Conflict (lat. conflictus) - a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible with each other tendencies in the mind of a single individual, in interpersonal interactions or interpersonal relationships of individuals or groups of people, associated with acute negative emotional experiences. Any organizational changes, conflicting situations, business and personal relationships between people often give rise to conflict situations, which are subjectively accompanied by serious psychological experiences.

From an ordinary point of view, conflict carries a negative meaning, is associated with aggression, deep emotions, disputes, threats, hostility, etc. There is an opinion that conflict is always an undesirable phenomenon and should be avoided if possible and, if it has arisen, immediately resolved . Modern psychology considers conflict not only in a negative, but also in a positive way: as a way of developing an organization, a group and an individual, highlighting positive aspects in the inconsistency of conflict situations related to development and subjective understanding of life situations.

The conflict is most often seen as competition in the satisfaction of interests. What is a conflict situation? This question is answered thomas theorem: if situations are defined as real, then they are real in their consequences, that is, a conflict becomes a reality when it is experienced as a conflict by at least one of the parties.

The conflict can also be viewed as a state of shock, disorganization in relation to the previous development and, accordingly, as a generator of new structures. In this definition M. Robert and F. Tilman point to the modern understanding of conflict as a positive phenomenon.

J. Von Neumann and O. Morgenstein define conflict as the interaction of two objects with incompatible goals and ways to achieve these goals. Such objects can be considered people, separate groups, armies, monopolies, classes, social institutions, etc., whose activities are somehow connected with setting and solving problems of organization and management, with forecasting and decision-making, as well as with planning targeted actions. .

K. Levin characterizes conflict as a situation in which oppositely directed forces of approximately equal magnitude simultaneously act on an individual. Along with the "power" lines of the situation, the personality itself plays an active role in resolving conflicts, their understanding and vision. Therefore, Levin's works deal with both intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts.

From point of view role theory conflict is understood as a situation of incompatible expectations (requirements) to which a person who plays a particular role in a social and interpersonal structure is exposed. Typically, such conflicts are divided into inter-role, intra-role and personality-role.

In the theory of social conflict L. Kozer conflict is a struggle over values ​​and claims due to a lack of status, power and means, in which the goals of opponents are neutralized, infringed or eliminated by their rivals. The author also notes the positive function of conflicts - maintaining the dynamic balance of the social system. If the conflict is related to goals, values ​​or interests that do not affect the foundations of the existence of groups, then it is positive. If the conflict is connected with the most important values ​​of the group, then it is undesirable, since it undermines the foundations of the group and carries a tendency to destroy it.

By W. Lincoln, positive The impact of the conflict is manifested in the following:

• conflict accelerates the process of self-awareness;
• under its influence, a certain set of values ​​is affirmed and confirmed;
• promotes a sense of community, as it may turn out that others have similar interests and they strive for the same ends and results and support the use of the same means - to the extent that formal and informal alliances arise;
• leads to the unification of like-minded people;
• contributes to détente and pushes other, unimportant conflicts into the background;
• promotes prioritization;
• plays the role of a safety valve for a safe and even constructive release of emotions;
• thanks to him, attention is drawn to dissatisfaction or proposals that need to be discussed, understood, recognized, supported, legalized and resolved;
• leads to the emergence of working contacts with other people and groups;
• it stimulates the development of systems for the equitable prevention, resolution and management of conflicts.

negative The impact of conflict often manifests itself in the following:

• the conflict is a threat to the declared interests of the parties;
• it threatens the social system that ensures equality and stability;
• hinders the rapid implementation of change;
• leads to loss of support;
• makes people and organizations dependent on public statements that cannot be easily and quickly abandoned;
• instead of a carefully considered response, it leads to quick action;
• as a result of the conflict, the trust of the parties to each other is undermined;
• causes disunity among those who need unity or even strive for it;
• as a result of the conflict, the formation of alliances and coalitions is undermined;
• the conflict tends to deepen and expand;
• the conflict changes priorities to such an extent that it threatens other interests.

There are numerous conflict classification. The grounds for them can be the source of the conflict, content, significance, type of resolution, form of expression, type of relationship structure, social formalization, socio-psychological effect, social result. Conflicts can be hidden and obvious, intense and erased, short-term and protracted, vertical and horizontal, etc.

By focus conflicts are divided into "horizontal" and "vertical", as well as "mixed". Horizontal conflicts include such conflicts in which persons who are subordinate to each other are not involved. Vertical conflicts include those in which persons who are subordinate to one another participate. Mixed conflicts have both vertical and horizontal components. According to psychologists, conflicts with a vertical component, that is, vertical and mixed, are approximately 70-80% of all conflicts.

By meaning for a group and organization, conflicts are divided into constructive (creative, positive) and destructive (destructive, negative). The first is beneficial, the second is harmful. You can’t leave the first, you need to leave the second.

By the nature of the causes conflicts can be divided into objective and subjective. The former are generated by objective reasons, the latter - by subjective, personal ones. Objective conflict is more often resolved constructively, subjective, on the contrary, as a rule, is resolved destructively.

M. Deutsch classifies conflicts according to the criterion truth-falsity or reality:

• "genuine" conflict - existing objectively and perceived adequately;
• “random, or conditional” - depending on easily changeable circumstances, which, however, is not realized by the parties;
• "displaced" - an obvious conflict, behind which lies another, invisible conflict, which lies at the basis of the obvious one;
• "misattributed" - a conflict between parties who misunderstood each other, and, as a result, about misinterpreted problems;
• "latent" - a conflict that should have occurred, but which does not exist, because for one reason or another it is not recognized by the parties;
• "false" - a conflict that exists only due to errors in perception and understanding in the absence of objective grounds.

Classification of conflicts by type social formalization: official and informal (formal and informal). These conflicts, as a rule, are associated with the organizational structure, its features and can be both "horizontal" and "vertical".

In my own way socio-psychological effect conflicts fall into two categories:

• developing, affirming, activating each of the conflicting individuals and the group as a whole;
• contributing to the self-affirmation or development of one of the conflicting individuals or groups as a whole and the suppression, limitation of another individual or group of individuals.

