Skin and digestive tract. The combat properties (combat effectiveness) of agents are determined by their toxicity (due to the ability to inhibit enzymes or interact with receptors), physicochemical properties (volatility, solubility, resistance to hydrolysis, etc.), the ability to penetrate the biobarriers of warm-blooded animals and overcome protective equipment.

Chemical warfare agents are the main damaging element of chemical weapons.

Classification

RH protection

The set of measures for protection against agents includes their indication or detection, degassing, disinfection, as well as the use of personal protective equipment (gas masks, insulating breathing apparatus, raincoats, suits made of rubberized fabric, together with filter-type skin protection, antidotes, protective creams, anti-chemical drugs ) and collective chemical protection.

History reference

The first combat use of OV took place during the First World War. The French were the first to use them in August 1914: they were 26-mm grenades filled with tear gas (ethyl bromoacetate). But the Allied stocks of ethyl bromoacetate quickly ran out, and the French administration replaced it with another agent, chloroacetone. In October 1914, German troops opened fire with shells partially filled with a chemical irritant against the British at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle, however the concentration of gas achieved was barely noticeable. In February 1915, French troops began using chlorine rifle grenades. However, this method of combat use of poison gases was very ineffective and did not create a significant concentration of them on enemy positions. The experience of the Kaiser troops in the battles near the city of Ypres on April 22 was much more successful: the 4th German Army launched a counterattack on the Ypres ledge, preempting the Anglo-French troops that was being prepared, and occupied most of the ledge. On the first day of the fighting, the German troops used the spraying of chlorine from the cylinders installed in their forward positions, when the wind blew in the direction of the Anglo-French trenches, and inflicted heavy losses on the enemy in manpower, achieving the effect of mass destruction, thanks to which this case of combat use of OV became widely known. (Actually, this is the first experience of a fairly effective combat use of OV.)

In June 1916, chemical weapons were also widely used by the Russian troops during the Brusilov breakthrough. 76-mm shells with suffocating agents (chloropicrin) and general poisonous (phosgene, vensinite) charges showed their high efficiency in suppressing enemy artillery batteries (and in this case, the Austro-Hungarians).

The Geneva Protocol of 1925 was the first international legal act prohibiting the military use of weapons.

Historical reference taken from Deyne V. de, Ypres..., Liége, 1925.

Impressed by the combat use of warheads in the First World War, many states began feverish preparations for the mass use of warheads in future wars. The training included both equipping the troops with chemical protection equipment and measures to protect the civilian population. In the 1920s, a number of countries conducted regular exercises for the civilian population to act in conditions of a chemical attack. By the beginning of World War II, most of the advanced states came up with a developed system of chemical defense. For example, the paramilitary organization OSOAVIAKHIM was created in the USSR.

Nevertheless, in the entire history of wars and local conflicts after the First World War, the use of combat agents was episodic and, moreover, not massive. The main reason for this was the relatively low effectiveness of the combat use of explosives as a means of mass destruction. The effectiveness of the use of OV in the First World War was largely exaggerated by the psychological shock of their use as a new, previously unknown weapon. The initial lack of means of protection against OV also had a strong effect. In the 1920s, military calculations showed [ ] , that the effect of the combat use of ammunition with explosive agents is much lower than the effect of the use of conventional ammunition (the number of enemy soldiers put out of action, for example, after an hour-long shelling of positions with chemical and high-explosive shells, was taken into account). Also, the effect of RH largely depends on factors such as weather (wind direction and strength, air humidity and temperature, atmospheric pressure, and so on). This makes the effect of the combat use of OV almost unpredictable. The storage of explosive ammunition is technically much more complicated than the storage of conventional ammunition. Disposal of damaged chemical munitions in the field is not possible. All these factors, plus the mass prevalence of effective means of protection, which has become the norm, have made the military use of weapons difficult and, with rare exceptions, pointless.

But the very presence of chemical weapons in service is a powerful psychological factor in influencing the enemy and deterring him from using his chemical weapons, forcing the armies to carry out large-scale anti-chemical defense measures. The effectiveness of the impact, for all its unpredictability, on an unprepared enemy (and even more so an unprepared civilian population) remains high. Moreover, the psychological effect exceeds the combat itself.

