] (an exception may be the letter e in borrowed words, which does not indicate the softness of the previous consonant - puree [p "ureì ]; since a number of words of this kind borrowed by origin have become common in modern Russian, we can say that the letter e in Russian has ceased to denote the softness of the previous consonant sound, cf.: pos [t "e] l - pass [te] l ) ; 3) the letters e, e, u after a consonant that is unpaired in hardness / softness denote a vowel sound [e], [o], [y]: six [shesh "t"], silk [sholk], parachute [parachute] . In modern Russian, the letters b and b do not denote sounds, but perform only auxiliary functions.b performs three functions in the language: Denotes the softness of consonants, except for hissing at the end of the word: mole, distance, free; and in the middle: I will take, coat. in such words, it is also preserved before soft consonants: take, spit e. A soft sign always denotes the softness of L in front of other consonants: ring, soap dish. Before soft consonants in the middle of a word, the softness of consonants is not always indicated in writing. It is used as a sign of a number of forms: nouns (3 cl. Zh.R. singular): night, mouse. .Together with b acts as a separator. They separate the vowel and the consonant preceding it: beat, enter, ate. ob-, sub-, super-, trans-: trans-European.

Question№ 28: Sections of Russian orthography. Orthograms. Spelling types. Spelling is a branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for the uniform spelling of words and their forms, as well as these rules themselves. The central concept of orthography is spelling. Spelling is a spelling regulated by a spelling rule or set in dictionary order, that is, the spelling of a word that is selected from a number of graphics possible from the point of view of laws. A spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2, or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling following the spelling rules. The spelling rule is the rule for the spelling of the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on the language conditions. Spelling consists of several sections: 1) writing significant parts of a word (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, designating the sound composition of words with letters where it is not defined by graphics 2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings; 3) the use of capital and lowercase letters; 4) transfer rules; 5) rules for graphic abbreviations of words. Principles of Russian spelling: 1. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single style in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. Its essence lies in the fact that phonetically positional changes are not reflected in the letter - reduction of vowels, stunning, voicing, softening of consonants. At the same time, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants - as in a strong position, for example, positions before a vowel. Also, on the basis of the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a certain grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.2. The second principle of Russian spelling is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are spelled the way they are heard. This principle is implemented in three spelling rules - the spelling of prefixes ending in z / s (talentless - restless, smash - drink), the spelling of a vowel in the prefix roses / times / grew / races (schedule - painting,) and the spelling of roots starting with and , after prefixes ending in a consonant (history - prehistory).3. There is also a differentiating spelling (cf .: burn (n.) - burn (vb)) of roots with alternations (add - add) traditional spelling ().4. The traditional principle regulates the spelling of unchecked vowels and consonants (dog, pharmacy, or the letter and I after the letters Zh, Sh, Ts - live, sew), i.e. involves the memorization of words. As a rule, these are foreign words and exception words. Consider other types of orthograms: 1. Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling is regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of units. Separate words are written mainly separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions (no one) and some adverbs (in an embrace), parts of words - together or with a hyphen (cf .: in my opinion and in my opinion). 2. The use of capital letters and lowercase letters The use of uppercase and lowercase letters is regulated by the lexical and syntactic rule: proper names and names are written with a capital letter (Moscow State University, Moscow State University), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence. The rest of the words are capitalized. Transfer rules: The rules for transferring words from one line to another are based on the following rules: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic articulation of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war, break, and not * war, * break. One letter of the word is not transferred or left on the line. Identical consonants in the root of the word are separated during transfer: kas-sa. Rules for graphic abbreviations of words: The abbreviation of words in writing is also based on the following rules: 1) only an integral, undivided part of the word can be omitted (literature - literature, high education - higher education); 2) when abbreviating a word, at least two letters are omitted; 3) you cannot shorten a word by throwing out its initial part; 4) the reduction should not fall on a vowel or letters d, b, b. Spelling analysis involves oral or written analysis of spellings in a word. When performing spelling analysis, you need to correctly write down the word given with a missing letter, or open the brackets, underline the place of the spelling in the word, name the spelling and determine the conditions for its choice. If necessary, indicate the test word and give examples for this spelling.