By the amount of social interaction conflicts are classified into intergroup, intragroup, interpersonal and intrapersonal.

Intergroup conflicts suggest that the parties to the conflict are social groups pursuing incompatible goals and hindering each other with their practical actions. This may be a conflict between representatives of different social categories (for example, in an organization: workers and engineers, line and office personnel, trade union and administration, etc.). In socio-psychological studies, it has been shown that the "own" group in any situation looks better than the "other". This is the so-called phenomenon of in-group favoritism, which is expressed in the fact that members of the group in one form or another favor their group. It is a source of intergroup tension and conflict. The main conclusion that social psychologists draw from these patterns is the following: if we want to remove intergroup conflict, then it is necessary to reduce differences between groups (for example, lack of privileges, fair pay, etc.).

Intragroup conflict includes, as a rule, self-regulatory mechanisms. If group self-regulation does not work, and the conflict develops slowly, then conflict in the group becomes the norm of relations. If the conflict develops quickly and there is no self-regulation, then destruction occurs. If the conflict situation develops according to a destructive type, then a number of dysfunctional consequences are possible. It can be a general dissatisfaction, a bad state of mind, a decrease in cooperation, a strong loyalty to one's group with a lot of unproductive competition with other groups. Quite often, there is a perception of the other side as an "enemy", about one's goals as positive, and about the goals of the other side as negative, interaction and communication between the parties decreases, more importance is attached to "victory" in the conflict than solving the real problem.

A group is more resistant to conflict if it is cooperatively interconnected. The consequence of this cooperation is freedom and openness of communications, mutual support, friendliness and trust in relation to the other side. Therefore, the likelihood of intergroup conflicts is higher in diffuse, immature, poorly cohesive and value-disparate groups.

There are four types of conflicts:

1. An intrapersonal conflict occurs when conflicting demands are made on one person. For example, the teacher gives the task to do a test, and allows the use of notebooks with notes and leaves the class. Upon his return, he takes away a notebook from one of the students and gives him a “pair” for cheating. Often this conflict becomes interpersonal.

Intrapersonal conflict can also arise as a result of the fact that production requirements are not consistent with personal needs or values.

2. Interpersonal conflict is the most common. Most often, this is the struggle of the leader for limited resources, labor, finance, etc. Everyone believes that if resources are limited, then he must convince the higher authorities to allocate them to him, and not to another leader.

Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself as a clash of personalities, i.e. people with different characters, incompatible temperaments are simply not able to get along with each other.

3. Conflict between the individual and the group. Due to the fact that production groups establish their own norms of behavior and rules, it happens that the expectations of the group are in conflict with the expectations of the individual. Thus, a conflict arises between an individual and a group if this individual takes a position that differs from the position of the group.

4. Intergroup conflict. Since structurally organizations usually consist of many both formal and informal groups, conflicts can arise between groups.

According to the degree of manifestation, conflicts are hidden and open.

Hidden conflicts usually involve two people who, for the time being, try not to show the appearance that they are in conflict. But with an increase in emotional tension, the conflict situation gets out of control and turns into an open conflict.

As a kind of conflict, intrigue is also distinguished. Intrigue is understood as “a deliberate dishonest action, beneficial to the initiator, which forces the collective or the individual to certain actions and thereby damages the collective and the individual” Kabushkin. N.I. Fundamentals of management: textbook. allowance / N.I. Kabushkin. - M .: New knowledge, 2006. - S. 280. Intrigues are usually carefully thought out and planned, and have their own storyline.

Causes of conflicts

Every conflict has its own cause. N.I. Kabushkin identifies the following groups of causes that give rise to conflicts:

1. Insufficient coherence and inconsistency of the goals of individual groups and employees.

To avoid conflict, it is necessary to clarify the goals and objectives of each unit and employee by passing the appropriate instructions orally or in writing.

2. Fuzzy delineation of rights and obligations. The consequence of this is a double or triple subordination of performers, when the subordinate is forced to:

a) himself to rank the received orders according to their degree of importance at his own discretion;

b) demand this from his/her immediate supervisor;

c) grab everything.

3. Limited resources. Even in the largest organizations, resources are always limited. Management decides how to properly allocate materials, human resources, finances, etc. between different groups in order to achieve the goals of the organization. Giving more resources to one will cause resentment and lead to all sorts of conflict.

4. Insufficient level of professional training. Due to the unpreparedness of the subordinate, he is not trusted to perform certain types of work that is performed by another employee. As a result, some workers are underloaded with work, while others are overloaded with it.

5. Unreasonable public censure of some and undeserved praise of other employees - "favorites". This situation always provokes conflict.

6. Contradictions between the functions included in the terms of reference of the employee and what he is forced to do at the request of the head.

7. Differences in behavior and life experience. There are people who constantly show aggressiveness and hostility towards others and are ready to challenge every word. Such people create a nervous atmosphere around them, leading to a conflict situation. Differences in life experience, values, education, seniority, age and social characteristics reduce the degree of mutual understanding and cooperation.

8. Uncertainty of growth prospects. If an employee has no growth prospects or doubts its existence, then he works without enthusiasm, and the labor process becomes painful and endless for him.

9. Unfavorable physical conditions. Extraneous noise, heat or cold, poor layout of the workplace can cause conflict.

10. Lack of benevolent attention. The cause of the conflict may be the intolerance of the leader to fair criticism, inattention to the needs and concerns of subordinates, etc.

11. Psychological phenomenon. Feelings of resentment and envy (everything is better for others, others are more successful, happier, etc.).

Considering the causes of conflicts, it is necessary to take into account that in certain situations the leader is the source of the conflict. Many unwanted conflicts are generated by the personality and actions of the leader, especially if he allows himself personal attacks, is vindictive and suspicious, does not hesitate to publicly demonstrate his likes and dislikes.

The reasons for the conflict can also be the unscrupulousness of the leader, his false understanding of unity of command as a principle of management, vanity, harshness and rudeness in dealing with subordinates.