In addition to low combat effectiveness, the main deterrent is the sharply negative attitude of society towards the very fact of the combat use of any WMD, including chemical ones.

Designation

Substance	US Army cipher	The cipher of the Soviet army	Edgewood arsenal cipher
Mustard gas	H (unrefined) HD (distilled) VV (thickened)	R-5 (Zaikov mustard gas) VR-16 (thickened)	EA 1033
Phosgene	CG	R-10
Lewisite	L	R-43	EA 1034
Adamsite	DM	R-15	EA 1277
Sarin	GB	R-35	EA 1208 EA 5823 (binary)
Soman	GD	R-55	EA 1210
Herd	GA	R-18	EA 1205
Chinuclidil-3-benzylate	BZ	R-78	EA 2277

chemical weapons called poisonous substances and the means of their combat use.
Chemical weapons are intended to defeat and exhaust the enemy's manpower in order to hinder (disorganize) the activities of his troops and rear facilities. It can be used with the help of aviation, missile troops, artillery, engineering troops.
poisonous substances called toxic chemical compounds intended for mass destruction of manpower, contamination of the area, weapons and military equipment.
Poisonous substances form the basis of chemical weapons.
At the time of combat use, agents can be in a vaporous, aerosol, or liquid-drop state.
In vaporous and finely dispersed aerosol state(smoke, fog) are transferred agents used to contaminate the surface layer of air. WATER in the form of steam and fine aerosol, carried by the wind, affects manpower not only in the area of ​​application, but also at a considerable distance. The depth of propagation of OM in rough and wooded areas is 1.5-3 times less than in open areas. Hollows, ravines, forest and shrub massifs can be places of OM stagnation and changes in the direction of its distribution.
To infect the terrain, weapons and military equipment, uniforms, equipment and skin of people, agents are used in the form coarse aerosols and droplets. The terrain, weapons and military equipment and other objects contaminated in this way are a source of human injury. Under these conditions, the personnel will be forced to stay in protective equipment for a long time, due to the resistance of the OV, which will reduce the combat effectiveness of the troops.
OM can enter the body through the respiratory system, through wound surfaces, mucous membranes and skin. With the use of contaminated food and water, the penetration of agents is carried out through the gastrointestinal tract. Most of the agents are cumulative, that is, they have the ability to accumulate a toxic effect.

2. Classification of poisonous substances. The main types of poisonous substances. The main properties of toxic substances and their effect on the human body

2.1. Classification of toxic substances

According to the tactical purpose, OVs are divided into four groups: lethal agents; temporarily incapacitating manpower; annoying and educational.
According to the speed of the onset of the damaging effect, there are: high-speed agents; not having a period of latent action and slow-acting agents; with a latency period.
Depending on the duration of the retention of the damaging ability of lethal agents, they are divided into two groups:

• persistent agents that retain their damaging effect for several hours and days;
• unstable agents, the damaging effect of which lasts only a few tens of minutes after their application. Some agents, depending on the method and conditions of use, can behave as persistent and unstable agents.

K OV lethal action, to defeat or disable manpower for a long time, include: GB (sarin), GD (soman), VX (Vi-X), HD (distilled mustard), HN (nitrogen mustard), AC (hydrocyanic acid), CK (cyanogen chloride), CG (phosgene).

