Origin of words and expressions

1. Etymology of words

Etymology is a branch of the science of language that studies the origin of words. Etymology also studies all the changes that occur in the life of words. And changes in the language are constantly taking place: new words appear, new meanings for long-familiar words, and sometimes it even happens that a word suddenly changes its sound. For example, the words bee, bull and insect, it turns out, came from the same word to thrash. Now this word has left the language, it has been forgotten by everyone, but once it was familiar to everyone and was used in the meaning of "buzz", "buzz". And today it would never occur to anyone to call a bull, a bee and an insect with relative words, although etymologically this is so.

Some words have changed not the sound, but the meaning. For example, today we call the word guest a person who came to visit us, and in ancient times this was the name of a visiting merchant (these were the guests in the fairy tale of A. Pushkin called by Tsar Saltan).

Once the word dashing meant "bad", "bad", but today it is used in almost the opposite sense - "daring", "brave".

One more example. Today, the word contagion has 2 meanings: it denotes a curse, and is also used in the meaning of "source of an infectious disease." But at the end of the 18th century, the word contagion was used to mean "charm", "attractiveness".

Many words are extremely clear to us - both in terms of their meaning and in terms of their understanding. Other words surround us every day, are used in almost any everyday and professional situations, accompany us on trips, at the workplace, at home, at school, at a disco, etc. But, despite the fact that we are well acquainted with these words, their origin remains a mystery to us, which we will try to unravel.

The word "thank you" is definitely one of the most frequently used by us. This interjection comes from the exclamation "God save". Over time, the last consonant of the combination of words ceased to be pronounced, and the phrase turned into one word that expresses gratitude and is an obligatory vocabulary element of a cultured, educated and educated person.

The adverb "totally" brings us problems not so much lexical as spelling: this eternal dilemma - together or separately. Meanwhile, the history of the origin of the word is a very convincing clue to the spelling of the word. The adverb “to the ashes” was formed from the combination “to the ground”, i.e. to the bottom, to the base: in the Old Russian language, the floor was called ashes, as well as the bottom and base. Accordingly, tla is the singular genitive form of the noun tlo. With the development of the language, the word "tlo" began to be considered obsolete and soon fell out of use altogether. Hence the rule for writing an adverb: an adverb formed from a combination of a preposition and a word that has fallen into disuse is written together.

Another "frequent" adverb is the word "now". It was formed in the Old Russian language from a combination of the pronoun “that” and the numeral “prvo”, which meant “first”, i.e. the one that comes before, at first, in the first place. As you can see, in the process of language development, the word has significantly changed its sound composition:

then + prvo > toprvo > teprvo > tepervo > now > now,

but retained the continuity of meaning with the original word.

A person who likes to find fault with trifles, strives to observe details in any work, an inquisitive, corrosive person is often called meticulous. Previously, this word looked like this: dotochny, which tells us the origin of the word:

to the point > precise > meticulous.

In other words, we call meticulous one who does everything “to the point”, i.e. in detail, most responsibly, painstakingly.

Often, referring to some ambiguous deed, an incomprehensible act, we talk about the underlying reason. The background is the hidden basis, the secret reason for something. The word “underlying” had earlier also a different - direct - meaning: this was the name of the lining of a peasant shirt, which covered the back and chest to half, literally - the shoulder (i.e. shoulder - shoulder). In ancient times, there were expressions “one’s own background is closer to the heart”, “knows the chest and the background”.

The word “day” is now considered by us as a word with a root and an ending, but earlier this word was divided into morphemes differently: day = su - + -tk- + -i. The prefix su (s / co) is also not uncommon for modern words: twilight, satellite, comrade-in-arms. The ancient root tk means "to poke, weave, join".

The word "week" in Russian means 7 days, going in a certain order: Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday. The origin of the word is better seen on the example of the Belarusian word "nyadzelya", i.e. Sunday. A week from "do not do", i.e. it is a day for rest (which is Sunday), a day free from business. Actually a week in all Slavic languages ​​was called a week (i.e. 7 days).

About two, say, Ivans, they say that they are namesakes, i.e. people who have the same first name. The word "namesake" comes from an ancient combination of the pronoun that, particles z and the suffix k: namesake = that + z > mez, tyz, toz, i.e. the same, of the same name; that + z + k.

The word "native" also comes from a combination of the pronoun tu, the root zem (earth) and the suffix ets and means "a native of this land." Synonyms for this word are the words aborigine and autochthon. They differ in their origin: the aborigine comes from the Latin language, and the autochthon from the Greek.

If you say or do something strange, you may hear the expression "he's playing tricks again." This strange word comes from the word "kuroles", which in turn comes from the combination "chicken + o + forest". This combination is an abbreviated and "Russified" form of the Greek expression "curie eleison", meaning "Lord, have mercy." Initially, the word "play tricks" had the meaning "to play naughty, rowdy" and only after that it came to its modern meaning.

The word "sinecure" is quite rare, and not everyone can boast of knowing its meaning. Meanwhile, sinecure means "a warm, profitable place." The word came to us from the Latin language - sine kure, i.e. without worries. That was the name of the church position, which was provided for special merits. This position was honorable and lucrative, but did not require any work at all. Since then, sinecure has been called the ability to get something without much difficulty.

In a word, this science is very interesting - etymology! And it often happens that the story of the origin of a word turns out to be more fascinating than another detective story. Some stories I will give in my work.

Gender of place names

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Culture of speech in Russian

Aggressiveness - hostility; test - technique; short test; adaptation - adaptation; genesis - origin; will - conscious regulation; motive - motivation; makings - congenital features; skill - automatism ...

Lexical meanings of digital combinations in Chinese chats as an element of slang and their etymology

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Features of modern English youth slang

In modern linguistic science, the concept of "slang" (as well as its etymology) still does not have its own unambiguous definition, which directly reflects the Great Oxford Dictionary: "A word of cant origin, the source of which is not apparent ultimate".. .

Slang is an attribute of modern culture

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Sociolect: structure and semantics

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Etymological doublets: Franco-Latin and Scandinavian-English

When people hear a foreign or any unfamiliar word for the first time, they try to understand its meaning by relating it to words they know well. People make assumptions about the meaning of these words, and often they are wrong. Nonetheless...

Folk etymology is the most controversial and controversial type of etymology. There are even discussions about its name. Since the end of the 19th century, a number of scientists consider this term to be very unfortunate ...

The phenomenon of folk etymology in a work of art on the example of "The Tale of the Tula Oblique Lefty and the Steel Flea" by N.S. Leskova

There is debate among linguists about whether there is a difference between false and folk etymology. Is it worth distinguishing them at all, and if so, then the question arises, what is this difference. Some scholars single out false etymology as a separate phenomenon...

