This lesson is dedicated to the culture and art of the USSR in the 1930s. Despite the totalitarian control of the state over all spheres of cultural development of society, the art of the USSR in the 1930s. kept up with global trends of the time. The introduction of technological progress, as well as new trends from the West, contributed to the flourishing of literature, music, theater and cinema. During today's lesson you will learn what factors influenced the culture of the USSR in the 1930s, what new happened in the field of education, science, painting, architecture, literature, music, theater and cinema

Rice. 2. Tsvetaeva M.I. ()

Economic development also affects the development of culture and art. In the country in the 1930s, just like in the 20s, educated people are needed. The country needs competent, highly qualified specialists in all industries, in all areas. Education is developing, as are culture, science, and art.

Interesting changes are taking place in the social sphere. Culture is becoming more widespread, that is, more people are receiving education and getting the opportunity to become familiar with cultural and spiritual values. On the other hand, in order to please these masses of the population, cultural and artistic figures are forced to lower the bar, make art accessible and understandable to the people. Art as a method of influencing a person, as a method of understanding the world, can be a very important and powerful ally of power. Of course, the art of the 1930s. It did not so much resist the authorities as help; it was one of the means of establishing the Stalinist regime, a method of establishing communist ideology, a method of establishing the cult of personality.

In the 30s Contacts with other countries have not yet ceased. The mutual exchange of cultural ideas, trips, and exhibitions do not occur as intensively as in the 1920s, but they occur nonetheless. The USSR was a multinational country, and in the 1930s. National culture reaches a high level, and a separate written language of the small peoples of the Soviet Union appears.

Culture and art continued to comprehend the events that took place in the 1930s. There were no significant events, but the impetus given by the revolution continued to operate. In the 1930s The Bolsheviks continued to talk about the cultural revolution, and the first task was to increase the level of education and eliminate illiteracy. In the early 30s. universal 4-year free education is introduced in the late 30s. The 7-year course becomes compulsory and also free. In total, the secondary school then included a program of 9 classes (see Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Soviet poster ()

Moreover, a huge number of new schools were built, many of these schools, built in the 30s, with large spacious classrooms and corridors, still stand in our cities.

In addition to the secondary education system, higher education is also developing. By the end of the 30s. There were several thousand higher educational institutions in the USSR. A huge number of new educational institutions and branches of higher educational institutions were opened. Almost a million people by 1940 had a higher education. Changes also occurred in the structure of higher education. From ser. 30s a greater role began to be given to the social sciences, primarily history. In the 20-30s. continuity was maintained in the teaching of mathematics, physics, and other exact and natural sciences, but with humanitarian subjects everything was not the same. We can say that in the 1920s - early 1930s. history simply did not exist; the history departments at the Moscow and Leningrad institutes were liquidated. Since 1934, the tasks have changed.

In 1933, Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany. The German national idea, the patriotic one, was perverted by the Nazis. In this regard, the education system is changing, more attention is paid to those sciences that are involved in the education and development of patriotic feelings in a person.

Great successes in the 30s. are being sought, in particular, by such famous Soviet physicists and chemists as P.L. Kapitsa, A.F. Ioffe, I.V. Kurchatov, G.N. Flerov, who worked in different fields. S.V. Lebedev, the famous Soviet chemist, through his experiments, achieved the production of synthetic rubber (see Fig. 4, 5, 6).

Rice. 4. P.L. Kapitsa ()

Rice. 5. A.F. Ioffe()

Rice. 6. S.V. Lebedev ()

Things weren't so good in the humanities. In the 1930s There were several discussions, particularly on history. As a result of these discussions, the opinion was established that the entire history of mankind, according to the theory of Karl Marx, consists of five formations successively replacing each other: primitiveness, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, smoothly turning into communism. Socio-economic formation is the central concept of Marxist theory of society or historical materialism. Through the EEF, ideas about society as a specific system were recorded and at the same time the main periods of its historical development were identified. It was believed that any social phenomenon can be correctly understood only in connection with a certain OEF, an element or product of which it is. The history of all countries and peoples began to fit this scheme, this template. There were discussions, discussions could be held, but when the discussion ended, often on orders from above, it was forbidden to argue further and only one point of view was recognized as correct. Vibrant scientific life came to a standstill, because science is impossible without discussions. Science was also seriously damaged by repression. Repressed scientists: N.I. Vavilov, P.A. Florensky, E.V. Tarle, S.F. Platonov, D.S. Likhachev. (see Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. D.S. Likhachev ()

Art and literature also developed in the 1930s. It must be said that more significant changes are taking place in the sphere of literature and art than in the development of science and education. Since 1934, there has been a creative organization in the country that unites all writers - the Writers' Union of the Soviet Union. Until 1934, there were several organizations: LEF (left front), the Union of Russian Writers, the Organization of Peasant Writers, etc. In 1934, they all united, and under the leadership of Maxim Gorky a new organization was created - the Union of Writers. At the beginning of 1929, the LEF association disintegrated; it did not become part of the Writers' Union. After some time, the Union of Composers and the Union of Architects appeared. The Soviet government organized such unions in order to take literary and artistic figures under control. Thus, control by the authorities under a totalitarian regime is carried out using different methods. Firstly, this is purely administrative control, and secondly, through unions of writers, journalists, artists, and composers. A sufficiently large number of excellent writers were unable to fit into this new organized literary life. M.A. was practically not published. Bulgakov, they stopped publishing A.P. Platonov, persecuted M.I. Tsvetaeva, died in the camps of O.E. Mandelstam, N.A. Klyuev. The repression affected many writers. At the same time, A.N. continued to create during these years. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.A. Fadeev, S.Ya. Marshak, A.P. Gaidar, K.M. Simonov, M.A. Sholokhov, K.I. Chukovsky, A.L. Barto, M.M. Prishvin. Based on poems by Soviet poets M.V. Isakovsky, V.I. Lebedev-Kumach composed amazing songs (see Fig. 8, 9, 10).

Rice. 8. Korney Chukovsky ()

Rice. 9. Aibolit. Korney Chukovsky ()

Rice. 10. Agnia Barto ()

Interesting processes took place in other areas of art. Music is a difficult area to understand. 30s - these are years of different music: on the one hand, S.S. Prokofiev, D.D. Shostakovich wrote serious symphonic music. But the masses of Soviet citizens happily sang the songs of A.V. Alexandrov, for example his famous song “Katyusha”, which became popular. Among the famous performers of that time were L.P. Orlova, L.O. Utesov. In 1932, the Union of Soviet Composers was founded.

