2. Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century: political and economic situation; political parties.

3. The first Russian revolution of 1905-1907

Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

The turn of the first and second half of the XIX century. became the Crimean (Eastern) War of 1853-1856. Nicholas the First died in 1855. His successor was Alexander II, Tsar Liberator(1855-1881). Alexander II was the eldest son of the king, he was prepared to take the throne. Under the guidance of V.A. Zhukovsky, he was brought up in the spirit of lofty spiritual and moral interests, received an excellent education, knew five languages, military affairs, at the age of 26 he became a “full general”. After graduation, he traveled around Russia and many European countries. He had a broad outlook, a sharp mind, refined manners, was a charming and kind person. He had liberal views. Nicholas the First introduced him to the State Council and the Committee of Ministers, entrusted him with the leadership of the Secret Committees on peasant affairs. By the time of his accession to the throne, he was well prepared for state activity. Alexander II initiated the reforms that put Russia on the path of capitalism. The main reason for reform was the defeat in the Crimean War. The war showed the degree of backwardness of the Russian recruit army and sailing fleet, weapons from the mass armies of European countries, a new type of ships and weapons. To overcome the new, humiliating position of Russia on the world stage, it was necessary to overcome backwardness in the military and economic spheres, which was impossible without reforms. Other reasons were the growing uprisings of the peasants, the tsar's sympathy for the peasants under the influence of Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter, and the educational system developed for the prince by Zhukovsky.

The first and most significant was agrarian reform of 1861. Her preparation took about 6 years. In 1856, speaking to the Moscow nobility, the tsar said: “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will itself begin to be abolished from below.” Since 1857, the development of a plan for the liberation of the serfs was carried out by a secret committee, the work was headed by the tsar himself. In response to the appeal of the Lithuanian nobles, Alexander II announced a rescript addressed to the Vilna Governor-General V.I. Nazimov, who allowed the creation of committees in 3 provinces to develop projects for the liberation of the peasants. In 1858, the Main Committee on the Peasant Question was created under the leadership of the Minister of the Interior S.S. Lansky and provincial committees. In 1859, editorial commissions were created to consider projects submitted by provincial committees. The publication and discussion of any proposed projects for the liberation of the peasants was allowed. The reform was based on the plan of the public school historian K.D. Kavelin. In January 1861, the reform project was submitted by the Main Committee to the State Council and approved by the tsar. February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed Manifesto about the liberation of the peasants "Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom", which included documents on the procedure for implementing the reform in the field. Former privately owned peasants entered the class of free rural inhabitants and received civil and economic rights. Main directions of reform: liberation of serfs from personal dependence; giving them land for ransom; the retention by the landowners of at least 1/3 of the land they owned before the reform; allotment land was transferred to the ownership of the peasant community; the provision of loans by the state to peasants for a redemption operation. Land was allocated only to peasants, other categories of serfs were released without allotments. Allotment size was determined in the provinces of different regions from 3 to 12 acres; if a peasant agreed to an allotment equal to ¼ of the prescribed norm, it was given to him free of charge. The landowner had the right to cut the size below the minimum rate if he would have left less than 1/3 of the land that he owned before the reform, subject to the norms. The redemption act was fixed in charter concluded between the landowner and the peasant, it fixed the location of the plots included in the allotment, their size, price, types of payments, etc. Before drawing up the charter between the peasant and the landlord, temporarily liable relations. The landowner was obliged to provide the peasant with land for use, and the peasants were obliged to perform any work, pay dues, that is, the connection between them did not stop. An institute mediators. The peasant immediately had to pay the landowner 20-25% of the cost of the allotment, the remaining 75-80% was provided by the state to the peasants in the form of a loan, which was given for 49 years, repaid by the annual payments of the peasants with an accrual of 6% per annum. The peasants had to unite in rural societies. They introduced self management: affairs were decided at rural gatherings, decisions were carried out by village elders, elected for three years. Rural societies of one locality constituted a rural volost, its affairs were in charge of an assembly of village elders and special elected representatives from rural communities. The redemption payments were paid annually in aggregate by the rural society. A peasant who did not want to buy land and remain at his former place of residence could not leave his allotment and leave without the consent of society. Such consent was given with difficulty, because. society was interested in buying out as much land as possible. The reform progress was very slow. At the conclusion of redemption acts in the chernozem and non-chernozem provinces, cuts of land from the peasants prevailed, in the steppe - cuts. After the death of Alexander II, his successor in December 1881. publishes a law on the termination of temporarily liable relations between peasants and landowners and on the obligatory purchase of land plots. It came into force on January 1, 1884, by that time 11-15% of the peasants had retained temporary obligations. The law slightly reduced the amount of redemption payments (in Great Russia - by 1 ruble per shower allotment, in Ukraine - by 16%). The law came into force in 1884. In 1882 was established Peasant Land Bank, which provided loans to peasants secured by property with 6.5% per annum. In case of delay in payments, allotments were sold at auction, which led to the ruin of many peasants. AT 1885 city ​​was formed Noble Land Bank to support landowners in the conditions of capitalist development, loans were issued at 4.5% per annum. The action of the agrarian reform of 1861 extended to the landlord peasants of 47 provinces of Russia. With respect to other categories of dependent peasantry, appanage and state peasants a similar reform was carried out in 1863 and 1866 gg. For outlying areas- even later, on the basis of special "Regulations" and on more favorable terms. In the most favorable conditions in comparison with the central provinces were Right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus and especially Poland. In Poland (1864), the peasants received plots without redemption, they even slaughtered part of the landowners' land, taking it away from the gentry, who took over in the uprising of 1863-1864. The peasants were in the worst position. Georgia from which more than 40% of the land was cut off. In the North Caucasus, the peasants lost almost all their land and paid a significant amount for their personal liberation. In Russia, the agrarian reform was carried out mainly according to the Prussian version, which ensured the slow development of capitalism in agriculture. Despite the features of limitations, this reform had exceptional value. The personal dependence, the almost slavish position of millions of the country's population, has disappeared. A labor market has emerged. Capitalism began to develop actively.

Zemstvo reform was carried out according to the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" dated January 1, 1864. In a number of provinces of Russia, district and provincial zemstvos - public bodies of local self-government. The main reason for their creation was the need to equip the life of the post-reform village in conditions when the few local administrative staff were unable to cope with the problems on their own. The government handed over the "less significant" cases to public local governments. Initially, zemstvos were created in 7 provinces, then their number constantly increased, until the liquidation of these bodies by the Soviet government. The competence of zemstvos: farm insurance, stocking food and seeds, ensuring fire safety, creating a health care system and primary care, providing veterinary care, epidemic control, agronomic assistance, caring for the state of communications, building roads, bridges, caring for the post office, telegraph, about economic support of prisons and charitable institutions, assistance in the development of local industry and trade. For their activities, the zemstvos were allowed to impose dues and duties on the population of the uyezds, create zemstvo capital, and acquire property. Zemstvos had executive and administrative bodies. Administrative bodies - county and provincial zemstvo meetings, at the head of them, as a rule, were, as a rule, provincial and district marshals of the nobility. Executive bodies - county (chairman and 2 members of the council) and provincial (chairman and 6-12 members of the council) zemstvo councils and their chairmen were elected. The chairman of the provincial zemstvo council was approved by the minister of internal affairs, the county - by the governor. The bourgeois content of the zemstvo reform was that representatives of the zemstvos were elected by the population for a term of 3 years. Voters were divided into 3 curiae(groups) by property qualification. The first curia consisted of large landowners who had at least 200 acres and owners of large commercial and industrial enterprises and real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles. The urban voters were represented by the big and, to some extent, the middle bourgeoisie. The 3rd curia was represented by peasant societies; only landowners who had at least 10 acres of land or the corresponding income from other property participated in their gatherings for elections to zemstvos. For the 1st and 2nd curia, the elections were direct, for the 3rd they were staged: electors were elected at rural gatherings, who at volost meetings elected electors who elected vowels. Elections to the provincial zemstvo assembly took place at the district zemstvo assembly. The number of vowels to be elected was distributed in such a way as to ensure the predominance of representatives from the landowners. The weakness of the position of the zemstvos manifested itself in the absence of an all-Russian central body coordinating their activities, they had a limited budget, they did not have the right to publish reports of their meetings without permission, they were forbidden to engage in political activities. In addition, after the zemstvo counter-reform of 1890, they were placed under the petty control of the local administration and were forced to report annually to the provincial authorities on their expenses, to justify the requested budget for the next year. Despite all the prohibitions, the zemstvos began to organize congresses of their representatives, where they exchanged, published statements, and constantly communicating with the peasants, taking care of the needs of the poor, the representatives of the zemstvos were imbued with sympathy for them and at the beginning of the 20th century a new socio-political trend appeared - zemstvo liberalism. Meaning performance of these bodies exceeded the expected results. They not only conscientiously performed the functions assigned to them, but also went beyond them, for example, they set up schools to train teachers for zemstvo schools, sent promising peasant children to study at universities, created a constantly replenishing staff of zemstvo agronomists, experimental fields, exhibitions of equipment and etc.