To date, there are many classifications of types of conflicts. Let's take a look at some of them.

D. Dehn's classification divides conflict situations into skirmish, clash and crisis. A skirmish is a small situation at the level of everyday interaction that does not affect important parties, does not threaten the interaction.

By collision, the scientist understands a series of repeated skirmishes united by one contradiction. At the same time, the desire to cooperate decreases among the participants in the conflict, and the belief in the continuation of positive relations decreases.

During a crisis, negative emotions are experienced not only by the direct participants in the conflict, but also by the immediate environment. At this stage, it becomes difficult to identify a conflict of interest. In particularly aggressive forms, there is a threat of violence.

Rapoport's classification also suggests three types of conflict: fight, debate, game.

During the fight, the irreconcilability of relations is revealed, it suggests a “win-lose” model. The state of neutrality is basically impossible.

In "debate" both parties count on a compromise, which is resolved in the form of a dispute and involves maneuvers.

"Game" assumes that the parties are within the rules they have set for their relationship.

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Types of conflicts. In order to develop the most acceptable constructive form of a way out of situations of confrontation and an adequate form of managing them, it is necessary to conduct a typology of conflicts and classify them. But before that, it would be advisable to define the concept being described. In modern sources, you can find more than a hundred definitions of this term. The most fair of them is considered to be the following definition. A conflict is a way of resolving disagreements in views, hobbies or goals that arise in the processes of communicative interaction with society. It is usually accompanied by a situation of confrontation with negative emotions, which can often go beyond the boundaries of established norms or accepted rules. In other words, a conflict is a divergence, which is expressed in the confrontation of its participants. Such disagreement may be impartial or subjective.

Types of social conflicts

In general terms, the conflict can be represented as an ordinary dispute or a clash between two individuals or groups for the possession of something equally valued by both opposing sides. The participants in the confrontation are called the subjects of the conflict. Among them are: witnesses, instigators, accomplices, mediators. Witnesses are subjects who observe the course of a conflict situation from the outside, instigators are individuals who incite other participants to a quarrel, accomplices are people who contribute to the escalation of the conflict through recommendations, technical assistance or other available means, intermediaries are persons who, by their actions, seek to prevent, resolve or stop the confrontation. Not all individuals involved in confrontation are necessarily in direct confrontation with each other. The position, good or question that gives rise to the development of confrontation is called the subject of conflict.

The cause and cause of the emergence of conflicts differ from its subject. The cause of the conflict situation is the objective circumstances that predetermine the emergence of confrontation. The reason always has a connection with the needs of the opposing sides. The reason for the development of confrontation may be minor incidents that contribute to the emergence of a disputable situation, while the conflict process itself may not mature. In addition, the reason is specially created or random.

For a comprehensive understanding of the conflict situation, it is necessary to delimit it from a contradiction, which means fundamental incompatibility, dissimilarity in some fundamentally important interests, for example, of a political, economic or ethnic nature.

Contradictions are: objective and subjective, basic and non-basic, internal and external, antagonistic and non-antagonistic.

Internal confrontation arises as a result of a clash of intra-organizational, intra-group and other interests of members of minor social groups. External - originate between two or more social systems. The basis of conflict movements, in which its participants defend opposing interests, are antagonistic (irreconcilably hostile) disagreements. It is possible to reconcile such subjects pursuing polar interests for a short time, thereby postponing the conflict without resolving it. Disagreements that arise between the subjects of a conflict situation, which are characterized by the presence of agreed interests, are called non-antagonistic. In other words, this kind of contradiction implies the possibility of reaching compromises through mutually directed concessions.

The main contradictions determine the origin and dynamics of the conflict process, characterize the relationship between its leading subjects. Minor discrepancies accompany conflict situations. Mostly, they interact with minor participants in the conflict. Objective disagreements are determined by processes and phenomena that do not depend on the intellect and will of individuals, therefore it is impossible to resolve such contradictions without eliminating the direct cause of their occurrence. Subjective disagreements are characterized by dependence on the will and rationality of the subjects. They are due to the peculiarities of characters, differences in the behavioral model, worldview, moral and value orientations.

The basis of any conflict is necessarily a contradiction, manifested in tension due to dissatisfaction with the current situation and readiness to change it. However, the disagreement may not develop into an open clash, that is, directly into a conflict. Consequently, the contradiction shows the hidden and immovable moment of the phenomenon, in turn, the conflict expresses the open and dynamic process.

Social conflict is the highest point in the development of contradictions in the interaction of individuals, social groups and institutions, which is characterized by an increase in antagonistic tendencies, opposing interests of social groups and individuals.

Types and functions of conflicts

The history of sociology is rich in various concepts that reveal the very essence of the phenomenon of social conflict.

The German sociologist G. Simmel argued that the essence of social confrontation lies in the replacement of old, obsolete forms of culture with new ones. In other words, there is a clash between the ever-renewing content of life and obsolete cultural forms.

The English philosopher G. Spencer considered the struggle for existence to be the essence of the conflict. This battle, in turn, is due to the limited capacity of vital resources.

The German economist and sociologist K. Marx believed that there is a stable opposition between production relations and productive forces, which becomes more and more acute as productive capacities and technology develop, until it leads to a change in the mode of production. Class struggle, social conflict is the driving force of history, causing social revolutions that raise the development of society to a higher level.

The German historian, sociologist and philosopher M. Weber argued that society is an arena of social action, in which there is a clash of morals and norms inherent in certain individuals, social communities or institutions. The confrontation between social devices, defending their own social positions, life styles, ultimately stabilize society.

Social conflicts can carry a positive meaning and a negative direction. The positive impact is manifested in informing about the presence of social tension, stimulating social transformations and removing this tension.

The negative direction of public confrontation lies in the formation of stressful situations, the destruction of the social system, and the disorganization of the life of society.