Art is always a struggle, it is the artist’s struggle with himself, it is a struggle of styles, a struggle of directions. In the 1930s Socialist realism continues to establish itself - the theoretical principle and main artistic direction that dominated the USSR in the mid-1930s. - early 1980s In Soviet art and art criticism already in the late 1920s. an idea has developed about the historical purpose of art - to affirm socialist ideals, images of new people and new social relations in a publicly accessible realistic form. The Russian avant-garde (P. Filonov, Robert Falk, Kazimir Malevich) is gradually receding into the background. At the same time, P. Korin, P. Vasiliev, M. Nesterov continued to create and began to paint portraits of famous people, scientists, doctors, and artists.

Interesting processes continue in architecture. A movement such as constructivism, the avant-garde in architecture, emerges. One of the avant-garde movements said that architecture should be functional. Homes, in addition to being beautiful, should also be simple and comfortable. In the 30s Soviet urban planning was born. Large, spacious, bright, as comfortable as possible cities, new cities of the future - their creation was in the first place for Soviet architects. A. Shchusev, K. Melnikov, the Vesnin brothers are architects who created a new look for our country. In addition to houses, in addition to residential areas, the idea was to show the beauty of the industrial world, to build beautiful factories, so that a person, looking at this industrial landscape, would understand that the country is moving towards a bright future.

At the end of the 30s. In all branches of art: in painting, in sculpture, and in architecture, a great style begins to appear - the Soviet Empire style. This is an imperial style, characterized by large, beautiful, powerful houses and paintings depicting heroes. Stalin's Empire style is the leading trend in Soviet architecture (1933-1935), which replaced rationalism and constructivism and became widespread during the reign of I.V. Stalin (see Fig. 11, 12).

Rice. 11. Stalin's Empire style. Hotel "Ukraine" ()

Rice. 12. Stalin's Empire style. Ministry of Foreign Affairs ()

The symbol of the Empire style was the sculpture of V.I. Mukhina “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”, prepared for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937 (see Fig. 13).

Rice. 13. Sculpture “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”. IN AND. Mukhina ()

Movie

Cinema carried an important ideological load. It told about the revolutionary struggle (“The Youth of Maxim”, “The Return of Maxim”, “Vyborg Side” - directors G. Kozintsev and L. Trauberg); about the fight against internal enemies (“The Great Citizen” - director F. Ermler); about the happy life of Soviet people (film comedies directed by G. Alexandrov with the participation of L. Orlova “Jolly Fellows”, “Circus”, “Volga-Volga”); about overcoming difficulties (“Seven Braves” - director S. Gerasimov). In the film “Lenin in 1918” directed by M. Romm, Stalin appeared in cinema for the first time. At the direction of Stalin, S. Eisenstein in 1938 directed the film “Alexander Nevsky” with N. Cherkasov in the title role. Composers I. Dunaevsky, N. Bogoslovsky, V. Solovyov-Sedoy wrote songs for cinema.

Theater

In the sphere of theatrical life, the Bolshoi Theater was considered the main musical theater, and the Moscow Academic Art Theater (MKhAT) was recognized as the main drama theater. Chekhov. Galina Ulanova shone in the ballet. Composers were encouraged to create opera and ballet performances with heroic themes. In particular, R. Gliere's ballet “The Flames of Paris” (about the French Revolution) and A. Cheshko's opera “Battleship Potemkin” were staged.

Let's summarize. The creation of a large number of educated people, institutions, the development and expansion of branches of the Academy of Sciences led to an increase in the level of education and the creation of a new layer of the Soviet intelligentsia. In education and science, there were generally positive processes, with the exception of the tragic moments of repression. In the 1930s Art, painting, music, literature, sculpture, and architecture developed.

Homework

1. Describe the processes of development of education, science and artistic culture of the USSR in the 1930s.
2. Why do you think in the 1930s? Was special attention paid to teaching history?
3. Reveal the essence of the method of socialist realism in art. What works of socialist realism do you know?
4. Which of those repressed in the 1930s? Can you name scientific and cultural figures? Prepare a report or message about their activities and creativity.

Bibliography

1. Shestakov V.A., Gorinov M.M., Vyazemsky E.E. Russian history,
2. XX - beginning of the XXI century, 9th grade: textbook. for general education institutions; under. ed.
3. A.N. Sakharov; Ross. acad. Sciences, Ross. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". -
4. 7th ed. - M.: Education, 2011. - 351 p.
5. Kiselev A.F., Popov V.P. Russian history. XX - early XXI centuries. 9th grade: textbook. for general education institutions. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, 2013. - 304 p.
6. Lezhen E.E. Poster as a means of political propaganda in the 1917-1930s. Bulletin of the Saratov State Socio-Economic
7. university. - Issue No. 3. - 2013. - UDC: 93/94.
8. Braginsky D.Yu. Sports motifs in Russian art of the 1920s-1930s. News of the Russian State Pedagogical University A.I. Herzen. - Issue No. 69. - 2008. - UDC: 7.

1. Mobile.studme.org().
2. Nado5.ru ().
3. Countries.ru ().
4. Russia.rin.ru ().

After the revolution, the country faced numerous tasks in the sphere of spiritual life. Objectively, it was necessary to increase the literacy of the population; take measures to develop new priority areas in science; to prepare scientific, technical and creative intelligentsia personnel corresponding to the tasks of industrial society; to ensure the connection of science with production, the use of its results for the needs of industrialization. At the same time, the authorities needed to assert their ideological influence in society. To solve this problem, it was supposed to actively use the possibilities of literature, art, and the humanities.

Already during the civil war, work began to eliminate illiteracy among the country's population. The society “Down with Illiteracy” was created, whose leadership included the head of the legislative branch M. I. Kalinin, party leader and chairman of the government V. I. Lenin, People’s Commissar of Education A. V. Lunacharsky and others. Thousands of new schools were opened throughout the country , in which both children and adults were taught basic literacy skills (reading, counting, writing). Activities in this direction yielded impressive results - by the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, more than 80% of the country's population were literate.

By the mid-1930s. In general, the Soviet education system took shape, including primary, general secondary, secondary special and higher schools. In the pre-war years, the transition to compulsory universal seven-year education was completed and the task of transition to universal secondary education in urban centers and seven-year education in rural areas and national regions was set. The network of universities in the country has grown more than 8 times and amounted to 817 universities and institutes. As a result, the number of specialists in the USSR increased from 1.5 million people in 1917 to 20 million in 1941.