urban reform on " City regulation June 16, 1870." provided for the creation in the cities all-estate self-government bodies, whose representatives were elected from the population paying taxes and performing duties. To participate in the elections, the urban population was divided into 3 curia according to property: large, medium and small owners. Each curia elected 1/3 of the vowels to the city Duma- governing body. Their term of office is 4 years. Compound city ​​council(permanent executive body) elected vowel dumas from their midst. They also elected mayor, who led the council, his candidacy was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The competence of city self-government bodies, principles of activity, reporting, etc. were similar to those of the Zemstvo. Their activity was supervised by the “provincial presence for city affairs” under the chairmanship of the governor.

Judicial reform 1864 was the most consistent of the liberal-bourgeois reforms of the 19th century. The decree on it and the “New Judicial Charters” were approved by the tsar on November 20, 1864. The need to rebuild the judicial system was caused, first of all, by the abolition of serfdom and the liquidation of the feudal court. Principles new judicial system: non-estate, publicity, competitiveness of the trial, the introduction of the institution of jurors, the independence and irremovability of judges. The whole country was divided into judicial districts and world lots, their borders did not coincide with the administrative ones in order to avoid pressure on judges from the administration. Handled minor civil and criminal cases magistrate's Court, cassation cases were considered by the congress of justices of the peace. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies and city dumas according to lists approved by the governor, and finally approved by the Senate. A judge could not be dismissed, re-elected, except in cases where he committed a crime; however, it was possible to transfer him to another district. The main structural unit of the new judicial system was district Court with criminal and civil divisions. Cases were considered by judges: the chairman and members of the court, appointed by the government. For the most important cases in composition of the court included the chairman, members of the court and jurors, drawn by lot from trustworthy citizens of the district. The hearing of the case was held in the presence of the accused (respondent) and the victim (plaintiff), his defense counsel, the prosecutor-prosecutor. The prosecutor and the lawyer conduct a judicial investigation, on the basis of which the jury renders a verdict (after a secret meeting) on ​​the guilt or innocence of the defendant, on the basis of this, the court passes a sentence, imposing a sentence or releasing the defendant. Civil lawsuits were heard without a jury. Cases of cassation were considered by the judicial chamber (9-12 district judges), the highest court was the Senate and its local departments. The inconsistency of the court was initially violated the existence of special systems of courts for a number of categories of the population. For the peasants there was a special parish court; a special court consistory- for the clergy; cases of senior officials considered directly Senate; there were several ships for the military ( tribunal, court-martial, regimental court); for political processes were introduced military courts, special presences under the Senate and administrative punitive measures (without trial).

Before judicial reform, 1863., were corporal punishment abolished for unprivileged estates, with the exception of peasants (bows were kept according to the verdicts of volost courts), exiles, convicts and penal soldiers (bows).

Military reforms were actively carried out in 1862-1884, they were started by the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. The structure of the military ministry was simplified, the departments were enlarged. The country was divided into military districts, headed by district commanders, who were responsible for all matters (supply, recruitment, training, etc.), the military units of the district were subordinate to him. Since 1863, part of the soldiers were dismissed on indefinite leave, without waiting for the end of the 25-year service life, they made up the reserve. AT 1874. was accepted new military regulations, was introduced universal military service, recruitment sets were canceled. Men of all classes, who reached the age of 20-21, were required to undergo an active 6-year service in the ground forces and a 7-year one in the navy, then they were transferred to the reserve for 9 years and 3 years, respectively. With a large population of Russia, they were called up for service by lot, the rest made up the militia and underwent military training. Exempted from compulsory service the only breadwinners in the family, people with education, doctors, teachers of schools and gymnasiums, artists of the imperial theaters, railway workers, confessors, as well as "foreigners" as unreliable. The conscription of persons who started commercial activities was delayed for 5 years. For officer training introduced a network of new educational institutions. The cadet corps, except for the Page, Finland and Orenburg corps, were closed, instead they were created military schools(6 schools with 3-year training), their graduates received the rank of second lieutenant. The contingent for schools was prepared military gymnasiums(18 gymnasiums with a 7-year term of study) and gymnasium(8 with 4 years of study). In 1882 they were all again converted to cadet corps, but on the basis of combining the programs of gymnasiums and military schools. For higher military education were created military academies and naval academies. Persons who graduated from a military school and served in the army for at least 5 years were admitted to the academy. In 1884 were created cadet schools with a 2-year training, soldiers who showed the ability to serve and completed their active service were admitted there, graduates were not awarded an officer rank, they received it at the place of service at a vacancy. In the infantry, officers-nobles accounted for 46-83%, in the navy - 73%. The army was re-equipped. As a result of the reforms, the army became more professionally prepared, had a large reserve, and the leadership system became more effective.

Were held reforms in education and censorship. According to the "Regulations" of 1864, the initial public schools public organizations and individuals could be opened (with the permission of government bodies), the management of the education (programs, etc.) was carried out by officials, school councils and boards of directors and inspectors of schools; the educational process was strictly regulated (instructions, etc.). Children of all classes, ranks and religions had the right to study. But in the gymnasiums there was a high tuition fee. Classical gymnasiums with a 7-year term of study (from 1871 - with an 8-year term) prepared students for entering universities, mainly for the training of civil servants. Real gymnasiums(later - real schools) with a 6-year course were called upon to train personnel for industry and trade, their graduates were given access to higher technical educational institutions, they were not accepted to universities. The division of the secondary school into two types was focused on teaching children of nobles and officials in classical schools, in real ones - children of the bourgeoisie. Introduction women's gymnasiums laid the foundation for women's secondary education. Women were not allowed in universities. In the field higher education there have been significant changes. In the 1860s-1870s. universities were opened in Odessa, Warsaw, Helsingfors (Finland), the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy in Moscow, the Polytechnic Institute in Riga, the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in Alexandria (Ukraine), higher women's courses in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kyiv. AT 1863. new University charter restoring their autonomy. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector, deans and the new faculty. But the activities of universities were supervised by the Minister of Education and trustees of the educational district. Student organizations were not allowed. AT 1865. introduced "Temporary Rules on Printing", which abolished preliminary censorship for periodicals and books of small volume published in capital cities.

Several assassination attempts were made on the Tsar-Liberator by members of revolutionary organizations. After the bombing in the Winter Palace, Alexander II created the Supreme Administrative Commission to lead the country, headed by Count M.T. Loris-Melikov, who was appointed Minister of the Interior. It got the name "dictatorships of Loris-Melikov", "dictatorships of the heart". Loris-Melikov actively fought against terrorism, abolished the Third Department, which had shown its inconsistency, and instead created the Police Department, which was part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Conservative ministers were removed from the government, supporters of reforms took their place, at the same time a conservative, an apologist for the autocracy, K.P. Pobedonostsev, became the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod. Censorship was weakened, the tsar instructed Loris-Melikov to develop a reform program for the coming years. Projects have been prepared (Constitution of Loris-Melikov) but have not been implemented. March 1, 1881 Alexander II was assassinated Narodnaya Volya.