The phenomenon of folk etymology in a work of art on the example of "The Tale of the Tula Oblique Lefty and the Steel Flea" by N.S. Leskova

With folk etymology, the change of the word occurs without much effort of the native speaker, during its incorrect reproduction. In the "pseudo-folk" etymology, the change of the word occurs intentionally ...

The phenomenon of folk etymology in a work of art on the example of "The Tale of the Tula Oblique Lefty and the Steel Flea" by N.S. Leskova

Children's etymology is a product of creativity of children of preschool and school age. It is somewhat similar to pseudoetymology, however, there is a significant difference in the purpose of their creation. If pseudoetymology is used by the authors to...

The phenomenon of folk etymology in a work of art on the example of "The Tale of the Tula Oblique Lefty and the Steel Flea" by N.S. Leskova

Greetings to new and regular readers! Friends, the origin of words is a very interesting topic. We rarely think about the origin of the familiar words we use in conversation and writing. But they, like people, have their own history, their own destiny.

The Word can tell us about its parents, about its nationality and about its origin. Etymology is the science of language.

The word (or root) whose etymology needs to be established correlates with related words (or roots). A common generating root is revealed. As a result of the removal of layers of later historical changes, the original form and its meaning are established. I present to you several stories of the origin of words in Russian.

The origin of some words in Russian

Aviation

From Latin avis (bird). Borrowed from French - aviation (aviation) and aviateur (aviator). These words were coined in 1863 by famous Frenchmen: the great photographer Nedar and the novelist Lalandel, who flew in balloons.

Avral

A term common among sailors and port workers. From Dutch overal (get up! everyone up!). Now emergency work is called urgent hasty work on a ship (ship), performed by its entire team.

Scuba

It was borrowed from English. The first part is the Latin aqua - "water", and the second is the English lung - "light". The modern meaning of the word scuba is “an apparatus for breathing a person under water. It consists of cylinders with compressed air and a breathing apparatus.

Scuba gear was invented in 1943 by the famous French navigator and explorer J.I. Cousteau and E. Gagnan.

alley

In Russian, the word "alley" has been used since the beginning of the 18th century. From the French verb aller - "to go, walk." The word "alley" is used in the meaning of "a road planted on both sides with trees and shrubs."

Pharmacy

The word is known in Russian already at the end of the 15th century. The Latin apotheka goes back to the original Greek - apotheka, formed from apotithemi - "I put aside, I hide." Greek - apotheka (warehouse, storage).

Asphalt

Greek - asphaltos (mountain resin, asphalt). In Russian, the word "asphalt" has been known since ancient times as the name of a mineral. And from the beginning of the XVI century. the word "asphalt" is found already with the meaning "building material".

Bank

Italian - banco (bench, moneychanger's counter), later "office", randomly from the Germanic languages ​​from bank ("bench").

Bankrupt

The primary source is the Old Italian combination bankca rotta, literally - “broken, broken bench” (counter, office). This is due to the fact that initially the offices of ruined bankers, declared bankrupt, were subjected to destruction.

Banquet

Italian - banketto (bench around the table). In Russian - from the 17th century. Now "banquet" means "a solemn dinner party or dinner."

Wardrobe

It is a borrowing from French, where garderob - from - "store" and robe - "dress". The word came to be used in two senses:

1. dress storage cabinet
2. Storage room for outerwear in public buildings

nonsense

At the end of the last century, the French physician Gali Mathieu treated his patients with jokes. He gained such popularity that he did not have time for all the visits. He sent his healing puns by mail. This is how the word “nonsense” arose, which at that time meant a healing joke, a pun.

Blinds

French - jalousie (envy, jealousy).

Conclusion

Origin of words: where did they come from, from what languages ​​of the world do words come into the Russian language? There are many such languages, but first of all, Greek and Latin should be mentioned.

From them borrowed a large number of terms, scientific and philosophical vocabulary. All this is not accidental. Greek and Latin are very ancient languages ​​of highly cultured peoples that have greatly influenced the culture of the whole world.

E the thymology of words often captivates people who have a rather vague idea of ​​linguistics. And the less prepared this or that dilettante is linguistically, the more categorically he usually expresses his judgments about the most complex etymological problems.

If, for example, you have difficulty distinguishing a ruff from a pike, then you must think that you will never dare to put forward any new hypothesis regarding the problems of ichthyology. Without having the appropriate knowledge, no one will dare to express their opinions on the most complex issues of nuclear physics, mathematics, and chemistry. As a matter of fact, everyone who wants to express their opinions about the origin of words.

On folk etymology. Usually people start their etymological "studies" already in early childhood. Such childish formations as buzzer (alarm clock), planer (planer), digger (shovel), soot (hammer), mazeline (vaseline) and others, caused by a natural desire to somehow comprehend every incomprehensible word, are typical not only for childhood. Take such examples of the reversal of words in folk dialects as spinzhak (jacket), semi-clinic (polyclinic), semi-garden (front garden) etc. In all these cases, incomprehensible words of foreign origin were “corrected” and “adjusted” to some well-known Russian words and roots: the word jacket → back jacket was connected with the back, polyclinic → semi clinic- it's 'half clinic', a front garden → semi-garden- 'half garden'.

The ancient Romans called such etymological comparisons "bull" or "cow" etymology. Since "etymologies" of this kind often arose among the people, these false interpretations later received the name "folk etymology" (as opposed to scientific etymology). The very term folk etymology not entirely successful. Firstly, it shows a somewhat dismissive attitude towards the people, which for many centuries was cut off from the development of science. Secondly (and most importantly), a significant part of the "folk etymologies" did not originate in a folk environment at all.

So, for example, back in the 18th century, academician and philologist V.K. Trediakovsky wrote that the name of the ancient inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula Iberians is a garbled word upers, since they are geographically located on all sides stubborn seas. Britannia, according to Trediakovsky, this is a distorted fraternization(from the word brother), Scythians- this is sketes(from wander), Turks- from yurki(compare nimble‘fast, agile’), etc. Consequently, here we are faced with "folk etymology" at the highest (academic!) level. And the people here have absolutely nothing to do with it. It's just that at the time of Trediakovsky, etymology had not yet formed as a science, and this provided wide scope for all sorts of unbridled fantasies.

In this way, folk etymology- this is not at all necessarily “an etymology that arose among the people”, but such an etymology that is not based on scientific principles of analysis, but on random comparisons caused by simple consonance of words. Sometimes such a comparison can "get to the point." Compare, for example, the words of Luke in the play by A.M. Gorky "At the bottom": "They crushed a lot, that's why it's soft." The words soft and crumpled, indeed, of a common origin, but a correct, in fact, comparison does not yet turn it into a scientific etymology.

Instead of a term folk etymology some scholars prefer to use expressions false etymo logic or naive etymology. But these terms are even less successful. First, and scientific etymology can be false. For example, at least one of the two etymologies we have considered bride is definitely false. But both of them, undoubtedly, are among the scientific etymologies and do not contain anything naive in themselves. Secondly, naive etymology need not be false (take the example of the words soft and crumpled). In addition, naivety is a quality that can sometimes also differ in scientific etymology. Of course, "folk etymology" is usually false, but not every false etymology is "folk" at the same time. That is why one of these terms cannot be replaced by another.