Types of conflicts in the team differ in:

Durations: one-time and recurring, short-term and long-term, protracted; capacity (volume): global and local, national and regional; personal and group;

Used means: violent and non-violent;

Source of education: false, objective and subjective;

Shape: internal and external;

The nature of development: spontaneous and deliberate;

Impact on the course of social development: regressive and progressive;

Spheres of social life: production (economic), ethnic, political and family-domestic;

Type of relationship: individually and socio-psychological, intra-national and international.

Wars, territorial disputes, international disputes are all examples of types of conflict (by volume).

Main types of conflicts

The fundamental types of conflicts in psychology are classified according to the feature that is the basis of systematization. Therefore, confrontations can be grouped according to the number of participants in the conflict: internal and interpersonal, as well as group.

Intrapersonal conflict arises from the collision of the individual's own goals, which are both relevant and incompatible for him. In turn, the conflict that occurs within the personality is subdivided depending on the choice. Options can be both attractive and unattainable at the same time. The clearest example of such an "equilateral" choice that generates confrontation is the story of Buridan's donkey, who died of starvation because he could not choose one from two haystacks at the same distance.

The options can be equally unattractive. Examples of this can be found in various films where the characters have to make choices that are equally unacceptable to him.

The outcome of a choice can be both attractive and unattractive to the individual. A person analyzes intensely, counting the pros and calculating the cons, because he is afraid to make the wrong decision. An example of this is the appropriation of other people's valuables.

Collisions of various role positions of the personality give rise to role intrapersonal contradictions.

Types of role confrontations are divided into personal, interpersonal and interrole.

Personal-role contradiction occurs as a result of changes in the requirements for the role from the outside, when such requirements are not consistent with the opinion of the individual, with his unwillingness or inability to comply. Since any social role of the subject is characterized by the presence of individual requirements, established understandings and ideas about it.

An inter-role contradiction is revealed when too strong "accustoming" to a certain social role does not allow an individual to take a different role position in a different situation.

The clearest manifestations of interpersonal conflict are mutually directed reproaches and disputes. Any person participating in the contradiction seeks to satisfy personal needs and his own interests.

Interpersonal confrontations are also classified by:

Spheres: family and household, business and property;

Action and consequences: constructive, leading to cooperation, finding means to improve relationships, achieving goals, and destructive, based on the desire of the individual to suppress the enemy, aimed at achieving superiority in any way;

The criterion of reality: false and genuine, accidental, hidden.

Group conflict occurs between several small communities that are part of a large group. It can be characterized as a confrontation of groups, the basis of which is the principle "we - they". At the same time, the participants attribute exclusively positive qualities and goals to their group. And the second group - negative.

Classification of types of conflicts: true, false, misattributed, displaced, random (conditional), latent (hidden). Genuine conflict is perceived adequately and exists objectively. For example, the spouse wants to use the free space as a dressing room, and the husband wants to use the workshop.

Conditional or random confrontation is distinguished by the ease of its resolution. At the same time, its subjects are not aware of this. For example, the above family does not notice that there is other free space in the apartment, suitable either for a workshop or for a wardrobe.

A displaced confrontation is observed when something else is hidden behind an obvious confrontation. For example: spouses, arguing over free space, are actually in conflict because of inconsistent ideas about the role of a spouse in family relationships.

An incorrectly attributed contradiction is noted when the spouse scolds the faithful for what he did at her own request, which she had already forgotten.

A hidden or latent conflict is based on an objectively existing contradiction that is not recognized by the spouses.

A false conflict is a contradiction that does not really exist. It depends on the perception of the spouses. In other words, objective reasons are not needed for its appearance.

Types of conflicts in the organization

An organization cannot exist without a variety of conflict processes. Because it consists of individuals characterized by different upbringings, views, goals, needs and aspirations. Any clash is a lack of agreement, a disagreement of opinions and views, a confrontation of divergent positions and interests.

Types of conflicts in the management of organizations are usually considered at various levels: social, psychological and socio-psychological.

Types of conflicts in a team can be positive or negative. It is believed that conflicts in the business environment contribute to the definition of positions and points of view of members of the organization, provide an opportunity to show their own potential. In addition, they allow to comprehensively consider problems and identify alternatives. Thus, confrontation in an organization often leads to its development and productivity.

Types and functions of conflicts in labor relations. Confrontation is the driving force and motivation. In turn, the fear and avoidance of confrontations is generated by uncertainty about the possibility of a successful resolution of the conflict process. Therefore, one should accept conflict as a tool.

Classification of types of conflicts

Confrontations in the workforce are determined by the organizational levels to which the participants belong, as a result of which conflicts are divided into:

Vertical, observed between different steps of the hierarchical ladder (the majority of such conflicts);

Horizontal, occurring between separate areas of the company's functioning, between formal groups and informal teams;

Mixed, covering elements of vertical contradictions and horizontal confrontations.

In addition, conflicts in the organization are systematized according to the sphere of occurrence and formation of conflict situations and are:

Business, that is, related to the professional activities of subjects and the performance of functional duties;

Personal, affecting unofficial interests.

Conflicts are also classified according to the division between winners and losers into:

Symmetrical, that is, there is an equal distribution of the results of the confrontation;

Asymmetric, observed when some win or lose much more than others.

According to the degree of severity, conflicts can be divided into hidden and open.

Covert confrontation usually involves two individuals who, until a certain point, try not to show that there is a confrontation between them.

Hidden discord often develops in the form of a kind of intrigue, which means a deliberate dishonest act that is beneficial to the initiator, forcing the team or subject to specific actions, which causes damage to the individual and the team. Open confrontation is managed by management, as a result of which they are considered less dangerous to the organization.

Conflict situations are divided depending on their consequences into destructive (harmful to the company) and constructive (contribute to the development of the organization).

Conflicts in the organization, as well as other types of confrontations, are: inside and interpersonal, intergroup, between a working individual and a group.

Often, specialists are presented with inappropriate claims and excessive demands regarding their professional activities and work results, or company requirements that are dissimilar to the personal needs of the employee or his interests - these are examples of types of intrapersonal conflicts. This kind of confrontation is a kind of response to labor overload.

Interpersonal conflict is more often observed between leaders.