2.2. The main types of poisonous substances. The main properties of toxic substances and their effect on the human body

Poison nerve agents
Sarin (GB), Soman (GD), Vi-X (VX), which affect the nervous system, enter the body through the respiratory system, skin and digestive tract. In addition, they cause a strong constriction of the pupils of the eyes (miosis). To protect against them, you need not only a gas mask, but also personal protective equipment for the skin.
Sarin It is a volatile colorless or yellowish liquid with almost no odor. Does not freeze in winter. It is miscible with water and organic solvents in any ratio and is highly soluble in fats. It is resistant to water, so it can be used to contaminate water sources for a long time. At ordinary temperatures, it is rapidly destroyed by solutions of alkalis and ammonia. Upon contact with human skin, uniforms, shoes, wood and other porous materials, as well as food, Sarin is quickly absorbed into them.
The effect of sarin on the human body develops quickly, without a period of latent action. When exposed to lethal doses observed: constriction of the pupils (miosis), salivation, difficulty breathing, vomiting, incoordination, loss of consciousness, attacks of severe convulsions, paralysis and death. Not fatal doses of sarin cause lesions of varying severity depending on the dose received. At a small dose, there is a temporary weakening of vision (miosis) and tightness in the chest.
Sarin vapors under average meteorological conditions can spread downwind up to 20 km from the place of application.
Soman- a colorless and almost odorless liquid, very similar in its properties to sarin; acts on the human body like sarin, but is 5-10 times more toxic than it.
The means of application, detection and degassing of soman, as well as the means of protection against it, are the same as for the use of sarin.
The peculiarity of soman is that it infects the area for longer periods than sarin. The danger of lethal injury in areas infected with soman persists in summer up to 10 hours (in places of ammunition explosions - up to 30 hours), in winter - up to 2-3 days, and the danger of temporary damage to vision persists in summer - up to 2-4 days, in winter - up to 2-3 weeks. Soman vapors in dangerous concentrations can spread downwind for tens of kilometers from the place of application. Armament and military equipment contaminated with soman drops, after its degassing, can be operated without skin protection, but it poses a risk of injury through the respiratory system.
V-X (VX) - a slightly volatile colorless liquid, odorless and does not freeze in winter. The area infected with VX remains dangerous for damage in summer up to 7-15 days, and in winter - for the entire period before the onset of heat. VX infects water for a very long time. The main combat state of VX is aerosol. Aerosols infect surface layers of air and spread in the direction of the wind to a considerable depth (up to 5-20 km); they infect manpower through the respiratory organs, open areas of the skin and ordinary summer army uniforms, and also infect the terrain, weapons, military equipment and open water bodies. The impregnated uniform reliably protects against VX aerosols. The toxicity of VX in terms of action through the respiratory organs is 10 times higher than that of sarin, and in a liquid drop state through bare skin - hundreds of times. For fatal injury through naked skin and when ingested with water and food, 2 mg of RH is sufficient. Inhalation symptoms are similar to those caused by sarin. When exposed to VX aerosol through the skin, the symptoms of poisoning may not appear immediately, but after a while - up to several hours. In this case, muscle twitching appears at the site of exposure to the OB, then convulsions, muscle weakness and paralysis. In addition, there may be difficulty in breathing, salivation, depression of the central nervous system.

Poisonous substances of blistering action
The main agent of blistering action is mustard gas. Used technical (H) and distillation (purified) mustard gas (HD).
Mustard gas(distilled) - a colorless or light yellow liquid with a slight odor, heavier than water. At a temperature of about 14 ° C it freezes. Technical mustard has a dark brown color and a strong smell, reminiscent of the smell of garlic or mustard. Mustard gas evaporates slowly in air. It is poorly soluble in water; dissolves well in alcohol, gasoline, kerosene, acetone and other organic solvents, as well as in various oils and fats. Easily absorbed into wood, leather, textiles and paint.
Mustard gas decomposes slowly in water, retaining its damaging properties for a long time; when heated, decomposition proceeds faster. Aqueous solutions of calcium hypochlorites destroy mustard gas. Mustard has a multilateral action. It affects the skin and eyes, respiratory tract and lungs. When it enters the gastrointestinal tract with food and water at a dose of 0.2 g, it causes fatal poisoning. Mustard gas has a latency period and a cumulative effect.