At the same time, ideological control over the activities and mentalities of representatives of the intelligentsia was quite strict. In the late 20s - early 30s. Show trials took place: the Shakhty case, the “case of academicians”, the case of the Labor Peasant Party, etc. In the early 30s. the creation of mass public organizations began, uniting the intelligentsia and putting them under the control of the party: the Union of Writers, the Union of Composers, the Union of Architects, the Union of Artists, the All-Union Society of Inventors, etc.

At the same time, the state allocated huge funds for the development of scientific research, primarily in fundamental fields of knowledge. As a result, important discoveries were made in the study of the atomic nucleus (A.F. Ioffe), the development of the theory of space flight (K.E. Tsiolkovsky), and the theory of jet propulsion (F.A. Zander). Great importance was attached to the development of the Northern Sea Route and the study of the Arctic (O. Yu. Shmidt, I. D. Papanin). The works of I. P. Pavlov in the field of physiology were recognized throughout the world. N.I. Vavilov was recognized as the world's largest geneticist. The encyclopedist scientist V.I. Vernadsky created fundamental works on the theory of the biosphere. A significant breakthrough was made by Soviet specialists in the field of aircraft construction (A. N. Tupolev) and rocket science (S. P. Korolev). Pilots were very popular in the country (V.P. Chkalov, G.F. Baidukov, A.V. Belyakov, M.M. Gromov, V.S. Grizodubova, M.I. Raskova, P.A. Osipenko, V. K. Kokkinaki), who tested new models of aircraft in the pre-war years and made non-stop flights to the Far East, the North Pole, and America.

However, many scientists were forced to leave the country during the civil war and after its end, because they did not want to put up with the new political regime. The Soviet government itself initiated the expulsion of the largest representatives of humanities intellectuals representing the pre-revolutionary scientific school - P. A. Sorokin, N. A. Berdyaev and others. Many of the remaining scientists (A. F. Losev, P. A. Florensky, etc.) were subjected to repression for political reasons.

From the mid-30s. a new stage in the development of artistic culture begins. The method of socialist realism becomes official and the only acceptable one. He meant the creation of works that revealed issues of socialist construction and viewed the surrounding reality through this prism.

In the literature of the 30s. Along with the names of A. M. Gorky (who returned to the country after emigrating), A. N. Tolstoy, and other writers with pre-revolutionary fame, new names appeared - M. A. Sholokhov (“Quiet Don”), M. S. Shaginyan (“ Hydrocentral"), V. P. Kataev ("Time, forward!"), I. Ilf and E. Petrov ("Twelve Chairs", "Golden Calf"). Soviet children's literature was formed, represented by the works of S. Ya. Marshak, K. I. Chukovsky, A. P. Gaidar, B. S. Zhitkov and others.

A feature of fine art was the predominance of ceremonial painting, as well as paintings on the themes of revolution and civil war, and the construction of socialism. Recognized masters of this direction were S. V. Gerasimov (“Collective Farm Holiday”), K. S. Petrov-Vodkin (“Death of a Commissar”), A. A. Deineka (“Defense of Petrograd”), M. M. Grekov (“Defense of Petrograd”) Trumpeters of the First Cavalry Army"), B.V. Ioganson ("Interrogation of Communists").

The musical life of the country was inextricably linked with the names of the largest composers S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich, A. I. Khachaturyan, T. N. Khrennikov, D. B. Kabalevsky, I. O. Dunaevsky and others.

A technical revolution took place in cinema - domestic film and film equipment appeared, and a series of large film studios opened. The first Soviet sound film was N. V. Ek’s film “The Road to Life.” The main theme of the cinema was the life of Soviet people, their participation in the events of the revolution (“Baltic Deputy” by I. E. Kheifits and A. G. Zarkhi; “October” by S. M. Eisenstein; “Lenin in October” and “Lenin in 1918” "M. I. Romm), civil war ("We are from Kronstadt" by E. L. Dzigan; trilogy about Maxim by G. M. Kozintsev and L. Z. Trauberg; "Chapaev" by S. and G. Vasiliev), industrialization and collectivization, development of remote areas of the country (“Seven Brave”, “Komsomolsk” by S. A. Gerasimov). The first musical comedies “Jolly Fellows” and “Volga-Volga” (G.V. Alexandrov), historical films “Peter the Great” (V.M. Petrov), “Alexander Nevsky” (S.M. Eisenstein) were published.

Thus, in the 1920-30s. The country has achieved significant success in the development of science, education, and culture. Illiteracy of the bulk of the population was eliminated. A unified system of national education has taken shape. A new engineering, technical and creative intelligentsia was formed. Major discoveries were made in fundamental areas of science, and technical thought was developed. At the same time, culture, science and education were placed under state control. The ideological influence on their activities has increased significantly. Many representatives of science, culture and art were repressed, and some bright works of art never reached the reader and viewer (novels by M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”, A. P. Platonov “The Juvenile Sea”, “The Pit”, “Chevengur”; paintings by P. N. Filonov, K. S. Malevich, etc.).



Why in the history of Soviet culture is the period of the 1970s called the “Cultural Revolution”? Lesson assignment.

Economic transformations in the USSR set the task of increasing the educational level of the population. The pedagogical experiments of the 20s were unsuitable for this. In 1930, the transition to universal primary education began, in 1937 - to the seven-year plan. Lessons returned to school , a solid schedule, grades, etc. New programs and textbooks were created. In 1934, the teaching of history and geography was restored, and then other disciplines. 1. Development of education. School on the collective farm named after Karl Marx. Kabardino-Balkaria.

20 thousand new schools were opened in the country. In the 30s. In the USSR, there were 35 million students. According to the 1939 census, literacy was 87.4%. Secondary specialized and higher education developed rapidly. In terms of the number of students and students, the USSR took 1st place in the world. Circulation books in 1937 amounted to 700 million copies. They were published in 110 languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR. 1. Development of education. Rural school for adults.