The confrontation between the hard worker and the group arises if the expectations of the team do not match the expectations of the individual specialist.

Intergroup conflict is based on competition.

To resolve all types of conflicts in management, it is necessary either for the leader, or for a compromise.

Types of interpersonal conflicts

Communicative interaction with the social environment occupies a significant place in human existence, filling it with meaning. Relationship with relatives, colleagues, acquaintances, friends is an inseparable part of the existence of every human subject, and conflict is one of the manifestations of such interaction. Most people tend to mistakenly attribute confrontations to the negative costs of the communication process. Therefore, with redoubled efforts, they try to avoid them. However, it is impossible to protect oneself from all conflict situations, since a conflict-free society does not exist in principle. Each individual is not just a part of the social mechanism. Any human subject is a unique individual personality with personal desires, goals, needs, interests, which can often conflict with the interests of the environment.

Interpersonal confrontation is called an open clash of subjects interacting with each other, which is based on contradictions, acting in the form of opposite aspirations, tasks that are incompatible in a certain situation. It always manifests itself in the communicative interaction of two or more persons. In confrontations of an interpersonal nature, the subjects oppose each other, sorting out the relationship face to face. This type of contradiction is the most common, since it can be observed both between colleagues and between close people.

Interpersonal conflict is characterized by a number of features and specific features:

The presence of objective differences - they must be significant for each subject of the conflict process;

The need to overcome disagreement as a tool that contributes to the establishment of relationships between the subjects of confrontation;

The activity of the participants in the process - actions or their complete absence are aimed at satisfying their own interests or at reducing contradictions.

Types of conflicts in psychology can also be systematized depending on the essence of the problems involved:

Value (opposition, the cause of which is significant ideas and basic personal values);

Interests, that is, conflicting goals, interests, aspirations of subjects in a particular situation are affected;

Regulatory (confrontation arises as a result of violations in the course of interaction of legal rules of conduct).

In addition, conflicts are divided depending on the dynamics into acute, protracted and sluggish. A sharp confrontation is observed here and now. It affects significant values ​​or events. For example, adultery. Protracted divergences last for a large amount of time with medium and stable tension. They also touch upon significant issues for the individual. For example, the conflict of generations.

Sluggish conflict situations are characterized by low intensity. They flash periodically. For example, the confrontation of colleagues.

Types of conflict management

In order for the confrontation to have a positive outcome, they need to be able to manage. The managerial process of control over the conflict situation should include meetings of the subjects of the conflict, which help to identify the causes of confrontation, and ways to overcome differences. The main principle of behavioral response in a conflict situation is to find common goals of conflicting individuals that will be understood and accepted by everyone. Thus, cooperation is formed. Also an important step is the consent to the participation of a mediator who will help resolve the conflict situation. At the same time, the decision of the mediator must be taken unquestioningly and must be carried out by all the actors of the confrontation.

Types of intrapersonal conflicts

The contradiction occurring within the individual is the state of the internal personality structure, which is characterized by the opposition of its elements.

Proponents of the psychological approach divide conflicts in terms of their detection into role-playing, motivational and cognitive ones.

Motivational intrapersonal confrontation has been studied in psychoanalytic theory and psychodynamic concepts. The followers of these teachings were based on the idea of ​​the originality of intrapersonal contradiction as a consequence of the duality of human nature.

In Freud's paradigm, a personality conflict arises as a result of the confrontation between the "It" and the "Super-I", that is, between the biological instinctive cravings and aspirations of the individual and the moral norms mastered by the personality. Displacement of unacceptable desires for the subject does not give him the opportunity to realize the true causes of internal confrontation. These contradictions often lead to the inclusion of psychological protection. As a result of this, internal tension is reduced, while the reality before the individual may appear in a distorted form.

A cognitive contradiction is often the result of a conflict of ideas that are incompatible for the subject. Cognitive psychology claims that a person is striving for the consistency of his own internal structure of beliefs, values, and ideas. The individual feels discomfort when contradictions appear. According to Festinger's concept, individuals strive to minimize the state of discomfort, which is associated with the presence of two "knowledge" in a person at the same time, psychologically inconsistent with each other.

Role confrontations arise as a result of a clash in the sphere of an individual's activity between different "roles" of the personality, between the capabilities of the subject and proper role behavior.

Types of role conflicts. Traditionally, two main types of conflicts of role positions of the individual are distinguished, namely, the confrontation “I am the role position” and inter-role confrontation.

The clash "I - role position" is observed when contradictions arise between the capabilities of the subject and the requirements, when, due to the unwillingness or inability of the individual to correspond to his role position, the problem of choice appears before him. Inter-role confrontation is the incompatibility of different roles of the individual. The most common inter-role conflict is the clash of professional role position and family role.

Types of political conflicts

Political confrontations are an integral part of the historical formation of states and the development of society. On the one hand, political confrontation destroys state-legal institutions and social relationships. On the other hand, it provides an ascent to a new stage of political development.

Thus, confrontation in politics is a clash, the purpose of which is to eliminate the enemy or cause damage to him. In other words, political confrontation occurs when the pursuit of the interests of one state leads to the restriction of the interests of another.

Political confrontation can also be defined as a clash of subjects of political interaction due to a divergence of interests or means of achieving them, rivalry, rejection of the values ​​of the hostile side, lack of mutual understanding.

All conflicts in the political world are divided into spheres, the type of political organization, the nature of the subject of confrontation.

According to the sphere of distribution, the confrontation can be interstate or foreign policy and domestic policy.

According to the type of political organization, conflicts are divided into confrontation between totalitarian regimes and confrontation between democratic systems.

According to the specifics of the subject of confrontation, they are divided into status-role confrontation, clash of interests and confrontation of identification and values.

At the same time, the content that determines these categories of concepts often coincides. So, for example, political confrontation between states can simultaneously be an expression of the dissimilarity of the political system (democratic and totalitarian) and the formulation of interests and values ​​that are defended by these political systems.