Deetymologization and folk etymology. The essence of folk etymology can only be understood if we remember what was discussed in the previous chapters.

Words in their development gradually lose their ancient etymological connections, or, in other words, are de-etymologized. Thus, they become incomprehensible etymologically. Scientific etymology establishes the true origin of the analyzed word, relying on those methods of comparative historical research with which we are now familiar. Usually scientists restore the most ancient stages in the history of the word available to them, simultaneously attracting material from related languages.

In contrast, folk etymology does not reconstruct the lost etymological connections, but tries to explain the origin of the word based on the current state of the language for the author of the etymology. Such "etymologies", as a rule, do not contain any scientific argumentation. They rely only on a coincidence or even on a very remote similarity in the sound of words.

The discrepancy between scientific and folk etymology stands out clearly in the case of the origin of the Russian word otter(as you remember, our acquaintance with the science of etymology began with a story about this word). Scientists have restored its ancient form *ūdra[ý:dra:], found a large number of matches in related languages ​​and explained the original meaning of the word otter associated with the meaning ‘water, water’.

Folk etymological interpretation of the origin of the word otter(from tear out) fundamentally contradicts the facts of the history of the language, it is in no way connected with ideas about the relationship of languages ​​and related correspondences. This explanation relies only on the consonance of words otter and tear out, supported by a witty, but absolutely fantastic argument of a semantic nature. In addition, a comparative historical analysis of the word otter shows that its occurrence belongs to the era when prefixed formations of the type you-tear generally were not yet productive in the Indo-European languages.

Etymology and archeology. In many places, and especially in the steppe zone of our Motherland, ancient burial mounds, impressive in size, rise. There is such a mound near the village, and no one knows who and when he poured it. And around such a mound a legend arises.

They say that in ancient times - a hundred years, and maybe two hundred years ago - her beloved dog died at the lady's. From morning till night the mistress shed bitter tears.

And in the village of that there were then soldiers waiting. They felt sorry for the lady, they dug a grave near the village, buried the dog according to the Christian custom, and began to wear earth right in their hats to the place where the grave was. They wore it for a long time - until a huge barrow grew in that place ...

This legend has its continuation, however, already taken from real life. One day archaeologists came to the mound and began to conduct archaeological excavations. And they found under the mound not a dog at all, but a rich burial of a Scythian leader, who was buried here not a hundred or even two hundred, but two and a half thousand years ago ...

We observe the same picture in the history of many words. Folk etymology is the same legend that tries to explain the incomprehensible facts of the distant past with close and understandable phenomena of the modern language. And etymologists, as a result of a kind of "archaeological excavation", establish that the origins of the word we do not understand go far back into the depths of centuries and in many cases, in the place of the etymological "dog", they find traces of such deep antiquity, from which even legends and legends have not been preserved.

Folk and children's etymology."Stop telling secrets! What a secretary!”, “We go for a walk, we are truants!”

These and other examples below, taken from the book by K.I. Chukovsky "From two to five", are indicative in many respects. First of all, in children's comparisons, the main features of folk etymology most clearly emerge, although, of course, children's etymology cannot be completely identified with folk etymology. Secondly, the fallacy of children's etymologies is beyond doubt, and the disclosure of an error, as a rule, does not require detailed and complex explanations. Finally, it is easier here than in other cases to distinguish various types of folk etymology.

In examples with words secretary and truant etymological connection with secret and stroll was generally installed correctly. Only in the first case, this connection is not direct, and it can be determined only on the material of the ultimately Latin language, from which these words were borrowed through Western languages.

Compare, for example, French. secret[secret] ‘secret, secret’ and ‘secret, secret’, secretaire[secretary] ‘desk, bureau (with secret compartments)’ and ‘scribe, secretary’. Thus, the error in this case was that the words secret and secretary (secretary), really interconnected by a long chain of intermediate etymological links, were put in a direct etymological connection, which these words do not have.

A different picture is observed in the case of the words stroll and truant. Here the main mistake is of a semantic nature. Relationship between words walk, truant, walk and walk around no one doubts. By word truant and absenteeism have a special semantic coloring: they do not refer to those who walk or stroll, but only to people who, for disrespectful reasons, do not come to work or study.

If a truant sleeps during working hours, sits in a movie or reads a detective novel, he does not cease to be a truant because of this (this word, as we can see, has undergone partial de-etymologization).

Etymological errors of a different order are observed in cases quitter- ‘man making boats’ or specialist- 'a person who likes to sleep'. In all these cases, the words between which an etymological connection is supposed, in fact, in terms of their origin, have nothing in common with each other. No matter how convincing the word-formation series looks:

write - scribe

lie - liar

sleep - special

The latter case clearly does not belong to this series. Word specialist is short for specialist. And the last word ultimately goes back to Latin specialis[in medieval pronunciation: specialis] ‘special, special’, in turn associated with Latin words species[spékie:s] ‘kind, variety’ and specie[special:] ‘I see, I look’. Thus the words sleep and specialist are etymologically unrelated.

Folk etymology and distortion of words. In all the examples just considered from children's etymology, one or another explanation of the origin of the word did not lead, however, to its distortion. But not in all cases the word lends itself to folk etymological interpretation in the form in which it exists in the language. And since you still want to explain an incomprehensible word, distortions such as kopatka or mazeline, which are characteristic of far more than just children's language.

Examples with words spinzhak, semi-clinic, popusadik are of the same type. But these and similar illiterate dialectal and vernacular forms do not exhaust all examples of this kind. Moreover, folk etymological changes in words can be observed even in the literary language, and such cases are by no means rare.

Old Russian word witness was formed from the verb see‘know’ and it meant a person who knows something. At present, we are not talking about "witness", but witness and we associate this word not with a verb know, but with the verb see, perceiving it in the meaning of ‘eyewitness’ (one who saw something). The old connection with the verb know still preserved, for example, Belarusian summary and Serbian summary'witness'.

In Russian diplomatic documents of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, one can find the word retreat, which was the result of a folk etymological reinterpretation of the word Latin in its origin audience(under the influence seclude, seclusion). In the Belarusian language, the word sekutsyya. etymologically much more expressive than Latinism execution.

Latin verb vagari[vagá:ri:] ‘wander’ had a suffixal derivative vagabundus[vaga: býndus] ‘wandering’, which in Italian gave vagabondo [vagabondo], and in Spanish - vagabundo[wagabundo] ‘tramp’. Rare suffix - bundo in Spanish was "corrected" to - mundo, and the word vagamundo began to be perceived as complex, formed from Vagar[vagar] ‘to roam’ and mundo[mundo] ‘peace, light’. So, as a result of a folk etymological change, the Spanish word vagamundo acquired the meaning of ‘wandering in the world’.