The development of science in the USSR proceeded under powerful ideological pressure. Those who disagreed with this approach were subjected to persecution and repression. In biological science, a group led by T. Lysenko persecuted Soviet geneticists - N. Vavilov, N. Koltsov, A. Serebrovsky. Lysenko explained his actions by defending Darwinism and Michurin’s theory from “bourgeois science.” Subsequently, many geneticists were repressed, and genetics itself was prohibited. 2. Science under ideological pressure. D. Nalbandyan. Session of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Stalin paid great attention to historical science. History began to be interpreted as the history of class struggle. In 1938, “A Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks” was published, edited personally by Stalin. He exalted Stalin and actually became the official interpretation of the foundations of Marxism-Leninism and the history of the CPSU (b). On its basis, unofficial schools in historical science were destroyed, irreparable damage was caused to it. 2. Science under ideological pressure. S. Vavilov, N. Koltsov, A. Serebrovsky

Despite ideological pressure, representatives of the natural sciences were able to achieve outstanding success. S. Vavilov (optics), A. Ioffe (crystal physics), P. Kapitsa (microphysics), I. Kurchatov (nuclear physics) and others enriched world science. Chemists N. Zelinsky, A. Bakh, S. Lebedev made fundamental discoveries in the field of obtaining artificial substances and organic food products. 3. Achievements of Soviet science. A. Ioffe and P. Kapitsa

Soviet biologists N. achieved worldwide recognition. Vavilov, V. Pustovoy, V. Williams and others. Significant successes were achieved in mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, physiology. Geology and geography gained enormous development during this period. This was associated with the beginning of the industrial development of Siberia and the Far East .New deposits of minerals were discovered: oil in the Volga region, coal in the Moscow region and Kuzbass, iron in the Urals, etc. 3. Advances of Soviet science. V.S. Pustovoit

In the 30s The elimination of differences of opinion in artistic culture was completed. From now on, art must follow one direction - socialist realism and show life as it should be in the minds of party leaders. Art began to plant myths and create an illusion, that the happy time had already arrived. Using it, the authorities skillfully manipulated public opinion and directed it in the right direction. 4. Socialist realism. P. Belov. Hourglass.

Cinema made a huge contribution to the formation of a new consciousness. The documentary chronicle covered current events in the right light. It owed much of its success to outstanding directors - D. Vertov, E. Tisse, E. Schub. In 1931 in the USSR The first sound film was staged, “The Road to Life.” The second color film was “Grunya Kornakova.” The historical films, Chapaev, We are from Kronstadt, and the trilogy about Maxim, were especially popular. 5.Soviet cinema. Still from the film “Chapaev”

5.Soviet cinema. I. Ilyinsky and L. Orlova in the film “Volga-Volga”. The musical films “Volga-Volga”, “Jolly Guys”, “Pig Farm and the Shepherd”, etc. were especially popular among viewers. Children’s cinema began to take shape - “Timur and his team”, “Golden Key”, “The Lonely Sail Whitens.” On the eve of the war, a whole series of patriotic films appeared—Alexander Nevsky, Peter I, Minin and Pozharsky. The most famous directors were S. Eisenstein, N. Eck, G. Alesandrov, I. Pyryev, V. Pudovkin.

The development of music was associated with the names of S. Prokofev, D. Shostakovich, T. Khrennikov, I. Dunaevsky. Musical groups appeared - the Great Symphony Orchestra, the Beethoven Quartet, etc. When assessing the work of composers, the tastes of the leaders played a huge role, so D. Shestakovich was subjected to harsh criticism. Song creativity reached its peak. The works of I. Dunaevsky , B. Mokrousov, M. Blanter, and the Pockrass brothers were known throughout the country. 6.Music and painting. I. Dunaevsky and V. Lebedev-Kumach.

6.Music and painting. B.Ioganson. Interrogation of communists. In fine art, the main thing was not the artist’s skill, but the ideological orientation of the plot, compliance with the principles of socialist realism. His classic was B. Ioganson, whose painting “Interrogation of the Communists” was awarded with all possible awards. A. Deineka, Yu. Pimenov, M. Nesterov. M. Saryan, P. Konchalovsky, A. were able to establish themselves in the landscape genre. Lentulov.

7.Theater.Literature. M.I. Kalinin among the awarded writers. Strict censorship left its mark on the quality of literature. Many ephemera works were published. Nevertheless, many talented writers worked during this period. M. Gorky writes “The Life of Klim Samgin”, “Yegor Bulychev and Others”. A. Tolstoy finished “Walking in Torment” and begins work on the novel “Peter I”. A huge contribution to the history of literature was made by M. Sholokhov, M. Bulgakov, V. Kaverin, A. Platonov and others.

In the late 20s. plays by Soviet playwrights began to take hold on the stages of Soviet theaters. “The Man with a Gun” by N. Pogodin, “Optimistic Tragedy” by V. Vishnevsky, “Tanya” by A. Arbuzov – made up the “golden fund” of the repertoire of many theaters. M. Gorky's plays were successfully performed throughout the country. Soviet people were introduced to culture thanks to the rapid growth in the number of theaters, museums, philharmonic societies, and libraries. Talent shows were held throughout the country. 7.Theater.Literature. B. Shchukin as Lenin in the play “Man with a Gun”

What is culture? There are many answers to this question. In a broad sense, culture is everything that is created by the mind and hands of man. There is material and spiritual culture, culture of work, life, etc. The main subject of our consideration is “culture and time.” We will talk primarily about those events, phenomena, cultural people who clearly reflected their era in its ideas and values, scientific and technical achievements, and artistic monuments.

In the first decades of the 20th century. Among the European intelligentsia there arose feelings of crisis and disintegration of the surrounding world, a premonition of imminent changes and even the end of the existing order of things. Then the Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev wrote an essay with the remarkable title “The End of Europe”, and the German O. Spengler wrote the book “The Decline of Europe” (literally translated - “The Decline of the Western World”), which became widely known after the World War. These works debunked rationally optimistic ideas about European history, faith in endless progress and the increasing welfare of mankind. Instead, ideas of a cultural and historical cycle and an inevitable change of cultures were put forward.

In artistic culture, the position of realism, which was the highest achievement of the 19th century, began to weaken more and more noticeably. Originating at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The new artistic movement received a name that emphasized its modernity - modernism. It represented different movements and groups that did not have a single ideological and artistic program. Common features were a departure from the traditions and ideals of previous art, as well as the search for new artistic forms and means.

A special place in the artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. took over the Art Nouveau style (note the difference between the concepts of “modern” and “modernism”), which spread in many European countries (in France - under the name “Art Nouveau”, in Germany - “Jugendstil”, etc.). It was based on the idea that art creates beauty and brings it into life, which in itself is not very good or attractive. One of the means to achieve this goal was considered to be a synthesis of different arts: architecture, decorative and applied arts, painting, graphics, etc. Art Nouveau masters also widely used combinations of elements of different styles: European and Oriental, modern and traditional. Particularly significant were the achievements of Art Nouveau in architecture, where unusual in appearance, elegant, and sometimes elaborate buildings with a convenient internal layout were created. However, for all its artistic expressiveness, Art Nouveau remained a style for the elite and soon gave way to other trends.