Types of conflict resolution

The transfer of the conflict to the expedient channel of the activity of the subjects, the conscious impact on the behavior of the participants in the confrontation in order to achieve the desired goals - this is the management of the conflict process. It includes: forecasting possible conflicts, preventing the occurrence of some and at the same time stimulating others, ending and pacifying confrontation, settlement and resolution.

All existing types of conflict management can be divided into: negative (types of confrontation, the purpose of which is the victory of one side-participant) and positive methods. The term "negative ways" means that the result of the collision will be the destruction of the relationship of the commonality of the parties involved in the confrontation. The result of positive methods is to preserve cohesion between conflicting participants.

It is necessary to understand that the ways of resolving conflict situations are conventionally divided into negative and positive. In practice, both methods perfectly and harmoniously complement each other. For example, often the negotiation process contains elements of struggle in various issues. At the same time, even the toughest struggle between the opposing sides does not rule out the possibility of negotiations. In addition, progress does not exist without the competition of outdated ideas and fresh innovations.

There are many varieties of struggle, each of which has common features, because any struggle implies mutually directed actions of at least two individuals. At the same time, the purpose of the actions of one is to prevent the other.

The main task of the struggle is to change the conflict situation.

Positive ways of resolving disputes and conflicts primarily involve negotiation.

In addition, the following styles of conflict resolution are distinguished: avoiding confrontation, smoothing the situation, coercion, finding a compromise and directly solving the problem.

Speaker of the Medical and Psychological Center "PsychoMed"

« Conflict- this is the most acute way to resolve significant contradictions that arise in the process of assistance, which consists in countering the subjects of the conflict and is usually accompanied by negative emotions ”E. A. Zamedlina. Conflictology. M - RIOR, 2005 p. 4.

Conflicts are manifested in communication, behavior, activities. These are the so-called spheres of counteraction of the subjects of the conflict. Therefore, it is obvious that conflicts are studied not only by social psychology, but also by such sciences as military sciences, history, pedagogy, political science, jurisprudence, psychology, sociobiology, sociology, philosophy, economics, etc.

There are three types of conflicts:

1) intrapersonal;

2) social - interpersonal conflicts, conflicts between small, medium and large social groups, international conflicts between individual states and their coalitions;

3) animal conflicts.

The nature of social conflict.

The causes of social conflict are:

1) material resources;

2) the most important life attitudes;

3) powers of authority;

4) status-role differences in the social structure;

5) personal (emotional-psychological) differences, etc.

The conflict is one of the types of social interaction, the subjects and participants of which are individuals, large and small social groups and organizations.

Conflict interaction- this is a confrontation of the parties, that is, actions directed against each other. The basis of social conflict is only those contradictions caused by incompatible interests, needs and values; such contradictions are transformed into an open struggle of the parties, into a real confrontation.

There are violent and non-violent forms of confrontation in conflict.

Social conflict includes the activity of an individual or groups that block the functioning of the enemy or cause damage to other people or groups.

The following terms are used in the problem of conflicts: "disputes", "debates", "bargaining", "rivalry and controlled battles", "indirect and direct violence".

Social conflict has several definitions. Here are the main ones: Social conflict is:

1) open confrontation, a clash of two or more subjects - participants in social interaction, the causes of which are incompatible needs, interests and values ​​of the participants in the conflict;

2) the limiting case of exacerbation of social contradictions, expressed in the clash of interests of various social communities - classes, nations, states, various social groups, social institutions, etc. due to the opposition or significant difference in their interests, goals, development trends;

3) an explicit or latent state of confrontation between objectively divergent interests, goals and trends in the development of social subjects, a direct or indirect clash of social forces on the basis of opposition to the existing social order, a special form of historical movement towards a new social unity;

4) a situation where the parties (subjects) of conflict interaction pursue some of their own goals that contradict or mutually exclude each other.

Conflicts and their types. Potential for conflict.

A conflict is a manifestation of objective or subjective contradictions, expressed in the confrontation of the parties.

Conflict is the most acute way to resolve significant contradictions that arise in the process of interaction, which consists in countering the subjects of the conflict and is usually accompanied by negative emotions.

According to F. Glazl, many Anglo-American authors emphasize in their definitions the contradictions of goals or interests pursued by the parties, but do not give a clear definition of the concept of “conflict”.

Virtually no one, with the exception of Yu.V. Christmas, does not define contradiction as a speech action. It is worth noting that he identifies three stages in the development of the struggle of interests that lead to conflict. “The actions in their struggle can be divided, as it were, into three stages of intensity: differences of opinion, contradictions in discussions, and direct struggle in the form of conflicts in actions.” Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that we will consider any statement of an authoritarian type from the 1st person in an approved form in any form of literature as a difference.

From our point of view, dialogue can be considered a contradiction, i.e. speech action when the differences of the parties are expressed.

The conceptual scheme that characterizes the essence of the conflict should cover four main characteristics: structure, dynamics, functions and conflict management.

The structure of the conflict is divided into:

Object (subject of dispute);

Subjects (individuals, groups, organizations);

Conditions for the course of the conflict;

The scale of the conflict (interpersonal, local, regional, global);

Strategies and tactics of behavior of the parties;

Outcomes of the conflict situation (consequences, results, their awareness).

Any real conflict is a complex dynamic process that includes the following main stages:

The subject situation is the emergence of objective causes of the conflict;

Conflict interaction - an incident or a developing conflict;

Conflict resolution (full or partial).

The conflict, regardless of its nature, implements a number of functions, among which the most important are:

Dialectical - serves to identify the causes of conflict interaction;

Constructive - the tension caused by the conflict can be directed towards achieving the goal;

Destructive - there will be a personal, emotional coloring of relationships that interferes with solving problems.

Conflict management can be considered in two aspects: internal and external. The first of these is to manage one's own behavior in a conflict interaction. The external aspect of conflict management suggests that the subject of management can be a leader (manager, leader, etc.)

Conflict management is a purposeful impact on its dynamics determined by objective laws in the interests of the development or destruction of the social system to which this conflict is related.