He ascended the throne Alexander III, Tsar-Peacemaker(1845-1894, emperor since 1881). He was not prepared for the reign, he took the throne due to the death of his elder brother. He received an education corresponding to the position of the Grand Duke, was a diligent student and pupil, was not stupid, but did not have sharpness of mind, he loved military affairs more than other subjects. Rough, rustic and unpretentious in everyday life, he ruled as if "carrying out the duties of a king" with his inherent conscientiousness. During his reign, Russia did not participate in wars. The king believed that the country should deal with internal problems. By conviction, he was a conservative, a supporter of the "inviolability of autocracy", which was stated in the Manifesto on April 29, 1881, developed by Pobedonostsev. He rejected the petition for pardon for the first of March. The reign of Alexander III marks transition to reaction and counter-reforms aimed at partially curtailing the liberal reforms of the predecessor. After the tsarist Manifesto, all ministers who supported reforms resigned, and Pobedonostsev selected candidates for their places.

Started before others judicial counter-reform. In August 1881 was published " Regulations on measures for the protection of state order and public peace": the governors were given the right to declare the provinces "in a state of enhanced and emergency protection", to transfer to a military court "for state crimes or attacks on the ranks of the army, police and all officials in general", to demand a closed trial. This provision, introduced for 3 years, was in effect until 1917. 1887 was published law restricting public sittings in court. The court was given the right to close the doors to the public, which created opportunities for arbitrariness. For the same purpose, a number of changes were made to the provisions of the judicial reform. Since July 1889 law on zemstvo chiefs the world court was abolished, its functions were transferred to new judicial and administrative officials - district zemstvo chiefs. They had the right to suspend the decisions of the volost court, appoint volost judges, impose fines and arrest administratively. Supervision over the execution of their decisions was carried out by provincial presences headed by the governor. Influenced by workers' struggle the drafting of the all-Russian labor legislation began. In 1885, a law was passed prohibiting women and adolescents from working at night. In 1886 - a law on the procedure for hiring and firing, on streamlining fines and payment of wages, the institution of factory inspectors was introduced to control its observance. In 1887 - a law on limiting the length of the working day in hazardous and physically difficult production.

Counter-reforms were also carried out in the region education and press. In 1882, the St. Petersburg Higher Women's Medical Courses were closed, and admission to other higher women's courses was discontinued. Introduced " Temporary Printing Rules”, according to which newspapers that received “warnings” had to undergo preliminary censorship on the eve of their release; the meeting of the ministers of education, internal affairs, justice and the Holy Synod was given the right to close the periodical, to ban a work that was not loyal to the authorities. The activities of the people were hampered reading rooms and libraries. Since 1888, a special department of the committee under the Ministry of Education reviewed the catalog of reading rooms, their opening required permission from the Ministry of the Interior, the heads were appointed with the consent of the governor. In the field of education, a line was carried out to curtail the autonomy of educational institutions, narrowing the access of the lower classes to education, and strengthening the influence of the church. The network of parochial schools was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod, short-term literacy schools were transferred to the jurisdiction of diocesan schools; in the schools of the Ministry of Public Education, the teaching of the "law of God" was expanded. AT 1887. was published circular(nicknamed " cook's children law”), who proposed to accept in the gymnasium and progymnasium only children of well-intentioned citizens who could create “the convenience necessary for their educational knowledge”. This reduced the access to them for the children of "coachmen, lackeys ... and the like," except for the especially gifted. For the same purpose, tuition fees have been increased. AT 1884. new university charter. At the head of each university, a trustee and a rector appointed by the Minister of Public Education with broad administrative powers were placed, the rights of academic colleges, councils and faculty meetings were narrowed. Professors were appointed by the minister, deans - by the trustee of the educational district, who approved plans and programs, oversaw the entire life of the university, could approve the journals of council meetings, assign allowances, etc. The assistant to the rector in the organization of supervision of students was the inspector. The position of students was regulated by rules. For the applicant, a certificate of conduct from the police was required. Student meetings and performances were forbidden, a uniform was introduced. Tuition fees have increased. The charter provoked protests from students and professors. The answer is dismissal and exclusion. All measures were directed against access to higher education for people from the Raznochinsk milieu.

Government limited zemstvo and city self-government. Since 1889, the mediators, their county congresses, county presences for peasant affairs were replaced by district zemstvo chiefs, appointed from the nobility and performing both judicial and administrative functions. They had the right to suspend the decisions of the village meeting. AT 1890 d. the adoption of a new Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions ", a zemstvo counter-reform was carried out. The dependence of the zemstvos on the administration increased, not a single resolution of the zemstvo assembly could enter into force without its approval by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The voting system has changed. Elected from the volost were only candidates for vowels, from their list the governor selected and appointed vowels to the zemstvo, taking into account the recommendations of the zemstvo chief. The number of vowels from the peasants was reduced, from the nobles increased while reducing the total number of vowels. " City position "1892 granted voting rights mainly to owners of immovable property, increased the property qualification, which significantly reduced the number of voters.

AT economic sphere the government pursued a policy of supporting and developing domestic industry, trade, stabilizing the financial system and developing the capitalist sector in the countryside in the person of noble land ownership. AT 1882 year, the poll tax was abolished from landless peasants and reduced by 10% from former serfs. This law came into force in 1884. Finally the poll tax was abolished in 1885 g., it was replaced by other taxes. Creation of the Peasant Land (1882) and Noble Land (1885) banks provided loans to landowners. Law on Employment of Agricultural Workers(1886) obliged peasants to sign an agreement on work with landowners and established penalties for unauthorized departure from the employer. He contributed to the stabilization of the wage labor market in the countryside. In the context of the growing "land hunger" in order to ease tension in the countryside in 1886 and 1893 gg. are published laws that impede land divisions allotment land (the consent of a senior family member and a peasant gathering is required) and redistribution of communal land (no more than once every 12 years); early redemption of allotments is allowed with the consent of at least two-thirds of the village meeting, the sale of allotments to persons who do not belong to this rural society is prohibited. AT 1899 laws are made repeal mutual responsibility communal peasants when collecting payments. The Minister of Finance took an active part in their development. S.Yu.Witte, it was he who at the end of the 19th century. carried out management of economic policy, and since the beginning of the twentieth century. all areas of government activity. S.Yu. Witte is a nobleman by birth, graduated from the Novorossiysk University. Made a brilliant career in public service. He went from an employee of the office of the Odessa governor, a small employee of a promising railway industry, to the Minister of Railways (since 1882), Minister of Finance (since 1882), Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers (since 1903) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1905- 1906). He was distinguished by a sharp mind, independence of judgment, lack of servility and scrupulousness, and not refined manners. A monarchist by conviction, he considered Alexander III to be the ideal statesman, who, in turn, highly valued him. He showed himself as a skilled diplomat at the conclusion of the Portsmouth Peace, as a pillar of the autocracy in the development of the tsarist Manifesto on October 17, 1905. Even his enemies could not but admit that everything he did contributed to the strengthening of Great Russia. Economic platform S.Yu. Witte: reduce the distance between Russia and the developed countries of Europe by attracting foreign capital, accumulating domestic resources, customs protection of domestically produced goods; take a strong position in the markets of the East; the creation of a solid middle stratum of good taxpayers in the person of peasant proprietors. The expansion of the railroad network was considered a "cure for poverty." S.Yu. Witte understood that Russia would not be able to catch up with the advanced industrial countries in a short time, therefore, it was necessary to benefit from the existing potential. He undertakes an active and quickly paying for itself construction of state railway lines in the European part of Russia, the Trans-Siberian Railway (1891-1905) for the transportation of goods from the Pacific Ocean and the implementation of intermediary trade, the CER (1897-1903). AT 1887-1894 gg. in Russia, customs duties on the import of iron, cast iron, and coal were increased; for manufacturing goods they reached 30%. This has been called " customs war". Germany raised duties on grain, which was contrary to the interests of Russian exporters, in whose interests the tariffs were changed. domestic railroad rates. On the western lines, they were lowered, which made it easier to export; in the southern and eastern regions they increased in order to prevent the import of cheap bread from the Volga region and the North Caucasus into the center. AT 1894 Mr. Witte concluded a mutually beneficial customs agreement with Germany. AT 1894-1895 he achieved ruble stabilization, and in 1897 introduced gold money circulation, which increased the domestic and foreign exchange rate of the ruble, ensured the influx of foreign capital, caused a rise in the price of export bread and dissatisfaction with exporters. Witte was a supporter of unlimited attracting foreign capital to the industry, distribution of foreign concessions, because the state did not have enough funds of its own, and the landowners were reluctant to invest them in entrepreneurship. Active factory construction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. was named " industrialization witte". To replenish the treasury, he introduced state wine monopoly, which gave up to ¼ of budget revenues. Witte began work on agrarian question, achieved the elimination of mutual responsibility in the community, developed a reform to introduce private ownership of peasants on land, but did not manage to implement it, obviously, considering it not a priority. AT 1897. was held in Russia for the first time general census, its number was 125.6 million people. Largely as a result of the activities of S.Yu. Witte 1890s became a period of economic growth in Russia: a record number of railway lines were built, the ruble was stabilized, industry was rising, Russia came out on top in the world in oil production, in first place in Europe in the export of bread, which became its main article.