The most daring searches for new artistic forms and means of expression were carried out by the so-called avant-garde (the French word “avant-garde” means “advanced”) movements and groups. Poets here experimented with the forms and size of verse (one can recall, for example, the early work of V.V. Mayakovsky), artists - with the color and composition of paintings. The painters did not set out to depict any object close to reality; their paintings often had no plot at all. The decisive role was played by the visions and feelings of the artist himself. Fauvism (translated from French as “wild”), primitivism, expressionism, cubism, and abstractionism became well-known modernist movements during this period. Over the course of two or three decades, they changed and developed into other trends. Many major masters, whose names were associated with individual movements (for example, A. Matisse - with Fauvism, M. Chagall - with primitivism, P. Picasso - with Cubism), in fact “did not fit” into this narrow and rather conventional framework . They did not obey the canons of one movement or another, they improved their own style and manner of painting, which later became models. A noticeable phenomenon in the modernist movements of the early 20th century. became the work of V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, N. Goncharova, L. Popova and other Russian artists.

Artistic culture of the 1920s–1930s

The World War and the events that followed it brought severe trials and losses to millions of people, shook the foundations of the social structure, and gave impetus to attempts at its revolutionary transformation. During this period, the contradictions that divided people and the common aspirations for freedom and justice came to light. This could not but be reflected in the culture of subsequent decades.

Writers of the “lost generation” occupied a prominent place in post-war literature: the German E. M. Remarque, the American E. Hemingway, the Englishman R. Aldington and others. They participated in the war and could not forget what they saw and experienced. Showing the life of their heroes in the war, they protested against the horrific extermination of people in its everyday life. At the same time, the reason for which the war was fought was called into question. The English poet R. Brooke wrote about this during the war years: “And if I die, just think that somewhere there is a piece of foreign land that has become England.” The anti-war orientation of the works of the writers of the “lost generation” caused different attitudes - support from some people and irritation from others. Thus, the Nazis used E. M. Remarque’s novel “All Quiet on the Western Front” as a reason to deprive the writer of German citizenship.

Unlike the writers of the “lost generation”, who were dominated by a feeling of regret about lost ideals and values, many figures of European culture saw in the turbulent events of the first decades of the 20th century. implementation of the most important social and political ideas. They were attracted by the active struggle of people against inequality and injustice, for social and national liberation. Such views were shared by the French writers A. Barbusse and R. Rolland, the German G. Mann, the American T. Dreiser and others. Their heroes did not find a place for themselves in bourgeois society. Some of them fought against this society, as in A. Barbusse’s novel “Fire,” while others, like Clyde Griffith from T. Dreiser’s “American Tragedy,” sought to make their way into it at any cost and died without achieving their goal.

In the literature and art of this direction, features characteristic of modern times have noticeably manifested themselves - the ideologization and politicization of culture. Many of the artists who belonged to it joined communist parties and were engaged in political and social activities. Representatives of revolutionary art in different countries united in unions and associations, such as the Workers' Council for the Arts in Germany (1918-1919), the Left Front in Czechoslovakia (since 1929), the Union of Proletarian Art in Japan ( 1929-1934) etc.

Some cultural masters who did not belong to any ideological or artistic associations or political parties turned to new social ideas, believing that they would help overcome the injustice and inhumanity of the existing system. Among them was one of the most brilliant and original writers of the 20th century. B. Brecht.

Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956) was born into a wealthy family. Already in his youth, he came to a spontaneous denial of the burgher, bourgeois way of life, which was reflected in his first plays. In his mature years, Brecht began studying Marxist literature. The events of 1929 - early 1930s in Germany, which he witnessed, strengthened his rejection of the existing social order. In 1933, after the Nazis came to power, he left Germany. Brecht became widely famous for his productions of his plays “The Threepenny Opera,” “Mother,” and others. In them, he partly used plots from the works of other authors (the play “The Beggar’s Opera” by the English playwright of the 18th century D. Gay and the novel “Mother” by M. Gorky) , but created original works with his own idea, style, language. They were distinguished by dynamic action, sharp dialogues, and included parable poems, songs, slogans and statements on the topic of the day. Thus, one of the characters in “The Threepenny Opera,” a robber-raider, declares in his defense: “What is a master key compared to a stock? What is raiding a bank compared to founding a bank?” Behind the paradox and mockery that the author often resorted to, there were hidden “eternal questions” about the life and death of a person, his ups and downs, dreams and failures. Next to the troublemaker artist stood the humanist artist. This last feature was especially clearly manifested in the plays “The Good Man from Szechwan” and “Mother Courage and Her Children” created by Brecht in the late 1930s and early 1940s.

History of the first decades of the 20th century. provided rich food for a special literary genre - social fiction. The authors of such works tried to present in circumstances they invented, outside of real place and time, events and models of social relations, the features of which they observed in the world around them. In 1920, E. Zamyatin wrote the science fiction novel “We,” which became one of the first creations in the dystopian genre (published abroad in 1924). Later, the novels of O. Huxley “Brave New World” (1932) and D. Orwell “1984” (1949) also belonged to this genre.

In the novel "We" the action takes place in a "mathematically perfect Unified State." The life of the heroes, designated by “numbers” instead of names, is strictly regulated at work and at home, in personal relationships and entertainment. Artistic creativity is considered in this society as a “public service”, and individual consciousness is considered a disease. The hero of D-503 rushes between the strict rules of the system and the human need for friendship and love. In the finale, he informs the Benefactor (the supreme leader of this society) about those who do not want to obey the existing order, about the “enemies of happiness,” including the woman he loves. Thus, he condemns them to torture and death, but remains faithful to the system. The novel seems to predict the features of the then emerging totalitarian societies.

A striking example of artistic prophecy was the novel by the Czech writer K. Capek “The War with the Newts.” It tells a fantastic story about how certain amphibious creatures, having come into contact with people, gradually capture more and more “living space”, and then, with the help of weapons received from people, begin a war aimed at destroying humanity. An entertaining story with elements of a brilliant parody of the society of that time suddenly became scary due to its resemblance to reality. This impression was strengthened by the fact that part of the narrative is constructed in the form of newspaper reports, similar in content to press publications of those years. K. Capek died in 1938, shortly before the outbreak of World War II, in which much of what he predicted came true. In this regard, one cannot help but recall the words of A.P. Chekhov: “A real writer is the same as an ancient prophet: he sees more clearly than ordinary people.”