When considering the etymology of various words, scientists constantly have to keep in mind the possibility of this kind of folk etymological rethinking, which often makes research very difficult, because they replace real ancient etymological connections with secondary, far-fetched ones.

But folk etymology has an impact not only on people's ideas about the origin of the word. Erroneous etymologization is also closely connected with practice, in particular with the practice of spelling. Typical school mistakes are well known, caused by the fact that a word that is dubious in spelling is compared with another, etymologically unrelated to it. But foreign words are usually especially difficult, generally devoid of etymological support within the native language. That is why, when writing such words, they often rely on other “similar” words of foreign origin. This is how errors arise, which, to a certain extent, are akin to folk etymological distortions of the words: “incident” and “precedent” instead of the correct one: incident, precedent(under the influence of words like challenger), “compromise”, “state” instead of compromise, assert(influence of words like regulate, Konstantin).

"I am Ra!" Nowhere, perhaps, has folk etymology become so widespread as in the interpretation of proper names. For example, a university student begins to study Latin. In one of the first classes, he learns that the word ira[ú:ra] means ‘wrath’ in Latin. And immediately tries to connect this word with the Russian name Ira, Irina, "explaining" the latter by the meaning of the Latin word. In fact, the name Irina was borrowed from Greek, where the word airenē[eirene:] means ‘peace’ (in modern Greek pronunciation: [irúni]). This word was used by the ancient Greeks as a proper name: eirene- this is Irina, goddess of peace.

At every step, such "etymologies" are encountered in the explanation of geographical names. Many toponyms are distinguished by exceptional antiquity. Some of them have long lost etymological connections in the language, others never had these connections, since they were borrowed from other languages. But the desire to somehow explain these incomprehensible names often led to the appearance of the most ridiculous "etymologies" and even entire legends, often "reinforced" by references to actual historical events.

Where did the name of the city come from Kolomna? They say that Father Sergius once blessed Prince Dmitry Donskoy not far from this city. After the blessing, Father Sergius went to the city, but for some reason the inhabitants drove him away, and even threatened him with stakes. “I am kind to them, and they are stabbing me (me),” Sergius complained later. From this stake me and the name was given to the city Kolomna.

Another equally fantastic example of this type is the "etymology" of the name of the river and the city Samara.

According to legend, a small river ran from east to west, and a mighty river rushed its waves from the north Ra(the ancient name of the Volga River).

“Step aside! - the big river shouts to the small river, - give way to me, because I am Ra!

“And I myself am Ra,” the river calmly answers and continues its run to the west.

Two streams collided with each other - and the majestic river Ra gave way to its small rival: it was also forced to turn its course to the west. From words Ra herself and named the river Samara, and at the point of collision formed the Volga-Pa Samara bow (bend).

In a similar way, folk etymology tried to explain, for example, the names of rivers Yakhroma and Vorskla. The first name was allegedly received from the exclamation of the wife of Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, who, while crossing this river, twisted her leg and exclaimed: “I am lame!” The legend associates the second name with the name of Peter I. Looking through a telescope, the tsar dropped a lens into the water. Attempts to find "glass" (slope) were not successful. Since then, the river has been called Warehouse thief(‘glass thief’).

Of course, all these legends have nothing to do with the actual origin of the respective toponyms. But they are important in another way. The considered examples show how closely folk etymology is connected with oral folk art - folklore. Many tales and legends arose in a similar way - as a result of an attempt at an etymological understanding of incomprehensible words and names.

We have already met with such phenomena on the example of the origin of the name of the ancient Greek “foam-born” goddess Aphrodite and Athena Tritogeia. Similar examples can be found in the oral folk art of any country. Researches of etymologists, directed towards the study of the peculiarities of folk etymology, make it possible to illuminate in a new way the most complex problems associated with the ancient origins of oral folk art.

Anger and the fire. In all the examples so far considered, the difference between folk and scientific etymology has always stood out with sufficient clarity. Unfortunately, however, there are many such cases when it is not possible at all to draw a more or less clear line between these two seemingly different types of etymological explanations.

Some of the etymologies proposed by the Roman grammarian Varro for a long time belonged to the category of folk. More careful research has shown, however, that these explanations by Varro are supported by scientific analysis.

In the reasoning of one of the heroes of M. Gorky - Matvey Kozhemyakin - there is an idea that the word anger associated in origin with the word the fire. As an example confirming this etymology, Matvey Kozhemyakin refers to the verb fire in which he prefix about- considers as part of the root in the word fire (fire). The folk-etymo-logical nature of this explanation is absolutely indisputable.

But relatively recently, the well-known Russian etymologist V.V. Martynov put forward the same idea already as a scientific hypothesis. One of the main arguments of the author is also the word fire- only in its older form. V.V. Martynov gave interesting arguments in favor of his point of view, and, despite its controversy, this etymology should now be considered as a scientific hypothesis. Word example anger shows how conditional the boundaries between folk and scientific etymology can be. In some cases, the etymology, which for a long time was considered folk, may eventually receive universal scientific recognition. And, conversely, an etymology that appears as scientific may be on the same level as folk etymology.

Thus, folk etymology is not just a set of absurd and naive explanations of the origin of various words, but a complex phenomenon that often puts the researcher involved in the history of the word in a difficult position. The action of folk etymology has left numerous traces in the language. Moreover, these traces in a number of cases turned out to be so imperceptibly "disguised" that scientists are not always able to distinguish folk etymology from the true one. All this creates certain difficulties in the work of etymologists, forcing language researchers to attract more and more new material that allows them to penetrate into the most secret secrets of ancient word creation.

chapter twenty five

ETYMOLOGICAL MYTHS

R In the final chapter of our book, we will not talk about those legends and myths (without quotes!), which arise on the basis of folk etymological interpretations of the origin of the word (compare the myths and legends about Aphrodite, Athena, the Samara River, etc.). We will not be interested here in "mythical" (already in quotation marks), that is, fictitious etymologies like otter from tear out or audience from retire. The authors of these "etymologies" did not publish their explanations in etymological dictionaries, limiting themselves to the fact that they themselves "reached" the supposedly true meaning of the word. And if, for example, a bear is depicted on the arms of the cities of Berlin and Bern (in German Väg [ber]), then here too the folk etymology, which has penetrated into the field of heraldry, also remains limited to this narrow area.

It is a different matter when writers, linguists and even authors of etymological dictionaries offer explanations, decorating them with all sorts of “myths”, which should give the reader the impression of the plausibility of the etymology presented. Below are a few examples of this kind of etymological "myths".