PUBLIC MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY

"The Sixties". The rise of the peasant movement in 1861-1862. was the people's response to the injustice of the February 19 reform. This activated the radicals, who hoped for a peasant uprising.

In the 1960s, two centers of a radical trend emerged. One is around the editorial office of Kolokol, published by A.G. Herzen in London. He propagated his theory of "communal socialism" and sharply criticized the predatory conditions for the liberation of the peasants. The second center arose in Russia around the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. N.G. became its ideologist. Chernyshevsky, the idol of the raznochinnoy youth of that time. He also criticized the government for the essence of the reform, dreamed of socialism, but, unlike A.I. Herzen, saw the need for Russia to use the experience of the European development model.

Based on the ideas of N.G. Chernyshevsky, several secret organizations were formed: the circle "Great Russian" (1861-1863), "Land and Freedom" (1861-1864). They included N.A. and A.A. Serno-Solov'evichi, G.E. Blagosvetlov, N.I. Utin and other "Left" radicals set the task of preparing a people's revolution. To do this, the landowners launched an active publishing activity in their illegal printing house. In the magazine "Land and Freedom", in the proclamations "Bow to the lord peasants from their well-wishers", "To the young generation", "Young Russia", "To the soldiers", "What the army needs to do", "Great Russian", they explained to the people the tasks of the upcoming revolution, justified the need to eliminate the autocracy and the democratic transformation of Russia, a fair solution to the agrarian question. The landowners considered the article by N.P. Ogarev "What do the people need?", Published in June 1861 in Kolokol. The article warned the people against premature, unprepared actions, called for the unification of all revolutionary forces.

"Land and freedom". It was the first major revolutionary-democratic organization. It included several hundred members from different social strata: officials, officers, writers, students. The organization was headed by the Russian Central People's Committee. Branches of the society were created in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov and other cities. At the end of 1862, a Russian military-revolutionary organization, created in the Kingdom of Poland, joined the Land and Freedom.

The first secret organizations did not last long. The decline of the peasant movement, the defeat of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland (1863), the strengthening of the police regime - all this led to their self-dissolution or defeat. Some members of the organizations (including N.G. Chernyshevsky) were arrested, others emigrated. The government managed to repel the onslaught of the radicals of the first half of the 60s. There was a sharp turn in public opinion against the radicals and their revolutionary aspirations. Many public figures who previously stood on democratic or liberal positions moved to the camp of conservatives (M.N. Katkov and others).

In the second half of the 1960s, secret circles reappeared. Their members preserved the ideological heritage of N.G. Chernyshevsky, but, having lost faith in the possibility of a people's revolution in Russia, they switched to narrowly conspiratorial and terrorist tactics. They tried to embody their high moral ideals by immoral means. In 1866, a member of the circle N.A. Ishutina D.V. Karakozov made an attempt on the life of Tsar Alexander II.

In 1869 teacher S.G. Nechaev and journalist P.N. Tkachev created an organization in St. Petersburg that called on student youth to prepare an uprising and use any means in the fight against the government. After the defeat of the circle, S.G. Nechaev went abroad for a while, but already in the autumn of 1869 he returned and founded the organization "People's Punishment" in Moscow. He was distinguished by extreme political adventurism, demanded from the participants blind obedience to his orders. For refusing to submit to the dictatorship, student I.I. Ivanov was falsely accused of treason and killed. The police destroyed the organization. S.G. Nechaev fled to Switzerland, he was extradited as a criminal. The government used the lawsuit against him to discredit the revolutionaries. "Nechaevism" for some time became a serious lesson for the next generations of revolutionaries, warning them against unlimited centralism.

At the turn of the 60-70s, largely based on the ideas of A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky, populist ideology took shape. It became very popular among the democratically minded intellectuals of the last third of the 19th century. Among the populists there were two trends: revolutionary and liberal.

Revolutionary Populists. The main ideas of the revolutionary Narodniks are: capitalism in Russia is implanted "from above" and has no social roots on Russian soil; the future of the country is in communal socialism; the peasants are ready to accept socialist ideas; transformations must be carried out in a revolutionary way. M.A. Bakunin, PL. Lavrov and P.N. Tkachev developed the theoretical foundations of three currents of revolutionary populism - rebellious (anarchist), propaganda and conspiratorial. M.A. Bakunin believed that the Russian peasant was by nature a rebel and ready for revolution. Therefore, the task of the intelligentsia is to go to the people and kindle an all-Russian revolt. Viewing the state as an instrument of injustice and oppression, he called for its destruction and the creation of a federation of self-governing free communities.

PL. Lavrov did not consider the people ready for revolution. Therefore, he focused on propaganda with the aim of preparing the peasantry. "Wake up" the peasants were supposed to be "critically thinking individuals" - the advanced part of the intelligentsia.

P.N. Tkachev, as well as PL. Lavrov, did not consider the peasant to be ready for revolution. At the same time, he called the Russian people "communist by instinct" who did not need to be taught socialism. In his opinion, a narrow group of conspirators (professional revolutionaries), having seized state power, will quickly draw the people into socialist reorganization.

In 1874, based on the ideas of M.A. Bakunin, more than 1,000 young revolutionaries organized a mass "going to the people", hoping to raise the peasants to revolt. The results were negligible. The populists faced tsarist illusions and the possessive psychology of the peasants. The movement was crushed, the agitators were arrested.

"Land and freedom" (1876-1879). In 1876, the surviving participants in the "going to the people" formed a new secret organization, which in 1878 took the name "Land and Freedom". Be program provided for the implementation of the socialist revolution by overthrowing the autocracy, the transfer of all land to the peasants and the introduction of "worldly self-government" in the countryside and cities. The organization was headed by G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others.

A second "going to the people" was undertaken - for a long agitation of the peasants. The landowners also engaged in agitation among the workers and soldiers, helped to organize several strikes. In 1876, with the participation of "Earth and Freedom" in St. Petersburg, the first political demonstration in Russia was held on the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral. G.V. Plekhanov, who called for fighting for land and freedom for the peasants and workers. The police dispersed the demonstration, many of its participants were injured. Those arrested were sentenced to penal servitude or exile. G.V. Plekhanov managed to escape from the police.

In 1878, part of the populists again returned to the idea of ​​the need for a terrorist struggle. In 1878 V.I. Discussions began about methods of struggle, prompted by both government repression and a thirst for action.Disputes over tactical and program issues led to a split.

"Black division". In 1879, part of the landowners (G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deich, P.B. Axelrod) formed the organization "Black Repartition" (1879-1881). They remained faithful to the main program principles of "Land and Liberty" and agitation and propaganda methods of activity.

"People's Will". In the same year, another part of the landowners created the organization "Narodnaya Volya" (1879-1881). It was headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, SL. Perovskaya, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others. They were members of the Executive Committee - the center and main headquarters of the organization.

The program of the Narodnaya Volya reflected their disappointment in the revolutionary potential of the peasant masses. They believed that the people were crushed and brought to a slave state by the tsarist government. Therefore, they considered their main task to be the fight against this government. The program requirements of the Narodnaya Volya included: preparing a political coup and overthrowing the autocracy; the convocation of the Constituent Assembly and the establishment of a democratic system in the country; the destruction of private property, the transfer of land to the peasants, factories - to the workers. (Many program provisions of the Narodnaya Volya were adopted at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries by their followers - the party of socialist revolutionaries.)