Question№ 29: Transmission by letters of the phonemic composition of words and morphemes. The principles of this section are: phonemic, traditional, phonetic, morphological. Differential spelling. Basic principles of spelling. The area of ​​spelling is significatively weak positions of phonemes. In the process of transferring phonemic composition by letters, several principles of Russian orthography operate: 1) the phonemic principle, implemented in the case when a weak position of a phoneme can be verified by a strong position in the same morpheme; is based on the fact that the same letter denotes a phoneme in significatively strong and weak positions; 2) the morphematic (or morphological) principle of spelling is based on the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes; covers those cases when the same morpheme in different words or forms of one word has a different phonemic composition; 3) the traditional principle of Russian spelling is that the spelling is used, fixed by tradition, which must be remembered; in school practice, such words with a hyperphoneme are basically called dictionary words; 4) the phonetic principle, which lies in the fact that the letter denotes not a phoneme, but a sound that appears in a perceptually weak position: scatter - scattering. In the process of applying different principles, differentiating spellings arise that delimit word forms in writing that coincide in phonemic composition: burn - burn, ink - ink, etc. Differentiating spellings (from Latin differens - different) - different spellings that serve to distinguish homonyms in writing. Arson (noun) - set on fire (past tense of the verb). Burn - burn. Burnout - burnout. Ball - score. Campaign - company (the origin of words affects).

stress- selection by any acoustic means of one of the components of speech:

Phrase stress - intensive emphasis on the stressed syllable of the last word in the final syntagma or in the most important syntagma.

clock accent - this is the emphasis in the pronunciation of a more semantic word within the speech tact. For example: Am I wandering | along noisy streets, | do I enter | to a crowded temple, | I'm sitting | between mad youths, | I surrender | my dreams (Pushkin.).

logical stress - an accent that allows any word in a phrase to be made a semantic center.

emphatic stress- To characterize the emotional expressiveness of the word, Shcherba introduced the term "emphatic stress". This stress "puts forward" and enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the affective state of the speaker in connection with a particular word. Briefly, the difference between logical and emphatic stress can be formulated as follows: logical stress draws attention to a given word, and emphatic stress makes it emotionally rich. In the first case, the intention of the speaker is manifested, and in the second, an immediate feeling is expressed.

In Russian, emphatic stress consists in a greater or lesser lengthening of the stressed vowel: the most beautiful worker, a wonderful work of art.

Intonation

Each speaker has his own average tone of speech, but in some dreams of a speech tact and phrase, there is an increase or decrease in tone, and the movement of the tone up and down about the middle level is called intonation.

Intonation- this is the rhythmic-melodic side of speech, serving in the sentence as a means of expressing syntactic meanings, modality and emotionally expressive coloring.

The main intonational means are tonal, the melody of speech. They are associated with an increase in the position of the tone of speech.

Timbre means - these are different qualities of the voice, determined by the state of the vocal cords. The voice can be neutral, gloomy, cheerful, etc.

Quantitative-dynamic means of intonation (intensity, tempo, rhythm) include an increase or decrease in volume, changes in the tempo of pronouncing a separate section of a phrase.

Rhythm- this is the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables of poetic speech.

In Russian, 6 main rates of intonational structures are distinguished.

Intonation divides the sound stream into separate segments (syntagms and phrases).

In the absence of pauses between syntagmas, intonation is the main means of combining a phonetic word into syntagmas. Intonation distinguishes sentences of various types, reflects the subjective attitude of the speaker to what is being said, conveys various shades of emotions. Intonation is an essential feature of a sentence, one of the means of its grammatical design, purposefulness, syntactic relations between parts of a sentence, is an indication of the emotional coloring of the sentence.

Intonation is an important supersegmental unit. It is expressed as an increase or decrease in tone. Such movements of tone up or down from the middle level are called intonation. Melody, intensity, duration, tempo of speech and pronunciation, timbre of speech tact and phrase interact with intonation. According to the well-known classification of intonation units developed by Bryzgunova, six main intonational structures are distinguished in the Russian language. Each of them has a center-syllable, on which the main stress falls (bar, phrasal or logical), pre-center and post-center parts. The pre-center part is usually pronounced on a medium tone, in the post-center part there is a change in tone level.

Raising and lowering the tone is the main indicator of the communicative orientation of the statement. In this regard, a flat / descending / ascending / descending-ascending / ascending-descending tone is distinguished. These movements of tone are decisive for the realization of the goals of the utterance (narration, question, motivation) and for the expression of subjective expressiveness. (see examples on page 54)

Orthoepy (Greek orthopeia, from orthus - correct and йpos - speech). The term “orthoepy” has two main meanings: 1) “a set of norms of the literary language associated with the sound design of significant units: morphemes, words, sentences. Among these norms, there are pronunciation norms (the composition of phonemes, their implementation in different positions, the phonemic composition of individual phonemes) and the norms of supersegmental phonetics (stress and intonation)”; 2) a section of linguistics that studies the rules of oral speech.