How do elephants sleep? Oddly enough, this question is most directly related to the etymology of the word elephant. In the monuments of ancient Russian writing (XV century) you can find a fable, according to which elephant supposedly cannot bend its ruts, and therefore Whenever you want to save, dub sya slumbering to sleep(‘when he wants to sleep, he sleeps leaning against an oak tree’). It is on the basis of this folk etymological comparison ( elephant from the elephants) a number of serious etymologists (for example, A.G. Preobrazhensky) explain the origin of the Russian word elephant. The usual "myth" arose around the etymology of this word, which should confirm the correctness of the proposed explanation. Actually not a word elephant was formed from the verb lean, based on the belief that elephants seem to be sleeping without bending their legs, but, on the contrary, this belief itself arose as a result of a folk etymological comparison of the words elephant and (at) elephant.

Our word elephant, as we already know, apparently was the result of rethinking in the process of borrowing from the Turkic aslan[aslan] ‘lion’. Such rethinking of the names of animals, known only by hearsay, are not so rare in the language (above we came across an example where the ‘elephant’ turned into a ‘camel’).

Did they carry the plow across the ford? In Latin, there were two groups of words similar in their sound: 1) porta[porta] ‘gate’, portus[portus] ‘harbour’ (as if ‘sea gate of the city’) and 2) portare[portá: re] ‘to wear’. latin word portus penetrated to us through French mediation in the form of a noun port, and the root of the verb portare‘carry, carry, transport’ we find in Russian words import'import', export‘export’, transport(literally: ‘transportation’), etc.

Even in the 19th century, scientists tried to somehow etymologically connect similar words porta'gate' and portare'wear'. And they found a witty solution to this issue, based, it would seem, on historical facts. The author of the "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" G.P. Tsyganenko (Kyiv, 1970) seemed so convincing that she included it in her dictionary:

"Latin words porta'gate' and portus‘harbour’ are formed from the verb portare‘carry, carry’. Etymologically, the relationship between the concepts of ‘wear’ (portare) and ‘gate, harbor’ (porta, portus) is explained historically as follows: the ancient Romans had a custom at the foundation of the city, first to plow it, that is, to plow the line along which the city wall was supposed to pass. In those places where it was necessary to put the gate, the plow was carried by hand. From here porta literally ‘a place where they carry (a plow)’, then – ‘a place for entering - exiting, etc.’” (pp. 360-361).

The most interesting thing here is that such a custom among the ancient Romans really existed. And yet the explanation given is just a fiction at the level of folk etymology. From what is it visible? First of all, the Latin words porta and portus(with the original meaning ‘passage, entrance’) there are reliable Indo-European correspondences: German. furt[furt], English. ford[fo:d] ‘ford’, literally ‘passage (across the river)’. In Icelandic, the corresponding word, like Latin portus, means ‘harbour’ (it penetrated into the Russian language in the form fiord). How, in all these cases, to be with the carrying of a plow (through the ford!)? It is clear that before us is a word more ancient than the given Roman custom.

Finally, we find the general meaning of ‘passage’ in the ancient Greek word poros[poros] ‘crossing’, ‘strait’, ‘way’, which could not be formed from portare, nor from a similar Greek verb, because it has no suffix - t- and it reflects a more ancient word-formation model than the Latin verb. By the way, it should also be noted that the Greek poros in the meaning of ‘passage, hole (in the skin)’ through the Western European languages ​​also got into the Russian language: time, time‘openings of sweat glands on the surface of the skin’. Here, too, the reference to the plow would hardly have been appropriate.

This example shows that the most beautiful etymological "myth", based, it would seem, on firmly established historical facts, crumbles like a house of cards when seriously checked with the help of a linguistic comparative historical method.

O baba yage and about nonsense. One could write a voluminous book with a variety of etymologies that were proposed by writers from different countries and eras, from Homer to our days. But since Homer did not write anything about the etymology of Russian words, we will confine ourselves to examples from a somewhat later time.

V. Berestov in his memoirs says that S.Ya. Marshak was keenly interested in questions of etymology. Here is one of his impromptu etymologies:

« baba yaga- this, perhaps, is the Tatar "babay-aga" (old uncle). So in Russia in the days of Batu they scared children: Sleep, otherwise the babai-aga will take it ”

It should be emphasized that S. Ya. Marshak offered his etymology in a cautious form (“perhaps”), reported it in a friendly conversation (and not in print), without imposing his assumption on his interlocutors. Unfortunately, no matter how witty the explanation of S.Ya. Marshak, before us is the usual etymological "myth". Word yaga and its etymological "relatives" are widely represented in the West Slavic languages. Consequently, our word appeared long before Batu.

In other cases, writers are more categorical in their judgments. So, for example, A.M. Argo, in an interesting article “A little textology” (“Science and Life”, 1968, No. 6, pp. 120-122), writes too confidently about the origin of the word nonsense:

"Word nonsense along the line of least resistance, others derive from Latin grammatical forms: gerund and gerund.

The root is actually different.

When the first shipbuilders arrived in Russia under Peter the Great, they spoke mainly in German.

Accompanying their words with increased gestures, they showed the device of the masts, their installation and purpose, and at the same time sentenced ‘hier und da’, which in German means ‘back and forth’; in Russian pronunciation, it turned into ‘nonsense’, which means something obscure and unnecessary.”

In this passage, first of all, attention is drawn to the complete absence of arguments refuting the first etymology. She's just declared wrong. Meanwhile, book words of seminary origin gerund, nonsense, nonsense with a high degree of probability are erected by etymologists to the above Latin words. The fact is that the topic of “replacing a gerund with a gerund” is one of the most complex and confusing topics of Latin grammar. In the eyes of the seminarian, this was truly gerund.

In its positive part, the author of the new etymology also does not give a single argument, except for a typical etymological "myth" - a reference to German shipbuilders who really worked in Russia during the Petrine era. Here, too, a reference to a historical fact, as in the case of the plow with which the ancient Romans plowed the territory of the future city, should give the impression of the plausibility of the stated etymology.

President Jackson creates a new word. Anyone who has had to learn English knows how difficult it is to learn its spelling.

In English, there are cases when words written differently are pronounced the same. For example, right‘correct’ and rite‘rite’ have the same pronunciation: [right]. Conversely, two exactly the same spelled words can be pronounced differently: read‘reading’ is pronounced [ri:d], a read‘read’ [ed]. Often, the phonetic appearance undergoes such significant changes that almost nothing remains of the real “literal” content of the written word in its pronunciation. Yes, the word nature‘nature’ in English is pronounced [néyche]. the same letter a in English, very different sounds can be indicated (depending on its position in the word): [a], [o], [hey] and others. All this creates serious difficulties in mastering English spelling. The discrepancies between the spelling and pronunciation of English words are often so significant that they even say jokingly: “If it is written in English Manchester, then you should read Liverpool».