The Narodnaya Volya carried out a number of terrorist actions against representatives of the tsarist administration, but considered the assassination of the tsar to be their main goal. They assumed that this would cause a political crisis in the country and a popular uprising. However, in response to the terror, the government stepped up its repression. Most of the Narodnaya Volya were arrested. Remaining at large, S.L. Perovskaya organized an assassination attempt on the king. March 1, 1881 Alexander II was mortally wounded and died a few hours later.

This act did not live up to the expectations of the populists. He once again confirmed the ineffectiveness of terrorist methods of struggle, led to an increase in the reaction and police arbitrariness in the country. On the whole, the activities of the Narodnaya Volya to a large extent slowed down the evolutionary development of Russia.

Liberal Populists. This trend, while sharing the basic theoretical views of the revolutionary populists, differed from them in its rejection of violent methods of struggle. The liberal populists did not play a prominent role in the social movement of the 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, their influence increased. This was due to the loss of authority of the revolutionary populists in radical circles due to disappointment in the terrorist methods of struggle. The liberal populists expressed the interests of the peasants, demanded the abolition of the remnants of serfdom and the abolition of landlordism. They called for reforms to gradually improve the lives of the people. They chose cultural and educational work among the population as the main direction of their activity. For this purpose, they used the press (the magazine "Russian wealth"), zemstvos and various public organizations. The ideologists of the liberal populists were N.K. Mikhailovsky, N.F. Danielson, V.P. Vorontsov.

The first Marxist and workers' organizations. In the 80-90s of the XIX century. fundamental changes took place in the radical movement. The revolutionary populists lost their role as the main opposition force. Powerful repression fell upon them, from which they could not recover. Many active participants in the movement of the 1970s became disillusioned with the revolutionary potential of the peasantry. In this regard, the radical movement split into two opposing and even hostile camps. The former remained committed to the idea of ​​peasant socialism, the latter saw in the proletariat the main force of social progress.

Emancipation of Labor Group. Former active participants in the "Black Redistribution" G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deutsch and V.N. Ignatov turned to Marxism. In this Western European theory, they were attracted by the idea of ​​achieving socialism through the proletarian revolution.

In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group was formed in Geneva. Its program: a complete break with populism and populist ideology; propaganda of socialism; struggle against autocracy; reliance on the working class; creation of a workers' party. They considered the most important condition for social progress in Russia to be a bourgeois-democratic revolution, the driving force of which would be the urban bourgeoisie and the proletariat. They viewed the peasantry as a reactionary force in society. This showed the narrowness and one-sidedness of their views.

Propaganda of Marxism in the Russian revolutionary environment, they launched a sharp criticism of the populist theory. The Emancipation of Labor group operated abroad and was not associated with the labor movement that was emerging in Russia.

In Russia itself in 1883-1892. several Marxist circles were formed (D.I. Blagoeva, N.E. Fedoseeva, M.I. Brusneva, etc.). They saw their task in studying Marxism and propagating it among workers, students and petty employees. However, they were cut off from the labor movement.

The activities of the "Emancipation of Labor" group abroad, the Marxist circles in Russia prepared the ground for the emergence of the Russian Social Democratic Party.

Workers' organizations. The labor movement in the 1970s and 1980s developed spontaneously and unorganized. Unlike Western Europe, the Russian workers had neither their own political organizations nor trade unions. The "South Russian Workers' Union" (1875) and the "Northern Union of Russian Workers" (1878-1880) failed to lead the struggle of the proletariat and give it a political character. The workers put forward only economic demands - higher wages, shorter working hours, the abolition of fines. The largest event was the strike at the Nikolskaya manufactory of the manufacturer T.C. Morozov in Orekhovo-Zuev in 1885 ("Morozov strike"). The workers for the first time demanded state intervention in their relations with the factory owners. As a result, a law was issued in 1886 on the procedure for hiring and firing, streamlining fines and paying wages. The institute of factory inspectors was introduced, who were obliged to monitor the implementation of the law. The law increased the criminal liability for participation in strikes.

"Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class". In the 90s of the IX century. in Russia there has been an industrial boom. This contributed to an increase in the size of the working class and the creation of more favorable conditions for the development of its struggle. Stubborn strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow, the Urals and other parts of the country have taken on a mass character. Textile workers, miners, foundry workers and railroad workers were on strike. The strikes were economic and poorly organized.

In 1895, in St. Petersburg, scattered Marxist circles united in a new organization - the "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Worker Mass". Its creators were V.I. Ulyanov (Lenin), Yu.Yu. Zederbaum (I. Martov) and others. Similar organizations were created in Moscow, Yekaterinoslav, Ivanovo-Voznesensk and Kyiv. They tried to take the lead of the strike movement, published leaflets and sent propagandists to workers' circles to spread Marxism among the proletariat. Under the influence of the "Union of Struggle" in St. Petersburg, strikes of textile workers, metalworkers, workers of a stationery factory, sugar and other factories began. The strikers demanded that the working day be reduced to 10.5 hours, wages be raised, and wages paid on time. The stubborn struggle of the workers in the summer of 1896 and in the winter of 1897, on the one hand, forced the government to make concessions: a law was issued to reduce the working day to 11.5 hours. On the other hand, it brought down repressions on Marxist and workers' organizations, some of whose members were exiled to Siberia.

Among the Social Democrats who remained at large in the second half of the 1990s, "legal Marxism" began to spread. P.B. Struve, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and others, recognizing certain provisions of Marxism, defended the thesis of the historical inevitability and inviolability of capitalism, criticized the liberal Narodniks, and proved the regularity and progressiveness of the development of capitalism in Russia. They advocated a reformist way of transforming the country in a democratic direction.

Under the influence of the "legal Marxists," part of the Social Democrats in Russia switched to the position of "economism." The "economists" saw the main task of the labor movement in improving working and living conditions. They put forward only economic demands and renounced the political struggle.

In general, among Russian Marxists at the end of the 19th century. there was no unity. Some (led by V.I. Ulyanov-Lenin) advocated the creation of a political party that would lead the workers to carry out the socialist revolution and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat (the political power of the workers), others - denying the revolutionary path of development, proposed limiting themselves to the struggle for better conditions life and labor of the working people of Russia.

The social movement in the second half of the 19th century, in contrast to the previous time, became an important factor in the political life of the country. The variety of directions and currents, views on ideological, theoretical and tactical issues reflected the complexity of the social structure and the acuteness of social contradictions characteristic of the transitional period of post-reform Russia. In the social movement of the second half of the XIX century. there has not yet been a direction capable of carrying out the evolutionary modernization of the country, but the foundations were laid for the formation of political parties in the future.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.

Development of agriculture.

The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology.

Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.

Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of Alexander's are a wonderful beginning."

Peasant question. Decree "on free cultivators". Government measures in the field of education. State activity of M.M. Speransky and his plan of state reforms. Creation of the State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of the war. The results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Union.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. military settlements.

The foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.

The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. Northern and Southern Society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. Significance of the Decembrist uprising.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. censorship statute. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of the state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "on obligated peasants".

Polish uprising 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.

Eastern question. Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Reasons for the war. The course of hostilities. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.

Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.

The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian war. Significance of joining the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.

Circle of N.V. Stankevich and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical letter" P.Ya.Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in the 60-70s of the XIX century.

peasant reform. Preparing for reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. duties of the peasants. Temporary state.

Zemstvo, judicial, city reforms. financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. censorship rules. military reforms. Significance of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.

Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.

The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. The agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the XIX century.

The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Repartition". The assassination of Alexander II March 1, 1881 The collapse of the "Narodnaya Volya".

Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Striking fight. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. factory law.

Liberal populism in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.

Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the "immutability" of the autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

The international position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the foreign policy program of the country. The main directions and stages of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of three emperors.

Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. Goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Enlightenment, 1996.

Russia in the second half of the 19th century

On February 18, 1855, after the death of Nicholas I, his son Alexander II ascended the throne. His reign (1855-1881) passed under the sign of a deep modernization of Russian society. February 19, 1861 was made public Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and approved legislative acts that compiled the "Regulations on the peasants who came out of serfdom." In 1864, zemstvo self-government was introduced (gradually, in 34 provinces of European Russia), jury trials and advocacy, in 1870 - city self-government, in 1874 - universal military service.