In the visual arts of the 1920s-1930s, as well as in literature, new trends of both realistic and modernist orientation appeared. One of the most striking manifestations of innovation in realistic art was the Mexican school of monumental painting, created by artists D. Rivera, J. C. Orozco, D. A. Siqueiros and others.

The founders of the school were contemporaries and participants in the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917. This shaped their attitude to life, to their people, and ideological positions. D. Siqueiros emphasized: “Our path was different, completely different from that of the artists of the European avant-garde...” Starting their creative activity, he and his comrades defined their main task as follows: “To create monumental and heroic art, humanistic and folk, focused on our great masters of the past and the extraordinary culture of pre-Hispanic America!” The implementation of these intentions was facilitated by the cultural policy of the first post-revolutionary governments, which attached great importance to the monumental propaganda of the ideas and gains of the liberation struggle of the peoples of Mexico. Young artists received orders to design administrative and public buildings. Monumental paintings appeared on the walls and facades of these buildings - frescoes reflecting historical and modern events. The artists denounced the war, the inhumane aspects of bourgeois society, and fascism. Their works combined emotionality, journalisticism and artistic expressiveness. The themes, images, and symbolism of the frescoes were deeply national; the masters of this school continued the traditions of the art of the Indians of Mexico. At the same time, they expressed the feelings of compassion and anger, shock and impulse for freedom inherent in all people. The technique of monumental painting invented by artists was also new to the art of that time.

Representatives of this school complemented their active artistic position with political activity. In the early 1920s, the Syndicate of Revolutionary Painters, Sculptors and Engravers was created, which declared the main task of art to be serving the cause of the revolution. The leaders of the Syndicate D. Siqueiros, D. Rivera, X. Guerrero were elected members of the Central Committee of the Mexican Communist Party. The illustrated newspaper Machete, published by the Syndicate, soon became the official organ of the Communist Party.

Significant changes occurred in the 1920s and 1930s in the modernist movement. Many of its representatives, having witnessed war and social upheaval, sought to escape reality and hide in their own world. Considering life to be cruel, uncontrollable and meaningless, they decided that art should not represent, explain or improve it. Moreover, art is irrational (not subject to reason). These ideas underlay the surrealism (“overrealism”) that emerged in the 1920s. Its creators argued that creativity is, first of all, a reflection of the artist’s subconscious feelings.

Surrealists most often depicted on their canvases certain fantasies, chaotic combinations of bodies and objects, often deliberately distorted and deformed. Denial of beauty and harmony, anti-aestheticism were characteristic features of this style. It was as if the transition from the mind to the subconscious, from the search for new forms to chaos, had been completed. The surrealists sought to shock, not S. Dali, the audience. Dream. 1937 not only for his creativity, but also for his eccentric, antisocial behavior. Their ideologist A. Breton stated: “The simplest surreal action is to go out into the street with a revolver in your hands and, as much as you can, shoot anywhere in the crowd.” One of the most famous surrealist artists, S. Dali, publicly called his method “critical-paranoid” (nevertheless, in the mid-1930s, the surrealists expelled Dali from their circle for the “overly academic” nature of his painting).

Culture in mass society

The formation of mass society in industrial countries in the 1920s and 1930s created conditions for the widespread dissemination of artistic culture. The positive thing was that works of art turned out to be more accessible to various layers and groups of the population and became part of public life. The costs, according to art connoisseurs, consisted of replacing unique, high-quality examples with serial, ordinary artistic products.

New trends visibly manifested themselves during this period in the art that creates the environment for people - architecture. Here, the trends of rational, constructivist architecture emerged, widely spreading in many countries, including Russia.

The emergence of new trends had both technological and social prerequisites. In construction technology, it was associated with the use of reinforced concrete structures, continuous glazing of walls, etc. The social order consisted of the need for widespread, mass urban development. If in the pre-war years architects focused on the design of administrative buildings, banks, and luxury mansions, now this list has been expanded with projects of multi-apartment residential buildings, university and school campuses, industrial buildings, and stadiums.

Many architects began creating residential complexes in which, along with standard residential buildings, there were public and domestic facilities. In some cases these were towns surrounded by park areas for representatives of the so-called middle class, in others - neighborhoods for workers. Projects of residential complexes received special support in the Soviet Union, where they were given an ideological justification: it was emphasized that this was “the opportunity to create a single powerful team that unites most public functions in a communal way.” According to such projects, communal houses, demonstration residential complexes with shops, kindergartens, laundries, etc. were built.

In rationalism and constructivism, simplicity and compliance of the forms and internal layout of the building with its purpose were given first place. A prominent representative of European rationalism was the French architect S. E. Le Corbusier (1887-1965). It was he who formulated the most laconic manifesto of the new movement: “A house is a machine for living.” Corbusier's buildings were raised above the ground on special support pillars, had a regular geometric shape, a well-thought-out layout, “ribbon” windows, and a flat roof intended for laying out a garden.

Factory in Rotterdam Arch. I. A. Brinkman and others 1928-1930

The famous Bauhaus school of rationalism was created by German architects led by V. Gropius. The Bauhaus style quickly acquired an international character.

Cinema became a mass art form in the 1920s and 1930s. This was the time of the formation of cinema; every year brought new artistic and technical discoveries. One of the peaks of world cinema during this period was the work of the outstanding actor and director Charles Chaplin.

Charles Spencer Chaplin (1889–1977) was born in London into an acting family and from his youth followed in the footsteps of his parents. As a young actor, he came to the United States, where he began directing comedy films at one of the studios in Los Angeles. In 1919, together with several actors and directors, he founded the independent film company United Artists. Chaplin's most famous films: "The Kid" (1920), "The Gold Rush" (1925), "City Lights" (1931), "Modern Times" (1936). Their hero is a small man in a bowler hat, oversized boots and a cane. It surprisingly coexisted external comedy, eccentric tricks and the sadness of a lonely person looking for warmth and sympathy. Watching his adventures, the audience laughed and cried. This is probably what brought Chaplin worldwide recognition.

The search for something new and significant achievements marked the first steps of Soviet cinema, which turned to themes of great social significance. The works of film director S. M. Eisenstein (1898-1948) gained international fame. His film “Battleship Potemkin” is included by film experts among the ten best films of all time.