The President of the United States of America, Jackson, who lived more than a hundred years ago, preferred to write English words as they are heard. This can be judged by the following story, which is usually passed off as a true story. Somehow the president was brought a paper to sign. After reviewing the document, he approved it, saying at the same time: “All correct!” [ol correct] ‘everything is all right!’ or ‘everything is right’. As his resolution, the president wrote these words on the document, but he wrote them in an abbreviated form. According to the rules of English spelling, this abbreviation should have taken the form A.S.(all correct). But President Jackson did not write the letters that were required by spelling standards, but those that corresponded to the pronunciation of words: O.K. Since the last letter (to) called in the English alphabet kay[kay], the president's resolution was read: okay [óy kay]. Thus, with the help of President Jackson, a new word, very popular at the present time, appeared in the English language: okay ‘everything is in order!’.

Alas, this curious story is also just an etymological "myth". For those who are interested in the origin of the word OK, it will be useful to get acquainted with the article by J.Zh. Warbot "OK", published in the journal "Russian speech" (1983, No. 5).

A few more etymological "myths". S.S. Narovchatov, who wrote an excellent article "Language" in the journal "Science and Life" (1969, No. 10), is also not always careful enough when he touches on etymological issues. For example, he confidently states that the word bear etymologically means ‘one who knows honey’ (actually: ‘honey badger’) or what Spring"easily explained by a single root word" clear(in fact, these words have different origins). And here we have a familiar type of etymological “myth”: “Daughter” is “milking”: in the old days, the younger members of the female half of the family were entrusted with the duty to milk cattle” (p. 104). The error here is not in the word matching itself. daughter and milk, but in explaining this connection and in an unfortunate reference to the customs of "old times". In fact, the word daughter etymologically means not ‘milking, milker’, but ‘sucking’ or ‘breastfeeding’. This very widespread semantic model for naming children can be visualized - using the example of the same verb milk- illustrated with the help of Slovak material: dojcit"[doychit] ‘breastfeed’ - dojca[deutsch] ‘baby’ (compare also: dojka[milking] ‘nurse’).

Outside the Russian language, Slavic and Indo-European "relatives" of the verb milk usually have the meanings 'breastfeed' and 'suck' (breast). Word daughter, Genitive daughters, has reliable correspondences in a number of Indo-European languages: Lithuanian. dukte[ducté:], genitive dukters[duktyars], other Indian. duhita[dukhita:], other Greek. thygater[thyugate: r], gothic. dauhtar[dókhtar] and others.

Consequently, the expression "in the old days" used by S.S. Narovchatov, should be understood not in the sense of 200-300 or even 1000, but at least 5-6 thousand years ago. And to transfer to this ancient era the contemporary meaning of the Russian word milk to explain the Indo-European in its origin, the word is hardly expedient.

In the same article we find another example of mixing different chronological eras. Paying attention to the fact that in the Latin word ursus[ýpcyc] ‘bear’, also in French ours, Italian orso[ópco], Persian arsa[ársa], etc. there is a combination rs S.S. Narovchatov makes an assumption (which, however, he himself admits is “too bold”) that in the Old Slavonic language “the name of this beast sounded something like ‘ros’”. And from here - Ros‘bear river’ and ‘bear tribe’ - ros. And then the author of the article continues:

“What if my guess is not so arbitrary, and it turns out that the ‘bears’ of the Russians (?! - Yu. O. ) was once called not only good-naturedly ironically, but also according to the initial meaning of this word. This ‘once upon a time’ refers, however, to the times of Askold and Dir, and perhaps even God, but the guess from such a circumstance does not become less entertaining” (p. 109).

Here, first of all, the presence of the same chronological "scissors" is striking: the involvement of the material of the Indo-European languages, reflecting the prehistoric era of five or six thousand years ago - on the one hand, a reference to a relatively late historical era (Askold and Dir - Kyiv princes of the 9th century AD). BC), which, by the way, seems to the author to be very ancient, on the other.

It should be noted that already in the Proto-Slavic era, the Slavs had a taboo name for a bear - ‘honey badger’. No traces of the ancient Indo-European name of this beast have been preserved in any Slavic language. Since there are no traces of it in the Baltic languages ​​closest to Slavic, one must think that this ancient name for the bear was lost by our ancestors even before the Slavic languages ​​were separated into an independent group. Thus, the assumption that in the time of Askold and Dir "Russians" were called "bears" hangs in the air.

Back forward

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Lesson goals.

Creating conditions for each student to understand the role of comparative historical analysis in determining the lexical meaning of words.

Development of creative, critical and heuristic thinking.

Education of a value attitude to the origins of the Russian language.

Lesson objectives.

1. To form a positive motivation for the studied section of linguistics.
2. To teach to argue the relationship of words through comparative historical analysis.
3. Develop the ability to use an etymological dictionary.
4. Learn how to solve etymological problems.
5. Help students realize their creative and analytical skills.

Used technologies: theory of development of critical thinking, heuristic technologies, problematic method.

During the classes

Stage 1.

Student motivation

Everything has a name - both the beast and the object.
There are a lot of things around, but there are no nameless ones ...
Language is both old and forever new!
And it's so beautiful
In the vast sea - the sea of ​​​​words -
Bathe daily!

The language in which we think and speak is always a reflection of our essence. But how often do we think, for some reason or another phenomenon, an object is called so? Do you want to discover the secret of the birth of words by looking into the depths of centuries? Our lesson will help you with this.

This lesson does not apply to any of the sections of linguistics studied in the school curriculum. But it is closely related to each of them. Knowledge of phonetics will help you understand the phonetic processes occurring in our language. Morphemics and word formation will give new discoveries. Morphology is also indispensable here. Do you want to know why all the names of nationalities are nouns and only Russians are an adjective? Dare! All in your hands!

Stage 2.

Setting lesson goals

Are you good at setting goals and achieving them? Let's try! Set your goals for today's lesson. Write them down in a notebook.

Get to know the goals of the other students (for this I suggest you exchange notebooks with your nearest neighbors). Maybe there are some of your like-minded people among them. After all, it is much easier to go to the intended goal if you feel a friendly shoulder nearby.

Formulate questions that you would like to receive answers to in our lesson. (Questions are put on the board)

Select those of the other students' questions that you can now answer. Share your knowledge with them.

Reflection of activity.

1. What feelings and sensations did you have while working on the goals?
2. What are your main results in completing the assignment? What made it possible to achieve them?

Stage 3

The topic of our lesson is “Fascinating etymology”. Who knows what etymology is? By the second root, you can guess that this is science. But science about what?

Back in 1806, N. Yanovsky gave the following definition of etymology: "Word origin, word production; the true product of the beginning of words or an explanation of their exact meaning." What do you think, which of the words of this definition is a translation from the Greek. etymon? - "truth, the true meaning of the word." So, today we will be engaged in the search for the truth with you!

Pay attention to the second version of the topic of our lesson. What word fascinates in it? Maybe "secrets"? Try to name a few associations for this word. Do any of you among these associations have the word “detective”? I don't know why, but it was this association that led me to the idea of ​​inviting you to the detective agency today.