In 1863 an uprising broke out in Poland. It was suppressed. In 1864, Russia managed to end the Caucasian War, which had lasted 47 years. Accession to Russia in 1865-1876 significant territories of Central Asia put the tsarist administration in front of the need to organize the management of a remote foreign cultural outskirts.
Reforms of 1860-1870s led to a sharp growth of the economy and especially industry. The most noticeable aspect of this growth was the "railway boom" of the second half of the 1860s-early 1870s, during which the most important highways were built: Moscow-Kursk (1868), Kursk-Kyiv (1870), Moscow -Brest (1871).
In the middle of the XIX century. Russia was an agricultural country, the largest producer and supplier of agricultural products. Under the terms of the abolition of serfdom, the peasants had to redeem their land plots. "Redemption payments" placed a heavy burden on rural communities and often dragged on for many years, which caused more than 1,300 mass actions of peasants, of which more than 500 were suppressed with the use of force. Communal land use (the inability to dispose of their allotments) and lack of land caused dissatisfaction among the peasants and held back the growth of the working class, and the lack of social guarantees from the state led to increased exploitation of workers.

The ideas of V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), who believed that that the ideal state structure can be established only on the principles of extending the communal orders familiar to the Russian countryside to the whole of society. They saw a general peasant uprising as a means of reorganizing public life. To prepare for this all-Russian peasant revolt, the revolutionary youth tried to organize the propaganda of their ideas among the peasants (“going to the people” in 1874-1875), but among the peasants, naive-monarchist sentiments were still very strong. Some of the youth mistakenly believed that the assassination of the tsar would automatically cause the collapse of the state apparatus, which would facilitate the revolution. Already in 1866, the first attempt on the life of Alexander II took place, and in 1879, the secret organization Narodnaya Volya arose, which set as its task terror against prominent members of the tsarist administration, and regicide as its highest goal. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by the "populists", but the peasant revolution did not take place.

The son of Alexander II, Alexander III, became king. His reign (1881-1894) was characterized by protective tendencies. The new monarch sought in every possible way to strengthen the state apparatus and increase the manageability of the country. To do this, he went to a partial curtailment of the transformations that were carried out by Alexander II. In historiography, this period is called "period of counter-reforms". Zemstvo chiefs (nobles) appeared in the counties, managing peasant affairs; security departments were established in the provinces to combat the revolutionary movement. The rights of zemstvo self-government were significantly limited, and the electoral system was changed in order to ensure the predominance of delegates from landlords in zemstvo bodies. Reactionary changes were made to judicial and censorship matters. On the other hand, the administration of Alexander III sought to act as a social arbiter. The government was forced to pass laws restricting the exploitation of workers. In 1883 the poll tax was abolished.

Alexander III died in 1894. His son Nicholas II ascended the throne, who, like his father, fought against liberal tendencies and was a consistent supporter of absolute monarchy, which, however, did not prevent him from favorably treating certain innovations and transformations, if they were tactical in nature and did not affect the foundations of autocracy. In particular, during the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917), the gold backing of the ruble and the state wine monopoly were introduced, which significantly improved the country's finances. The Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of which was completed in those years, connected the Far Eastern borders with the central regions of Russia. In 1897, a First All-Russian population census.
The liberation of the peasants from serfdom contributed to the rapid development of capitalism: the emergence of a large number of industrial and commercial enterprises, banks, the construction of railways, and the development of agricultural production. By the end of the XIX century. The number of workers has doubled and reached 1.5 million people. In 1879-1900. the share of large enterprises increased from 4 to 16%, i.e., 4 times, the workers in them - from 67 to 76%.

The growth of the proletariat was accompanied by the appearance of the first revolutionary workers' organizations. In 1883, G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918) and his associates in Geneva united in the Emancipation of Labor group, which marked the beginning of the spread Marxism in Russia. The group developed a program of Russian social democracy, the ultimate goal of which was proclaimed the creation of a workers' party, the overthrow of the autocracy, the seizure of political power by the working class, the transfer of means and instruments of production to public ownership, the elimination of market relations and the organization of planned production. The publications of this group were distributed in Russia in more than 30 provincial centers and industrial cities.
Marxist circles began to appear in Russia (by the end of the 19th century there were about 30 of them). In 1892, V. I. Lenin (Ulyanov, 1870-1924) began revolutionary activity in Samara. In 1895, together with members of the Marxist circle of students-technologists (S. I. Radchenko, M. A. Silvin, G. M. Krzhizhanovsky and others) and St. Petersburg workers (I. V. Babushkin, V. A. Shelgunov, B. I. Zinoviev and others) Lenin created an organization in St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class", which was soon defeated by the police, and Lenin had to emigrate.

In 1898, a congress of representatives of the St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Yekaterinoslav "unions of struggle" and the Bund (the party of the Jewish proletariat) was held in Minsk. The congress proclaimed the creation Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) and elected the Central Committee (CC). On behalf of the Congress of the Central Committee issued Manifesto of the RSDLP, in which the democratic and socialist tasks of the Russian proletariat and its party were briefly set. However, the party did not yet have a program and rules, its local committees were in a state of ideological and organizational confusion.
In 1855 the Kuril Islands were officially incorporated into Russia. The accession of the Amur and Primorye was formalized Aigunsky(1858) and Beijing(1860) treaties with China. Under the Aigun Treaty, the undelimited lands on the left bank of the Amur were recognized as the possession of Russia, and under the Beijing Treaty, Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was ceded to it. In 1875, Sakhalin Island passed to Russia, and the Kuril Islands - to Japan.
In 1867, the Turkestan Governor General was formed from the annexed possessions of the Kokand Khanate and the Emirate of Bukhara. In 1868, the Samarkand and Kata-Kurgan districts of the Emirate of Bukhara were annexed to Russia, which recognized the protectorate of Russia. In 1869, the Trans-Caspian military department was formed with its center in Krasnovodsk. After 1881, the Trans-Caspian region was formed with the Center in Askhabad. By agreement with Great Britain (England), on September 10, 1885, the border of Russia with Afghanistan was established, and in 1895 - the border in the Pamirs.
In the spring of 1875, an uprising broke out in the Turkish possessions of Russia in the Balkans. The Serbs turned to the Russian government for help, which demanded that Turkey conclude a truce with the Serbs. The refusal of the Turks caused the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. In the summer of 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and entered Bulgaria.

However, the forces for a decisive offensive were not enough. The detachment of General Gurko, advanced to the south, occupied the Shipka Pass on the Balkan Range, but could not advance further. On the other hand, numerous attempts by the Turks to knock the Russians off the pass also failed. The delay of the Russians with the occupation of Plevna on the western face of the Transdanubian bridgehead became especially dangerous. Turkish troops were the first to reach this strategically important point and gain a foothold in it. Three extremely bloody assaults on July 8 (20), July 18 (30) and August 30-31 (September 11-12), 1877 were unsuccessful. In autumn, the Russians occupied the fortifications of Telish and Gorny Dubnyak, finally blocking Plevna. Trying to support the encircled fortress, the Turks launched a counteroffensive immediately from Sofia and on the eastern face of the bridgehead. In the Sofia direction, the Turkish counteroffensive was repelled, and the Eastern Front of the Russian location was broken through, and only a desperate counterattack by the Russian troops, which crushed the Turkish orders near Zlataritsa, stabilized the front. Having exhausted the possibilities for resistance, after an unsuccessful attempt to break through, the Pleven garrison capitulated on November 28 (December 10), 1877. In the winter of 1877-1878. in incredibly difficult weather conditions, Russian troops crossed the Balkan Range and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turks at Sheinovo. On January 3-5 (15-17), 1878, the last Turkish army was defeated in the battle near Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and on January 8 (20) Russian troops occupied Adrianople without any resistance. According to the Berlin Treaty on July 13, 1878, South Bessarabia, Batum, Kars and Ardagan were annexed to Russia.
The trends in literature and art that developed in the first half of the 19th century were further developed and in the second half of the 19th century. - early XX century.
Reforms of 1860-1870s represented a real revolution, the consequence of which were cardinal changes in social, state and all people's life, which could not but affect the development of culture. There was not only social, but also spiritual emancipation of the people, which had new cultural needs and opportunities to satisfy them. The circle of people of intelligent labor and bearers of culture has also expanded significantly. Of no small importance was also scientific and technological progress, which served both as factors and as an indicator of the development of culture.