Orthoepy is closely related to phonetics: the rules of pronunciation cover the phonetic system of the language, i.e. the composition of phonemes distinguished in a given language, their quality, changes in various phonetic conditions. The subject of orthoepy is the norms of pronunciation. Orthoepic norm- this is the only possible or preferred language option that corresponds to the pronunciation system and the basic laws of language development.

Goals and objectives of orthoepy

The subject and tasks of orthoepy are the impeccable pronunciation of sounds and teaching how to properly stress. There are many cases when vowels and consonants in colloquial speech change from deaf to voiced, and vice versa. For example, they pronounce muz [e] y, but you should say muz [e] y, or a computer with a soft [t] instead of a hard one.

There are many cases of incorrectly placed stress. All this distorts speech, makes it sound ugly.

· This is most typical for people of the older generation, who grew up and were brought up in a period when intelligent, educated people were rejected by society, and a slightly distorted spoken language was in vogue.

· The rules for pronunciation of orthoepy are designed to correct the situation and help all modern people (and not just writers and teachers) speak a beautiful language. And avoid mistakes in pronunciation. The main task of this science is to teach each person not only to pronounce sounds, but also to correctly stress adjectives, verbs and other parts of speech.

· In the modern world, when there is fierce competition in the labor market, literate people with impeccable conversational speech are most in demand. Only a person who correctly emphasizes words and clearly pronounces sounds can become a successful businessman, politician, or make a career in any other field. Therefore, orthoepy, as a section of linguistics, is becoming increasingly important today.

The reasons for various deviations from the norms of Russian literary pronunciation in the speech of younger students can be as follows: the influence of writing, vernacular and dialectics on oral speech. Therefore, three types of spelling errors can be distinguished:

1) errors caused by the influence of the spelling of words;

2) colloquial errors;

3) errors in dialectal pronunciation.

22 Question. Phonology. The concept of a phoneme. phoneme functions. Invariant and allophones.

The sound side of the language can be considered not only in terms of acoustic and articulatory features, but also from the point of view of the role they play as signs of the sound signal system developed by native speakers of the Russian language to indicate a certain meaning in the process of communication. The study of sounds in terms of their functions in the process of communication, i.e. in the social aspect, it deals with functional phonetics, or phonology.

Phonology is a branch of linguistics that studies the functional significance of the sound structure of a language. To designate a sound in a functional aspect, the term phoneme is used, the symbol is broken brackets<…>.

The phonological, or functional, approach to speech sounds is one of the central ones in modern phonetics.

The phoneme performs two main functions in the language - significative and perceptual.

Significative is the distinctive function of phonemes. Realizing it, phonemes distinguish between words and morphemes. She can be strong or weak.

In a significatively strong position, the phoneme differs from other phonemes and is realized by a special sound. A significatively weak position is a position of indistinguishability, neutralization of the phoneme. In a significatively weak position, the phoneme loses the ability to distinguish words.

The same position is strong for some phonemes and weak for others. For example, the position at the end of a word is strong for consonant phonemes on the basis of hardness/softness, but weak on the basis of deafness/voicedness.

The perceptual function is the function of perceiving a phoneme, since it is the phonemes represented by certain pronounced sounds that a person perceives with the help of the senses (hearing). These functions stem from the ability of the phoneme to distinguish and identify significant units of the language - morphemes and words. In this regard, perceptually strong and weak positions are distinguished.

In a perceptually strong position, the phoneme appears in its main sound appearance: the sound does not experience reduction and the influence of neighboring sounds, it is, as it were, out of position.

In the perceptually weak position, the phoneme is represented by sounds that are affected by neighboring sounds.

A phoneme can be strong significatively but weak perceptually.

A perceptually and significatively strong position of phonemes is called absolutely strong. In this position, the phoneme is realized by its main variant - the dominant. According to this sound, a phoneme is called a phoneme.

In significatively strong positions, the phoneme is represented by varieties, which are called variations. Variations of phonemes, according to L. L. Kasatkin, are a kind of sound synonyms for their dominants.

In significatively weak positions, the phoneme is represented by its variants.

Variants of neutralized phonemes are peculiar sound homonyms. In general, variants and variations of phonemes are called allophones.

· Invariant (linguistics) - an abstract structural unit of a language (phoneme, morpheme, lexeme, etc.) in abstraction from its specific implementations.