Poisonous substances of general poisonous action
Poisonous substances of general toxic action, getting into the body, disrupt the transfer of oxygen from the blood to the tissues. This is one of the fastest operating systems. Among the agents of general toxic action are hydrocyanic acid(AC) And cyanogen chloride(CK).
Hydrocyanic acid- a colorless, rapidly evaporating liquid with a smell of bitter almonds. In open areas it quickly disappears (in 10-15 minutes); does not affect metals and fabrics. It can be used in chemical aerial bombs of large caliber. In combat conditions, the body is affected only by inhalation of contaminated air, affecting the circulatory and central nervous systems. When inhaling hydrocyanic acid vapors, a metallic taste appears in the mouth, throat irritation, dizziness, weakness, and a feeling of fear. In severe poisoning, the symptoms intensify and, in addition, painful shortness of breath appears, the pulse slows down, the pupils dilate, loss of consciousness occurs, severe convulsions appear, involuntary separation of urine and feces occurs. At this stage, the convulsive tension of the muscles is replaced by their complete relaxation, breathing becomes superficial; this stage ends with respiratory arrest, cardiac paralysis and death.
cyanogen chloride- colorless, more volatile than hydrocyanic acid, liquid with a sharp unpleasant odor. According to its toxic properties, cyanogen chloride is similar to hydrocyanic acid, but unlike it, it also irritates the upper respiratory tract and eyes.

Asphyxiating poisonous substances
The main representative of this group of OM is phosgene(CG).
Phosgene- a colorless gas, heavier than air, with an odor reminiscent of the smell of rotten hay or rotten fruit. Poorly soluble in water, good in organic solvents. It does not affect metals in the absence of moisture, in the presence of moisture it causes rust.
Phosgene is a typical unstable agent used to contaminate the air. The cloud of contaminated air formed during the explosion of ammunition can retain a damaging effect for no more than 15-20 minutes; in the forest, ravines and other places sheltered from the wind, stagnation of contaminated air is possible and the damaging effect persists for up to 2-3 hours.
Phosgene acts on the respiratory organs, causing acute pulmonary edema. This leads to a sharp violation of the supply of oxygen from the air to the body and ultimately leads to death.
The first signs of damage (weak eye irritation, lacrimation, dizziness, general weakness) disappear with the exit from the infected atmosphere - a period of latent action begins (4-5 hours), during which damage to the lung tissue develops. Then the condition of the affected person worsens sharply: there is a cough, blue lips and cheeks, headache, shortness of breath and suffocation. There is an increase in body temperature up to 39°C. Death occurs in the first two days from pulmonary edema. At high concentrations of phosgene (>40 g/m3), death occurs almost instantly.

Psychochemical poisons
OV temporarily incapacitating manpower appeared relatively recently. These include psychochemical substances that act on the nervous system and cause mental disorders. Currently, psychochemical OB is a substance that has the code Bi-Zet (BZ).
BZ- white crystalline substance, odorless. Combat state - aerosol (smoke). It is transferred to a combat state by the method of thermal sublimation. BZ is equipped with aviation chemical bombs, cassettes, checkers. Unprotected people are affected through the respiratory system and the gastrointestinal tract. The period of latent action is 0.5-3 hours, depending on the dose. With the defeat of BZ, the functions of the vestibular apparatus are disturbed, vomiting begins. Subsequently, for approximately 8 hours, there is a numbness, speech retardation, after which a period of hallucinations and arousal begins. BZ aerosols, spreading downwind, settle on the terrain, uniforms, weapons and military equipment, causing their persistent infection.

Irritant poisonous substances
The irritating agents include adamsite(DM), chloroacetophenone(CN) CS(CS) and C-Ar(CR). Annoying agents are mainly used for police purposes. These chemicals cause eye and respiratory irritation. Highly toxic irritating agents, such as CS and CR, can be used in a combat situation to exhaust enemy manpower.
CS (CS) - a white or light yellow crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in water, highly soluble in acetone and benzene, at low concentrations irritates the eyes (10 times stronger than chloroacetophenone) and upper respiratory tract, at high concentrations causes burns to exposed skin and respiratory paralysis . At concentrations of 5·10-3 g/m3, personnel fail instantly. Damage symptoms: burning and pain in the eyes and chest, lacrimation, runny nose, cough. When leaving the contaminated atmosphere, the symptoms gradually disappear within 1-3 hours. CS can be used in the form of an aerosol (smoke) using aviation bombs and clusters, artillery shells, mines, aerosol generators, hand grenades and cartridges. Combat use is carried out in the form of recipes. Depending on the recipe, it is stored on the ground from 14 to 30 days.
C-Ar (CR) - RH irritant, much more toxic than CS. It is a solid, slightly soluble in water. It has a strong irritating effect on human skin.
The means of application, signs of damage and protection are the same as for CS.