Early 20th century - this is the "Silver Age" of Russian culture especially in the field of literature and art. Russia has firmly entered the system of world powers closely linked by economic, political and cultural ties. In Russia, the novelties of the scientific and technological progress of the advanced countries (telephone, cinema, gramophone, automobile, etc.), the achievements of the exact sciences, were widely used; have become widespread in literature and art in various directions. And global culture has been significantly enriched by the achievements of Russian science, literature and art. Performances by Russian composers, opera singers, ballet masters were held in famous theaters in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the USA.
AT Russian literature second half of the 19th century the themes of folk life, various socio-political currents received a particularly vivid image. At this time, the flourishing of the work of outstanding Russian writers L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky. In the 1880-1890s. A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, and N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky stand out in Russian literature. The traditions of critical realism inherent in these writers found their continuation and development in the work of those who came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. writers of a new generation - A. M. Gorky, A. I. Kuprin, I. A. Bunin.
Along with this trend, especially in the pre-revolutionary decade and mainly in the poetic environment, various literary circles and associations arose, seeking to move away from traditional aesthetic norms and ideas. Symbolist associations (the creators and theoretician of Russian symbolism was the poet V. Ya. Bryusov) included K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, A. Bely, A. A. Block. The direction opposite to symbolism, acmeism, arose in Russian poetry in 1910 (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam). Representatives of another modernist trend in Russian literature and art - futurism - denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values ​​(V. V. Khlebnikov, Igor Severyanin, early V. V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).
The Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg and the Maly Theater in Moscow remained the main centers of Russian theater culture in the second half of the 19th century. - the beginning of the 20th century. The plays by A. N. Ostrovsky occupied the leading place in the repertoire of the Maly Theatre. Prov Sadovsky, Sergei Shumsky, Maria Yermolova, Alexander Sumbatov-Yuzhin and others stood out among the actors of the Maly Theater. Maria Savina, Vladimir Davydov, Polina Strepetova shone on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater.
In the 1860-1870s. private theaters and theater circles began to emerge. In 1898, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Art Theater in Moscow, and in 1904, V. F. Komissarzhevskaya created the Drama Theater in St. Petersburg.
Second half of the 19th century - flourishing time Russian musical art. An important role in the development and organization of music education was played by Anton and Nikolai Rubinstein. N. G. Rubinshtein became the initiator of the creation of the Moscow Conservatory (1866).
In 1862, the “Balakirev Circle” (or, in the words of V. Stasov, “The Mighty Handful”) was formed in St. Petersburg, which included M. A. Balakirev, Ts. A. Cui, A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Mussorgsky's operas Khovanshchina and Boris Godunov, Rimsky-Korsakov's Sadko, The Maid of Pskov and The Tsar's Bride are masterpieces of Russian and world musical classics. The greatest composer of the era was P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), whose creativity flourished in the 1870-1880s. P. I. Tchaikovsky is the largest creator of symphonic, ballet and opera music (ballets Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty; operas Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades, Mazepa, Iolanta, etc. .). Tchaikovsky wrote over a hundred romances, mostly based on the works of Russian poets.
At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries. A galaxy of talented composers appeared in Russian music: A. K. Glazunov, S. I. Taneev, A. S. Arensky, A. K. Lyadov, I. F. Stravinsky, A. N. Skryabin. With the help of wealthy patrons, private operas appear, among which the private opera of S. I. Mamontov in Moscow has become widely known. On her stage, the talent of F.I. Chaliapin was fully revealed.

AT Russian painting the dominant position was occupied by critical realism, the main theme of which was the image of the life of the common people, especially the peasantry. First of all, this theme was embodied in the work of the Wanderers (I. N. Kramskoy, N. N. Ge, V. N. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. E. Makovsky, G. G. Myasodoev, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, I. E. Repin, A. I. Kuindzhi, I. I. Levitan). An outstanding representative of Russian battle painting was V. V. Vereshchagin, the largest marine painter was I. K. Aivazovsky. In 1898, the creative association of artists "World of Art" arose, which included A. N. Benois, D. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lansere, B. M. Kustodiev, K. A. Korovin, N. K. Roerich, I. E. Grabar.
Implementation into architecture achievements of industrial progress and technical innovations contributed to the construction of structures characteristic of the industrial development of the country: factory buildings, railway stations, banks, shopping centers. Art Nouveau becomes the leading style, along with which buildings of the Old Russian and Byzantine styles were erected: the Upper Trading Rows (now GUM, architect A.N. Pomerantsev), the buildings of the Historical Museum in Moscow (architect V.O. Sherwood) and the Moscow City Duma ( architect D.N. Chichagov) and others.
A significant event in public and cultural life was the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880, sculptor A. M. Opekushin). Among the outstanding sculptors of this time are: M. M. Antakolsky, A. S. Golubkina, S. T. Konenkov.

Successfully developed the science. The name of the great scientist D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) is associated with the discovery of the Periodic Table of Elements; I. M. Sechenov’s research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity was continued by I. P. Pavlov; II Mechnikov created the doctrine of the protective factors of the body, which formed the basis of modern microbiology and pathology.
The "father of Russian aviation" E. N. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of modern aerodynamics, invented the wind tunnel, and in 1904 founded the Aerodynamic Institute; K. E. Tsiolkovsky laid the foundation for the theory of the movement of rockets and jet instruments. Academician V. I. Vernadsky gave rise to many scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, and ecology with his work. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology.
Technical discoveries and inventions are associated with the development of the natural sciences: the creation of an electric incandescent bulb (A. N. Lodygin), an arc lamp (P. N. Yablochkov), and radio communications (A. S. Popov).
The outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov developed the fundamental work “The History of Russia from Ancient Times”, in which he substantiated a new concept that explained Russian history by the natural and ethnic characteristics of the Russian people.

The abolition of serfdom, despite its incompleteness, created the conditions for the rapid development of capitalism. In 1861-1900. Russia has turned from an agricultural into an agrarian-industrial capitalist country, one of the great world powers. At the end of the XIX century. in industrial production, it took the fifth place, after the USA, England, Germany and France.
As a result of imperial policy, Russia annexed a huge space in Central Asia, stopping the expansion of England in this area and obtaining a raw material base for the textile industry. In the Far East, the Amur Region and Ussuri Primorye were annexed, and possession of Sakhalin was secured (in exchange for the cession of the Kuril Islands). Political rapprochement with France began.

The emerging revolutionary movement of the populists was unable to raise the peasants to revolt, the terror against the tsar and senior officials turned out to be untenable. In the 1880s the spread of Marxism began, in 1892 - the revolutionary activity of Lenin, in 1898 the RSDLP was created.

The 19th century for Russian literature is rightfully called golden. He gave us a lot of talented writers who opened Russian classical literature to the whole world and become a trendsetter. The romanticism of the early 19th century was replaced by the era of realism. The founder of realism is A.S. Pushkin, or rather his later works, which marked the beginning of this era.

In the 1940s, a "natural school" appeared - which became the beginning of the development of the direction of realism in Russian literature. The new direction covers topics that have not been widely covered before. The object of study for the "sitters" was the life of the lower classes, their way of life and customs, problems and events.

Since the second half of the 19th century, realism has been called critical. In their works, poets and writers criticize reality, trying to find an answer to the question of who is to blame and what to do. Everyone was concerned about the question of how Russia would develop further. Society is divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. Despite the difference in views, these two directions are united by hatred of serfdom and the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. Literature becomes a means of struggle for freedom, shows the impossibility of further moral development of society without social equality. During this period, works were created that later became masterpieces of world literature, they reflect the truth of life, national identity, dissatisfaction with the existing autocratic-serf system, the truth of life makes the works of that time popular.

Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century has significant differences from Western European. Many writers of that time identified in their works the motifs that prepared the shift towards revolutionary romance and social realism that occurred in the 20th century. The most popular in Russia and abroad were novels and stories of the period of the second half of the 19th century, which showed the social nature of society and the laws with which its development takes place. The heroes in the works talk about the imperfection of society, about conscience and justice.