In the scientific literature, one can trace different attitudes towards conflicts. Conflict, as a phenomenon, is always undesirable, which should, if possible, be avoided and resolved immediately. This attitude is clearly seen in the works of authors belonging to the school of scientific management, the administrative school. The writers belonging to the "human relations" school also tended to think that conflicts should be avoided. But if conflicts were present in organizations, they were seen as a sign of inefficient performance and poor management.

The modern point of view is essentially that even in well-managed organizations, some conflict is not only possible, but may even be desirable. In many cases, the conflict helps to bring out the diversity of points of view, provides additional information, helps to identify problems, and so on.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the conflict can be functional and lead to an increase in the efficiency of the organization. Or it can be dysfunctional and lead to decreased personal satisfaction, group collaboration, and organizational effectiveness. The role of conflict mainly depends on how effectively it is managed.

Types of conflicts

We note the fact that in modern literature there are many classifications of conflicts on various grounds.

So A.G. Sanity gives a classification of the levels of the conflicting parties:

Interindividual conflicts

Intergroup conflicts and their types:

Interest groups;

Groups of ethno-national character;

Groups united by a common position;

Conflicts between associations;

Intra-institutional and inter-institutional conflicts;

Conflicts between state entities;

Conflicts between cultures or types of cultures;

R. Dahrendorf gives one of the broadest classifications of conflicts.

We will give this classification, indicating the types of conflicts in brackets:

According to the sources of occurrence (conflicts of interest, values, identification).

By social consequences (successful, unsuccessful, creative or constructive, destructive or destructive).

By scale (local, regional, interstate, global, micro-, macro-, and mega-conflicts).

According to the forms of struggle (peaceful and non-peaceful).

According to the peculiarities of the conditions of origin (endogenous and exogenous).

In relation to the subjects to the conflict (genuine, random, false, latent).

According to the tactics used by the parties (battle, game, debate).

AV Dmitrov gives several classifications of social conflicts on various grounds. The author refers to conflicts by spheres: economic, political, labor, social security, education, education, etc.

Types of conflicts in relation to a separate subject:

Internal (personal conflicts);

External (interpersonal, between a person and a group, intergroup).

In psychology, it is also accepted to single out: motivational, cognitive, role-playing, etc. conflicts.

K. Levin refers motivational conflicts (few people are satisfied with their work, many do not believe in themselves, experience stress, overload at work) to a greater extent, to intrapersonal conflicts. L. Berkowitz, M. Deutsch, D. Myers describe motivational conflicts as group conflicts. Cognitive conflicts are also described in the literature both from the standpoint of intrapersonal and intergroup conflicts.

Role conflicts (the problem of choosing one of several possible and desirable options): intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup conflicts will most often stay in the activity sphere. But most often in the psychological literature three types of conflicts are described: at the intrapersonal level, at the interpersonal and intergroup.

F . Lutens identifies 3 types of intrapersonal conflicts: conflict of roles; conflict caused by frustration, conflict of goals.

Intergroup conflict - traditionally conflicts of interest groups in the industrial sector.

Intergroup conflicts are generated most often by the struggle for limited resources or spheres of influence within an organization that consists of many formal and informal groups with completely different interests. This opposition has different bases. For example, professional production (designers-manufacturers-financiers), social (workers-employees - management) or emotional-behavioral ("lazy" - "hard workers").

But the most numerous will be interpersonal conflicts. In organizations, they will stay in different ways, most often in the form of a management struggle for always limited resources. 75-80% of interpersonal conflicts are generated by a clash of material interests of individual subjects, although outwardly they will remain as a mismatch of characters, personal views or moral values. These are communication conflicts.

Similar will be the conflicts between the individual and the group. For example, a leader's clash with a united front of subordinates who do not like the boss's harsh disciplinary measures aimed at "tightening the screws."

Types of conflicts by nature:

Objective, related to real problems and shortcomings;

Subjective, due to various assessments of certain events and actions.

Types of conflicts by consequences:

Constructive, involving rational transformations;

Destructive, destroying the organization.

There are various interpretations of the concept conflict. In social psychology, conflict is usually defined as a clash of opposing goals, motives, and interests. In a team, the conflict reflects the clash of group norms, role positions, values ​​of group members.

Types of conflicts

In social psychology, there are various typologies of conflict, depending on the criteria that are taken as a basis. The following is a classification by the nature of the participants:

intrapersonal conflict- does not quite correspond to the generally accepted definition of conflict. At the same time, its potential dysfunctional consequences are similar to those of other types of conflict. One of its most common forms is role conflict. The latter arises when conflicting demands are made to a person regarding the results of his activity. An intrapersonal conflict may arise in an employee of an organization as a result of a discrepancy between production requirements and his personal needs or value orientations. Studies show that this kind of conflict is usually associated with low employee job satisfaction, low confidence in themselves and the organization, as well as stress.

interpersonal conflict- the most common type of conflict that can arise between colleagues, neighbors, family members, etc. In organizations, it can manifest itself as a confrontation between the heads of various departments, a confrontation between a subordinate and a leader, or a confrontation between two ordinary members of a team. The phenomenon often has objective reasons (distribution of resources, struggle for power, etc.). At the same time, such conflicts can also arise on subjective grounds, when people with different character traits and value systems are not able to get along with each other.

In all cases of interpersonal conflicts, two interrelated aspects take place:

• meaningful (subject of disagreement);
• psychological (personal features of opponents, features of their relationship).

Conflict between the individual and the group- a fairly common phenomenon, in teams it can occur in various ways: the opposition of the team to the leader, the opposition of the team to the ordinary member. These kinds of conflicts arise when the expectation of the group is in conflict with the expectations of the individual. Conflict between an individual and a group can arise when an individual takes a position that is different from that of the group.

A similar confrontation can occur on the basis of the official duties of the head, who is forced to take administrative measures that are unpopular among his subordinates. In this case, the group, as a response, may reduce the level of discipline and productivity.

Intergroup conflict- conflict between small social groups. Such conflicts can arise both between groups within the same collective (community) or between groups of different communities. Examples of conflicts between small social groups are very diverse: skirmishes between fans of different football clubs, confrontation between line managers and administrative staff at the enterprise, etc.