What do you think the name of our detective agency will be? Suggest your name for this agency. Don't forget the theme of our lesson!

Exercise 1. "Detective agency"

Purpose: to give a name to the detective agency.

Task execution algorithm:

1. Think about the name of a detective agency that deals with the etymology of words. Suggest your agency name. Maybe you can suggest several variants of the name?
2. Try to imagine what the agency's premises look like. You can use the Paint program and reflect your ideas in the attached file. If you do not like to draw, you can capture your sketch in writing. Justify the need for things you have chosen as attributes of a detective agency.
3. Reflection: Ask our fictional detective a question. What would you like to ask him?

And we boldly open the doors and enter the detective agency "Look at the root." How do you understand the word "see"? And what, from your point of view, does the expression in the name of our agency mean?

The word "root" has many meanings. Choose from the proposed values ​​the one that matches our theme:

1. Underground part of plants.
2. The internal part of the tooth, hair, located in the body.
3. Root of the equation.
4. In words (in linguistics: the main, significant part of the word).
5. Beginning, origin, source of something.

Stage 4

Every science has its own discoverer. We have a “identikit” of this person.

Task 2. "Identikit"

Purpose: to develop observation, the ability to see the "invisible", to learn how to create a characterization of a person according to his external data.

Task execution algorithm:

1. Describe the presented portrait. Imagine what this person could be, paying attention to the look, forehead, chin, face oval.
2. Compare your guesses with those of other students. Note which probable qualities you missed, and which ones you noted with particular accuracy.
3. Reflection. Describe how you feel when you complete this task. Is it true that the eyes are the window to the soul?

Before us is a portrait of A. Kh. Vostokov. Let's turn the pages of history...

The island of Saaremaa (Ezele), the city of Ahrensburg (later Kingisepp, now Kuressaare), which is on the coast of the Gulf of Riga. March 16, 1781. A boy was born in the German Ostenek family. Happy parents named the newborn Alexander. Could they have then assumed that their son in the near future would change his surname Ostenek to Vostokov, would consider himself Russian and go down in the history of world science as an outstanding Russian philologist, although they predicted a different future for him, prepared for another career.

But the most favorite pastime of A.Kh. Vostokova was to compare, contrast the words of different languages, find common and different in them.

This is a very exciting activity. So many interesting things to discover! Have you ever tried to match words from different languages? Of course, to do this, you need to know languages. But if you study in a serious educational institution, then you study not even one, but several languages, including, perhaps, ancient ones: Latin, Old Slavonic. Here are the cards for you.

In the archive of manuscripts A.Kh. Vostokov keeps a small notebook (only eight sheets), on which is written in his hand: "Root and primitive words of the Slavic language." Can you guess what these words are that the researcher called indigenous and primitive? This means that not all words were of interest to A.Kh. Vostokov, but consisting only of the root, the most ancient, primitive. Think about what a capacious definition for words - primitives. These are the first formed ones (then derivatives will be created from them, nests of related words will form, and the primitives will head them, become the tops of word-forming nests) and, as it were, conveying the first image, i.e. the characteristic that served as the basis for the name.

Want to know a little more about this amazing man? Let's call on the help of the Internet and the queen of science, the Book. With their help, you can answer the question: What contribution did A. Kh. Vostokov make to the development of etymology?

It will be yours homework.

Purpose: understanding the significance of the scientist's contribution to the development of science.

The task can be completed in the following ways:

1. A letter of thanks to A. Kh. Vostokov from the distant future.
2. Ode "On the day of the discovery of great etymology."
3. Your variant

Stage 5

And we will continue our acquaintance with the detective of the agency “Look at the Root” and will try to look “inside” the words together with him.

We are so accustomed to words ... We read, write, talk, laugh, joke, sing, and even quarrel. We need language like we need air. But how rarely do we think about how the word appeared, what is its history and origin. Etymology studies the history and origin of the word, and is an important section of the history of the language, without knowing which we can only describe facts, objects, almost completely without explaining them. Science explains them.

However, the establishment of the "original" meaning of the word does not exhaust the tasks of etymological research. In their development, words usually undergo various changes. In particular, the sound image of the word is changing. For example, the ancient form in the morning in modern Russian it sounds like tomorrow. The restoration of an older form often makes it possible to clarify the etymology of the word. That's the way it is with the word tomorrow. In itself, it is etymologically incomprehensible. And here is the form in the morning puts everything in its place: morning - tomorrow is the time that follows the morning.

Task 3. "Let's follow"

Purpose: to get acquainted with etymological dictionaries, to learn, using comparative phonetic analysis, to distinguish from the presented words words formed by changes at the phonetic level.

Task execution algorithm:

1. Get acquainted with etymological dictionaries, for example, with the “Historical and Etymological Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” by P.Ya. same authors; “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” G.P. Tsyganenko.
2. Carefully consider the construction of entries in these dictionaries. What information do they carry?
3. Compare the words of the modern language and the original ones, i.e. the words from which the data was formed.
4. Mark those of them in the formation of which phonetic changes are observed.
5. Write down 5-10 words you found and send to the forum.
6. Check out other students' answers. Ask them to prove the presence of phonetic changes in the words that interest you.

stage 6

To restore the oldest stages of the history of the word available to us, to reveal the reasons that led to the emergence of the word, to determine its closest “relatives” - these are the main tasks facing etymology.

Such tasks are now before us.

Task 4. "Find relatives"

Purpose: to trace the “pedigree” of words up to its etymological birth, to learn how to argue the relationship of words through comparative historical analysis.

1. Words given: swamp, lord, wet, hairy, volost, cure, elbow, possess, get along, passion. Among them there are three words that go back to the same common Slavic root. Find them.
2. Group the following words into derivational nests: crafty, bend, ray, radiant, lukomorye, torch, basket, radiant, pay, archer, case, better.

Task 5. “Let's take it apart”

Purpose: to compare the morphemic structure of words from a modern and historical point of view.

Reflection tasks 3-5.

By completing the previous tasks, you have become more closely acquainted with what etymology does. You have explored the origin of words, the historical processes that take place within words. Try to compose a syncwine with the word "etymology".

Algorithm for compiling a syncwine:

Line 1 – noun (“etymology”)

Line 2 - 2-3 adjectives that you associate with this noun

3rd line - 2-3 verbs

Line 4 - a noun that is an antonym for this concept for you (fashionably situational)

5 line - a phrase reflecting our concept

If some of you have not yet met with the compilation of syncwines, then maybe this example will help you understand the essence of the task:

Coniferous, green, immense
Grows, fascinates, gives
Generous Siberian taiga
Take care!

Stage 7

There are many different games in the world. But is it possible to play etymology? It turns out you can. Such a game was invented by linguists, pursuing an entertaining, humorous goal, since they deliberately gave a false etymological interpretation of the words of the Russian language, hence the unusual name "pseudo-etymology".