One of the most famous literary figures of that time is I. S. Turgenev. In his works, he raises important issues of that time (“fathers and children”, “on the eve”, etc.)

A great contribution to the education of revolutionary youth was made by Chernyshevsky's novel What Is To Be Done?

In the works of I. A. Goncharov, the morals of officials and landowners are shown.

Another major figure whose work influenced the minds and consciousness of people of that time was F. M. Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of world literature. In his writings, the writer reveals the versatility of the human soul, the actions of his heroes can confuse the reader, make him show sympathy for the “humiliated and offended”.

Saltykov-Shchedrin in his works exposes officials and embezzlers of public funds, bribe-takers and hypocrites who rob the people.

L. N. Tolstoy in his work showed the complexity and inconsistency of human nature.

A.P. Chekhov's experience for the fate of Russian society was reflected in his works, giving a writer whose talent makes one admire to this day.

The literature of the late 19th century has a great influence on all spheres of culture; theater and music also enter the struggle for their ideals. The mood of the society of that time is also reflected in painting, introducing into the minds of people the idea of ​​equality and good for the whole society.

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  Winter is considered the coldest season of all the rest. It is characterized by severe frosts and blizzards. Winter consists of three months, under the names of December, January, February. The duration of this season is 90 days.

Literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century played an important role in the public life of the country. Most modern critics and readers are convinced of this. At that time, reading was not entertainment, but ways of knowing the surrounding reality. For the writer, creativity itself became an important act of civic service to society, since he had a sincere belief in the power of the creative word, in the likelihood that a book could influence the mind and soul of a person so that he would change for the better.

Opposition in literature

As modern researchers note, it was precisely because of this belief in the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century that the civic pathos of the struggle for some idea was born that could play an important role in transforming the country, sending the whole country along one path or another. The 19th century was the century of maximum development of domestic critical thought. Therefore, the speeches in the press of critics of that time entered the annals of Russian culture.

A well-known confrontation that emerged in the history of literature in the middle of the 19th century emerged between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles. These social movements arose in Russia as early as the 40s of the 19th century. Westerners advocated that the true development of Russia began with the reforms of Peter I, and in the future it is necessary to follow this historical path. At the same time, they treated the entire pre-Petrine Russia with disdain, noting the absence of a culture and history worthy of respect. Slavophiles advocated the independent development of Russia, regardless of the West.

Just at that time, a very radical movement became popular among Westerners, which was based on the teachings of utopians with a socialist bias, in particular, Fourier and Saint-Simon. The most radical wing of this movement saw revolution as the only way to change something in the state.

The Slavophiles, in turn, insisted that the history of Russia is no less rich than that of the West. In their opinion, Western civilization suffered from individualism and unbelief, having become disillusioned with spiritual values.

The confrontation between Westernizers and Slavophiles was also observed in Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century, and especially in criticism of Gogol. Westerners considered this writer the founder of the socio-critical trend in Russian literature, while the Slavophiles insisted on the epic fullness of the poem "Dead Souls" and its prophetic pathos. Remember that critical articles played a big role in Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century.

"Naturalists"

In the 1840s, a whole galaxy of writers appeared who rallied around the literary critic Belinsky. This group of writers began to be called representatives of the "natural school".

In the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century, they were very popular. Their protagonist is a representative of the underprivileged class. These are artisans, janitors, beggars, peasants. The writers sought to give them the opportunity to speak out, to show their customs and way of life, reflecting through them all of Russia from a special angle.

The most popular among them is the genre. It describes different strata of society with scientific rigor. Outstanding representatives of the "natural school" are Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Turgenev, Reshetnikov, Uspensky.

Revolutionary Democrats

By the 1860s, the confrontation between the Westerners and the Slavophils was coming to naught. But disputes between representatives of the intelligentsia continue. Cities, industry are rapidly developing around, history is changing. At this moment, people from various social strata come to the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. If earlier writing was the lot of the nobility, now merchants, priests, philistines, officials and even peasants take up the pen.

In literature and criticism, the ideas laid down by Belinsky are developed, the authors pose sharp social questions for readers.

Chernyshevsky lays the philosophical foundations in his master's thesis.

"Aesthetic Criticism"

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the direction of "aesthetic criticism" received special development in literature. Botkin, Druzhinin, Annenkov do not accept didacticism, proclaiming the inherent value of creativity, as well as its detachment from social problems.

"Pure art" should solve exclusively aesthetic problems, representatives of "organic criticism" came to such conclusions. In its principles, developed by Strakhov and Grigoriev, true art became the fruit of not only the mind, but also the soul of the artist.

soilmen

Soil cultivators gained great popularity during this period. Dostoevsky, Grigoriev, Danilevsky, Strakhov included themselves among them. They developed the ideas in a Slavophilic way, warning at the same time to be too carried away by social ideas, to break away from tradition, reality, history and the people.

They tried to penetrate into the lives of ordinary people, deriving general principles for the maximum organic development of the state. In the magazines Epoch and Vremya, they criticized the rationalism of their opponents, who, in their opinion, were too revolutionary.

Nihilism

One of the features of the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century was nihilism. In it, the soil scientists saw one of the main threats to real reality. Nihilism was very popular among different sections of Russian society. It was expressed in the denial of accepted norms of behavior, cultural values ​​and recognized leaders. At the same time, moral principles were replaced by the concepts of one's own pleasure and benefit.

The most striking work of this trend is Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons", written in 1861. Its protagonist Bazarov denies love, art and compassion. They were admired by Pisarev, who was one of the main ideologists of nihilism.

Genre of the novel

The novel plays an important role in Russian literature of this period. It was in the second half of the 19th century that Leo Tolstoy's epic "War and Peace", Chernyshevsky's political novel "What Is to Be Done?", Dostoevsky's psychological novel "Crime and Punishment", and Saltykov-Shchedrin's social novel "Lord Golovlev" came out.

The most significant was the work of Dostoevsky, reflecting the era.

Poetry

In the 1850s, poetry flourished after a brief oblivion that followed the golden age of Pushkin and Lermontov. Polonsky, Fet, Maikov come to the fore.

In poetry, poets pay increased attention to folk art, history, and everyday life. It becomes important to comprehend Russian history in the works of Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Maikov, May. It is epics, folk legends and old songs that determine the style of the authors.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the work of civil poets became popular. The poems of Minaev, Mikhailov, Kurochkin are associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The main authority for the poets of this direction is Nikolai Nekrasov.

By the end of the 19th century, peasant poets became popular. Among them are Trefolev, Surikov, Drozhzhin. She continues the traditions of Nekrasov and Koltsov in her work.

Dramaturgy

The second half of the 19th century is the time of the development of national and original dramaturgy. The authors of the plays actively use folklore, pay attention to peasant and merchant life, national history, and the language spoken by the people. You can often find works devoted to social and moral issues, in which romanticism is combined with realism. These playwrights include Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Ostrovsky, Sukhovo-Kobylin.

The variety of styles and artistic forms in dramaturgy led to the emergence at the very end of the century of vivid dramatic works by Chekhov and Leo Tolstoy.

Influence of foreign literature

Foreign literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century has a noticeable influence on Russian writers and poets.

At this time, realistic novels reigned in foreign literature. First of all, these are the works of Balzac ("Shagreen Skin", "Parma Convent", "Eugenia Grande"), Charlotte Brontë ("Jane Eyre"), Thackeray ("Newcomes", "Vanity Fair", "History of Henry Esmond"), Flaubert ("Madame Bovary", "Education of the Senses", "Salambo", "Simple Soul").

In England at that time, Charles Dickens was considered the main writer, his works Oliver Twist, The Pickwick Papers, The Life and Adventures of Niklas Nickleby, A Christmas Carol, Dombey and Son are also read in Russia.

In European poetry, the collection of poems by Charles Baudelaire "Flowers of Evil" becomes a real revelation. These are the works of the famous European symbolist, which caused a whole storm of discontent and indignation in Europe due to the large number of obscene lines, the poet was even fined for violating the norms of morality and morality, making the collection of poems one of the most popular in the decade.