The object of intergroup conflicts can be:

• lack of resources (economic, information, etc.);
• dissatisfaction of one of the parties to the conflict with the social status;
• differences in socio-cultural values ​​(religious, moral, ethnic, etc.).

Interstate conflict- the struggle between two states or their coalitions, which is based on the clash of national-state interests of the warring parties. Confrontation may also arise between a state and a group of states. In modern conflictology there is no generally accepted typology of interstate conflicts, their classification can be taken as a basis: the number of participants, their strategic goals, the scale of the collision, the means used, the nature of the conflict.

In some sources, one can also find the allocation of a conflict of the "group-society" type. In this article we will try to consider the causes of the most common types of conflicts in everyday life - interpersonal, intergroup, as well as confrontation between an individual and a group.

It is also possible to classify conflicts based on the needs of the subjects of interaction according to A. I. Shipilov, represented by the following scheme:

According to the well-known Russian sociologist, founder of the Leningrad sociological school V.A. Yadov, "in all conflicts, we are talking about two things or even one thing: about resources and about control over them. From this point of view, power is a variant of control over resources, and property is the resource itself" . The scientist believes that all resources can be divided into two groups: material and spiritual, and the latter, in turn, can be differentiated into components. Similar thoughts are expressed by other experts. More abstractly speaking, the universal source of conflict lies in the incompatibility of the expectations of the parties due to the limited ability to meet them.

There are various typologies of causes of conflicts. One of the possible classifications:

1. Objective causes of conflicts

Resource allocation. The type of resources distributed is not of fundamental importance, people always strive to get more, not less. They deeply experience their own problems, while the problems of other groups or members of the team are aware of rather superficially. In this way, distorted ideas about justice are formed, as a result of which various kinds of conflicts almost inevitably arise.

Task Interdependence. The potential for conflict exists wherever the accomplishment of the tasks of one person or group depends on the actions of another person or group. Certain types of organizational structures increase the likelihood of conflict occurring. So, in particular, it increases with the matrix structure of management, in which the principle of unity of command is deliberately violated.

Differences in purpose. The likelihood of conflict in an organization increases with its growth and structural differentiation. As a result of a deep division of labor, departments begin to formulate their own goals and focus on achieving them rather than achieving the goals of the organization. This situation usually arises in organizations whose members are poorly oriented in the strategy of its development, do not see their place in the long-term perspective of the functioning of the organization.

Differences in how goals are achieved. Members of the organization (both ordinary and senior staff) may have different views on how to achieve common goals. At the same time, everyone believes that his methods are the best, and this is often the basis for conflict.

Poor communications. Disturbed transmission of information can be both a cause and a consequence of a conflict. In addition, it can act as a catalyst for conflict, making it difficult for individuals or groups to understand the situation or the perspectives of others. A poorly prepared leader can provoke conflict by his inability to accurately define the functions of department employees, ambiguous requirements for labor quality indicators, and the presentation of mutually exclusive requirements for work.

2. Socio-psychological causes of conflicts

Unfavorable socio-psychological climate. Conflicts are more likely to arise in teams in which there is no value-oriented unity, there is a low cohesion of the group.

Difficulties in socio-psychological adaptation new team members. The difficulty is associated with the entry of a newcomer into an already formed team and, above all, into the primary, contact group. Socio-psychological adaptation of beginners is a rather lengthy and complex process. Difficulties in adaptation may be due to: individual characteristics of the beginner's behavior; the level of team cohesion, etc.

Anomie of social norms. The mismatch of accepted social norms leads to the emergence of double standards: management requires employees to behave in a style that they themselves do not adhere to; everything is forgiven to some of the employees, it is asked from someone, etc.

Generation conflict associated with differences in value systems, behavior and life experience among representatives of different age groups.

Territoriality- a concept from environmental psychology. Territoriality implies the occupation by a person or group of a certain space (working, living, etc.) and establishing their control over it and the objects located in it.

Having a destructive leader in the informal structure of the organization. Such a leader, pursuing selfish goals, is able to organize a group that focuses solely on his instructions. At the same time, the orders of the formal leadership are accepted only with the approval of the "shadow" leader.

Respondent aggression- indignation directed not at the source of suffering, but at others, close people, colleagues; more characteristic of weak personality types. The danger of this kind of aggression is additionally due to the fact that defenseless people are often its victims.

3. Personal causes of conflicts

According to the person-centered approach, the causes of conflicts are:

1. Features of the course of cognitive processes- information processing, decision making, etc. As a result of such features, people have incompatible assessments regarding the existing situation. The latter circumstance leads to the development of conflicting strategies by the parties, which they use in solving specific problems.

2. personality traits in general (conflict personalities). It is customary to distinguish the following character traits characteristic of a “conflict personality”:

• desire for dominance;
• excessive adherence;
• excessive straightforwardness in statements;
• tendency to insufficiently reasoned criticism;
• tendency to irritability and depression;
• conservatism of beliefs, unwillingness to abandon outdated traditions;
• unceremonious interference in personal life;
• unfair assessment of other people's actions of others;
• inappropriate initiative, etc.

In addition, the situation in which conflicts arise is important. In some cases, the situation can contribute to the conflict, in others it can slow it down, holding back the initiative of the warring parties. So, the reason for the conflict at work can be: events that occurred during non-working hours (for example, in the personal life of an employee), increased nervous excitement at the end of the working day, etc.

Literature:

1. Conflictology: a short theoretical course: textbook / L. G. Ageeva. - Ulyanovsk: UlGTU, 2010. - 200 p.
2. Social conflicts: expertise, forecasting, resolution technologies. No. 1 / Ed. E.I. Stepanova. - M.: ISRAN, 1991. - 281 p.
3. Conflictology in diagrams and comments / Antsupov A.Ya., Baklanovsky S.V. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2009. - 304 p.: ill.
4. Conflictology: educational and practical guide / Tsybulskaya, M.V. - M .: Ed. Center EAOI, 2009. - 312 p.