In the late 1920s, the “Great Silent Man,” as cinema was called, began to speak (the first sound film was released in the United States in 1927). Silent film stars, who did not have the necessary acting technique and voice abilities, gave way to a new generation of actors, many of whom came from the theater. The acting has become more natural and understandable to the audience. Instead of the previous musical accompaniment, music began to play in films, helping to reveal the artistic intent and emphasize the dynamics of the action. Many famous composers wrote music for sound films. One of the highest examples in this field, which received international recognition, was S. S. Prokofiev’s music for the film “Alexander Nevsky” (1938).

Film production in the United States has gained particular momentum. The 1920s and 1930s have gone down in history as the “golden age” of Hollywood (this film city arose in the outskirts of Los Angeles shortly before the First World War). It has become an international film center with great financial and technical capabilities. Actors and directors from many countries came here. But almost unlimited material possibilities did not provide absolute creative freedom. The work of film creators was strictly regulated by contracts with film studios. The owners of the “dream factory” (as Hollywood was called) knew well what kind of product they wanted to get.

In 1930, Hollywood adopted a mandatory Production Code for all studios. It said:

“Every American film should argue that the United States way of life is the only and best way for any person. One way or another, every film should be optimistic and show the little person that somewhere and someday he will grab his happiness by the tail. The film should not turn the dark sides of our lives inside out, and should not inflame decisive and dynamic passions.”

A notable feature of the culture of this period was the widespread dissemination of music. It sounded on the radio and in gramophone recordings. Partly it was classical music - opera and symphonic recordings (among the first, unique recordings of the great opera singers E. Caruso and F. I. Chaliapin were made). Symphony orchestras appeared on the radio. But pop and dance music was especially popular. This was the heyday of jazz, which originated in the United States and then spread to many countries. It was based on the rhythms of Negro folk music and improvisation. During these same years, the musical was born - a special type of performance that combined speech, singing and dancing.

Totalitarianism and culture

A special situation arose in the 1920-1930s in the culture of countries in which totalitarian regimes were established. B. Mussolini, speaking at the fascist party congress in 1925, declared: “We want to fascist the nation... Fascism must become a way of life. There must be Italians of the fascist era, just as there were, for example, Italians of the Renaissance.” Culture, like other spheres of social life, came under the control of the state. In Italy, the State Academy and the National Syndicate of Fascist Fine Arts were created.

In Germany, the Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda, headed by J. Goebbels, organized the Imperial Chamber of Culture, which included seven sections (press, radio, cinema, literature, theater, musical and visual arts). Persons who were not members of the chamber were essentially deprived of the right to engage in artistic activities.

The Nazis waged a “battle for culture” using the harshest methods. Already in 1933, exhibitions began to be organized under Roman civilization with very expressive titles: “Signs of Decay in Art”, “1938 Exhibition of Degenerate Art”, at which the works of modernist artists were declared “degenerate”. Almost 16 thousand works by foreign masters were confiscated from German museums: V. Van Gogh, A. Matisse, P. Picasso, V. Kandinsky, M. Chagall and others, as well as German artists whose style did not meet the tastes of the Nazis. Sculptural monuments were destroyed, for example the works of E. Barlach, dedicated to those who died in the war. They were declared "offensive to the national feelings of the Germans." In architecture, rationalist movements came under fire, and the world-famous Bauhaus school was closed. For racial reasons, jazz music was prohibited (in the USSR it was not accepted for another reason - as a manifestation of an alien bourgeois culture).

What was offered in return for the unwanted culture that was being expelled? First of all, what corresponded to the dominant ideology. Monumentalism reigned in art, which was supposed to reflect the greatness of the new society and the “superman” it generated.

An illustrative building was the architectural complex in Nuremberg (30 sq. km in area), intended for holding Nazi congresses and celebrations. It included the Palace of Congresses, a stadium with 405 thousand seats with stands over 80 m high, etc. The scale of the buildings corresponded to monumental sculptures of heroes of German history, athletes with “Nordic features”.

In German painting, having supplanted modernist searches and “streams of the subconscious,” the national-romantic style took hold. Preference was given to the themes “German soil”, “German labor”, “German mother”, “German soldier - defender of the Motherland”. Portraits and narrative paintings depicting leaders occupied a special place in painting and sculpture. The ideologists of totalitarianism, no less than American filmmakers, imagined the possibilities of influencing people in cinema. The canons for propaganda documentaries and feature films were also established here, not excluding entertainment films intended for mass audiences.

References:
Aleksashkina L.N. / General history. XX - early XXI centuries.

One of the main tasks in the field of education in the post-October period was the task of eliminating illiteracy (decree on the elimination of illiteracy, 1919; creation of the “Down with Illiteracy” society, 1923; organization of educational programs, a network of libraries; reform of education - creation of a unified labor school, etc. .d.). By the beginning of the 1930s. Illiteracy was eliminated, many new schools were built, and first universal primary education was introduced, and then seven-year education. School reform of the 1930s. was aimed at improving the level of education of children. To train qualified personnel, the network of universities and workers' faculties was expanded. The development of science, literature, and art was under strict ideological (the principle of the class character of culture), and often administrative control of the state and the party. Calls from the authorities to achieve new successes in twauk and art, the desire to attract the scientific and creative intelligentsia to their side were combined with administrative methods of management, with the expulsion of a group of outstanding scientists from the country (1922). Many scientific and cultural figures who did not recognize Soviet power emigrated from the country. The Academy of Sciences, VASKhNIL and other scientific centers were created in the country, many scientific institutes were formed (scientific achievements of I. P. Pavlov, K. E. Tsiolkovsky, N. E. Zhukovsky, N. I. Vavilov, V. I. Vernadsky and etc.). After the revolution, new organizations in the field of culture were created - Proletkult, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers, etc. The struggle of various creative groups, realists and avant-garde artists, in literature and art (we can characterize the work of cultural figures of different directions - writers, artists, architects, musicians, representatives of theater, cinema, etc.). The establishment of the principles of socialist realism in literature and art and totalitarianism in the field of culture led to the glorification in works of art of new principles of life, pomp and splendor in its depiction. This had a great influence on mass consciousness. Representatives of all areas of culture, the entire Soviet artistic intelligentsia were under the pressure of censorship, completely dependent on the existing regime, which encouraged those close to the authorities and punished dissidents (give examples of the complex relations between the intelligentsia and the authorities, the tragic fates of many representatives of culture). The confrontation between the authorities and the church became particularly acute (harassment of the church intelligentsia, persecution of Patriarch Tikhon and other church leaders, destruction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in 1931. etc.).