Take for example the word lefty. It was formed from the adjective left + sha and means "a person who does everything with his left hand." But you can also give a playful interpretation: to the noun a lion add a suffix -w-, the word was formed lefty meaning "female lion". Or, for example, the word contract in scientific etymology has the meaning “agreement”, then in pseudoetymology dog-o-thief will mean “a person who steals Great Danes”.

The following words can be explained in the same way: breakfast- "dreaming about the future" insured- "intimidated" colic- "syringes" superman- soup lover blank- "stupid woman", banker- sweeping bank solarium- "the place of extraction of salt."

In pseudoetymology, the main thing is to find such a sound complex in a given word that would to some extent resemble the sound complexes of the root part of another word that is close to the first one. It is the sound that is linked to the content. For example, martin- "a woman in flippers." Thus, pseudoetymology is a deliberate misinterpretation of a word based on the sound similarity of words that have different meanings.

Task 6. “Pseudo-etymological dictionary”

Purpose: to compile your own “pseudo-etymological” dictionary.

Execution algorithm:

1. Take a look around you. Make a list of objects, phenomena that surround you. You can pick up adjectives, verbs for them.
2. Try to look at the written words from a different point of view, unusual for you. Maybe a swede will turn into a trouser leg for you, and a fork into a small country house.
3. Write down your definitions of items. Choose the most successful and interesting from your point of view.
4. Write down your vocabulary entries alphabetically.
5. If you wish, you can arrange the resulting dictionary. Get creative with it. Maybe there will be illustrations in it?

Task reflection: write a miniature “Is it difficult to be a linguist?”.

Stage 8

The word for us is the most important means of communication, a means of perception of works of fiction. But the word is also of interest in itself: each word has its own origin, its own history, its own phonetic and morphological appearance, its own meaning. All the words that we speak hold the secret of our birth. And it is very interesting to solve it. And of course, here you can not do without the most diverse literature - you want to look into encyclopedias and dictionaries, open a geographical atlas, look through history books. We'll have to reason, think logically, compare. But the result is worth it. After all, etymology is a science full of unsolved mysteries, mysteries dating back to the distant past, and the stubborn and inquisitive are sure to be discovered.

Etymology is a complex and multifaceted science. She always requires a creative approach. Here it is impossible, having learned a few specific rules, to wait for ready-made answers to all questions. In many cases, these answers are not yet available; they are yet to be obtained by future researchers.

Etymology is a science in which there is a place for discoveries and discoveries. For a long time to come, it will attract to itself those who are thoughtful about the word, are interested in its history, strive to understand and explain the changes that are taking place in it.

Task 7. Lesson reflection.

1. Remember the content of the lesson. Mark which tasks were difficult for you, which ones were simple and uninteresting. Pick up epithets for each of the tasks.
2. At the beginning of the lesson, you formulated questions that you would like to receive an answer to. Mark the ones for which you received this answer. Are there any unanswered questions? Do not despair! After the lesson, together we will choose a direction and outline ways to find answers to your questions.
3. Remember your goals that you set at the beginning of the lesson. Which of them have you achieved? What helped you achieve your goals? Maybe it was some personal qualities? What else do you need to work on? Divide a sheet of paper into two halves. On the left write down those skills and abilities that you, from your point of view, already possess, and on the right - those that you still lack. If there are entries on the right side of the sheet, then you have something to strive for, then there is a goal ahead! I wish you success!

When speaking a language, we rarely think about how the words we use came into being and how their meanings may have changed over time. Etymology is the name of the science of the history of vocabulary and the origin of words.

New words appear literally every day. Some do not linger in the language, while others remain. Words, like people, have their own history, their own destiny. They can have relatives, a rich pedigree, and, on the contrary, be complete orphans. The Word can tell us about one's nationality, about one's parents, about one's origin.

Railway station

The word comes from the name of the place "Vauxhall" - a small park and entertainment center near London. The Russian Tsar, who visited this place, fell in love with it - in particular, the railway. Subsequently, he commissioned British engineers to build a small railway from St. Petersburg to his country residence. One of the stations on this section of the railway was called "Vokzal", and this name later became the Russian word for any railway station.

Hooligan

The word bully is of English origin. It is believed that the surname Houlihan was once a well-known London brawler, who brought a lot of trouble to the inhabitants of the city and the police. The surname has become a household name, and the word is international, characterizing a person who grossly violates public order.

Shit

The word "shit" comes from the Proto-Slavic "govno", which means "cow" and was originally associated only with cow "cakes". "Beef" - "cattle", hence "beef", "beef". By the way, from the same Indo-European root and the English name of the cow - cow, as well as the shepherd of these cows - cowboy. That is, the expression "fucking cowboy" is not accidental, it has a deep family connection.

Orange

Until the 16th century, Europeans had no idea about oranges at all. Russians, even more so. We don't grow oranges! And then the Portuguese navigators brought these delicious orange balls from the eastern countries. And they began to trade with their neighbors. Those, of course, asked: “Where do the apples come from?” - because they have not heard of oranges, but in shape this fruit looks like an apple. Merchants honestly answered: “Apples from China, Chinese!” In Dutch, "apple" is appel, and Chinese is sien.

Doctor

In the old days, they treated with conspiracies, spells, various whispers. The ancient healer, the sorcerer, said to the patient something like this: “Go away, illness, to the quicksands, to the dense forests ...” And he muttered various words over the ill. Do you know what muttering, chatter was called until the beginning of the 19th century? Muttering, chatter was then called a lie. To mutter meant "to lie." The one who trumpets is the trumpeter, the one who weaves is the weaver, and the one who lies is the doctor.

Scammer

In Russia, swindlers were not called deceivers or thieves at all. This was the name of the masters who made the moshna, i.e. wallets.

Restaurant

The word "restaurant" means "strengthening" in French. This name was given in the 18th century to one of the Parisian taverns by its visitors after the owner of the Boulanger establishment introduced nutritious meat broth to the number of dishes on offer.

Heaven

One version is that the Russian word "heaven" comes from "not, no" and "bes, demons" - literally a place free from evil/demons. However, another interpretation is probably closer to the truth. Most Slavic languages ​​have words similar to "sky", and they probably originated from the Latin word for "cloud" (nebula).

Slates

In the Soviet Union, a well-known manufacturer of rubber slippers was the Polymer plant in the city of Slantsy, Leningrad Region. Many buyers believed that the word “Slates” squeezed out on the soles was the name of the shoe. Further, the word entered the active vocabulary and became a synonym for the word "slippers".

nonsense

At the end of the last century, the French physician Gali Mathieu treated his patients with jokes.
He gained such popularity that he did not keep up with all the visits and sent his healing puns by mail.
This is how the word “nonsense” arose, which at that time meant a healing joke, a pun.
The doctor immortalized his name, but at present this concept has a completely different meaning.