The Great Patriotic War is one of the brightest and most tragic pages in the history of Russia. To survive the confrontation with the most powerful of the developed countries of that time - Nazi Germany - became possible only at the cost of enormous effort and the greatest sacrifices. Scientists and artists played a significant role in achieving Victory. From the first days of the war, literature became the most important ideological and spiritual weapon in the fight against the enemy. Many writers went to the front as war correspondents: K. M. Simonov, A. A. Fadeev. Many died: A.P. Gaidar, E.P. Petrov. The Soviet Tatar poet M. Jalil was wounded and died in captivity. The rise of patriotic feelings caused by the war became a powerful stimulus for creativity.

Lyrics are experiencing a rapid rise. The poems of Konstantin Mikhailovich Simonov (1915–1979) (“Wait for me”) had a great response among front-line soldiers. Vasily Terkin, the hero of the poem by Alexander Trifonovich Tvardovsky (1910–1971), a simple fighter, ringleader and joker, gained enormous popularity. Many poems were set to music and became songs (for example, “Dugout” by A. A. Surkov). Works dedicated to the war were created in prose (K. M. Simonov “Days and Nights”, A. A. Fadeev “Young Guard”). Theater and concert brigades went to the front line.

Filmmakers produced documentaries and feature films on military-patriotic themes (“Secretary of the District Committee” directed by I. A. Pyryev, “Invasion” directed by A. M. Room, “Two Fighters” directed by L. D. Lukov, etc.) . Historical cinema was represented by the first episode of the film “Ivan the Terrible” (dir. S. M. Eisenstein), released in 1945.

Artists created posters. At the very beginning of the war, I. M. Toidze’s poster, “The Motherland Calls!”, unusual in its emotional power, appeared. The Kukryniksys (M.V. Kupriyanov, P.N. Krylov, N.A. Sokolov) worked a lot in the poster genre. The traditions of “ROSTA Windows” are being revived, which are now called “TASS Windows”.

The military theme was expressed in the easel works of A. A. Deineka “Defense of Sevastopol” (1942), A. A. Plastov “The Fascist Flew” (1942), S. V. Gerasimov “Mother of the Partisan” (1943). ). In symphonic music, an event was the premiere of the heroic Seventh Symphony of D. D. Shostakovich, which took place in besieged Leningrad. The most important task of the Soviet government after the war in the field of culture was the restoration of the education sector. The losses were enormous: school and university buildings were destroyed, teachers were killed, libraries, museums, etc. were destroyed. Large funds were allocated from the budget for education (more than before the war: 2.3 billion rubles in 1940 and 3, 8 billion rubles in 1946) The whole country joined the cause of restoring school education. A large number of new school buildings were built using the vernacular construction method. Over time, and quite quickly, it was possible to restore and even exceed the pre-war number of students. The country moved to a system of universal seven-year education, but this was done largely due to a decrease in quality, since the shortage of teachers in the country had to be eliminated by creating short-term courses or training teachers under a shortened program in teacher training institutes. And yet the education system developed dynamically. In 1946, the All-Union Committee for Higher Education Affairs was transformed into the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR. The corresponding division - the Department of Science and Higher Educational Institutions - was created in the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). Additional investments also went into science. In a short time, the material base of scientific institutions was restored.

New research institutes were opened, even new Academies of Sciences were created in Kazakhstan, Latvia and Estonia. However, the brutal dictates of non-professional officials continued to dominate the attitude of the authorities towards science. The Great Patriotic War, which became the greatest test for the Soviet people, awakened the best qualities in people. The end of the war was accompanied by optimistic sentiments. The people who defeated fascism and liberated the world from it felt the strength and right to freedom and a decent life. Weakening the regime, however, was not part of the plans of the party and state elite. Hence a new round of repression and a deep crisis that gripped Russian culture at the end of the Stalin era. Opportunities for the development of many promising areas of research continued to be closed. In 1938, T. D. Lysenko took the place of president of VASKhNIL. He was an ardent opponent of genetics, and his position on this issue became decisive in agrobiology. Lysenko’s own theoretical theories, which promised a rapid increase in agricultural yields in a short time, were not confirmed by experiments, but the country’s leadership was on his side. As a result, at a session of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, held in August 1948, genetics was declared a “bourgeois pseudoscience.” This meant a complete cessation of research in this area.

The state cynically exploited the work of scientists convicted of allegedly anti-Soviet activities. Even more destructive was the pressure of the party-state press for the humanities. During the post-war decade, achievements in this area were very small. The scientific community was shaken by one campaign after another: the campaign against formalism was replaced by a campaign against “cosmopolitanism and sycophancy to the West.” Rejection of the achievements of Western culture has become the official position. The main goal of this campaign was to erect an ideological wall between the USSR and the West. Many artists and cultural figures, whose work was alien to narrow patriotic obscurantism, were persecuted. A careless statement that contradicts the implanted dogmas could cost a person not only his job and freedom, but also his life. Socialist realism reigned supreme in literature. The leading topic for writers was the past war, but in the official literature it was revealed at that time in a rather monotonous manner. This does not mean, of course, that nothing good was written. A talented writer was Boris Nikolaevich Polevoy (Kampov) (1908–1981). In 1946, he created “The Tale of a Real Man,” which was based on real events: the feat of the Hero of the Soviet Union pilot A.P. Maresyev, who was wounded and lost his legs, but continued to fly. The development of painting and sculpture continues defines socialist realism.

The theme of the Great Patriotic War was reflected in the paintings of Yu. M. Neprintsev “Rest after the battle” (“Vasily Terkin” 1951), A. I. Laktionov “Letter from the front” (1947). The peculiarity of these paintings is that in each of them the war is represented not by battles, but by everyday scenes.

The artists managed to convey the wartime atmosphere. A classic of socialist realism was the painting of the Ukrainian artist T. N. Yablonskaya “Bread” (1949). Paintings that tended to be narrative in the spirit of the traditions of the Wanderers were very widespread. F. P. Reshetnikov’s painting “Deuce Again” (1952) was widely known in Soviet times.

The main task of the architects was to restore what was destroyed by the war. Stalingrad, Kyiv, Minsk, Novgorod had to be rebuilt almost anew. Stylistically, neoclassical “Stalinist Empire” continues to dominate. In Moscow, famous high-rise buildings topped with spiers are being built, in which the traditions of ancient architecture are intertwined with elements of ancient Russian. The most successful building is considered to be the building of Moscow University on Vorobyovy Gory.