toxins
Toxins are chemical substances of protein nature of microbial, plant or animal origin, capable of causing disease and death when they enter the human or animal body. In the US Army, XR (X-Ar) and PG (PJ) substances are on the staff supply, related to new highly toxic agents.
SubstanceXR- botulinum toxin of bacterial origin, entering the body, causes severe damage to the nervous system. Belongs to the class of lethal agents. XR is a fine white to yellowish brown powder that is readily soluble in water. It is used in the form of aerosols by aircraft, artillery or rockets, easily penetrates into the human body through the mucous surfaces of the respiratory tract, digestive tract and eyes. It has a latent period of action from 3 hours to 2 days. Signs of defeat appear suddenly and begin with a feeling of severe weakness, general depression, nausea, vomiting, constipation. 3-4 hours after the onset of the development of symptoms of the lesion, dizziness appears, the pupils dilate and stop responding to light. Blurred vision, often double vision. The skin becomes dry, there is a dry mouth and a feeling of thirst, severe pain in the stomach. There are difficulties in swallowing food and water, speech becomes slurred, the voice is weak. With non-fatal poisoning, recovery occurs in 2-6 months.
SubstancePG- staphylococcal enterotoxin - is used in the form of aerosols. It enters the body with inhaled air and with contaminated water and food. It has a latency period of several minutes. The symptoms are similar to those of food poisoning. Initial signs of damage: salivation, nausea, vomiting. Violent cutting in abdomen and watery diarrhoea. The highest degree of weakness. Symptoms last 24 hours, all this time the affected person is incompetent.
First aid for poisoning. Stop the entry of the toxin into the body (put on a gas mask or respirator when in a contaminated atmosphere, rinse the stomach in case of poisoning with contaminated water or food), take it to a medical center and provide qualified medical care.

3. Signs of the use of poisonous substances by the enemy and methods of protection against them

3.1. Signs of the use of poisonous substances by the enemy
For the most part, chemical weapons are planned to be used at night and in adverse weather conditions. In this case, it is possible to combine the use of HE with nuclear strikes, high-explosive fragmentation, incendiary and smoke ammunition and the combination of different types of HE, as well as the use of previously unknown HE, ammunition and methods of attack.
The main features of the application chemical rockets are: the rupture of the warhead in the air and the simultaneous (almost instantaneous) rupture of a large number of bombs when they hit the ground or above it.
At break chemical bomb, due to equipping it with a small amount of explosive charge, a deaf explosion is obtained, shallow craters form in the ground.
About application aviation chemical cassettes it can be judged if in the air at a certain height a large number of elements are poured out of a dropped container, which are scattered over a large area and at the same time the sound of the explosion is not heard.
A characteristic feature of the use of OV from pouring aviation devices is the formation of an aerosol streak from a low-flying aircraft and the appearance of small drops of liquid on the terrain and objects located on it.

3.2. Ways to protect against poisonous substances
In the area of ​​​​explosive ammunition with sarin and in the immediate vicinity of it, such concentrations of OM can be created that one breath is enough to get hit. Therefore, if an ammunition explodes nearby, you must immediately hold your breath, close your eyes, put on a gas mask and exhale sharply. Sarin is used to contaminate the air (vapours, mist), but some of it remains on the ground in the form of droplets when munitions explode (especially in craters from explosive munitions). Therefore, it is possible to be without gas masks in areas where ammunition with sarin was used, in summer only after a few hours, in winter - after 1-2 days. When units operate on vehicles in an atmosphere contaminated with sarin, personnel must use gas masks, and when operating on contaminated terrain on foot, in addition, protective stockings are put on. When the enemy uses sarin on objects located in the forest, in the lowlands, especially at night and in the absence of wind, large concentrations of its vapors can form, therefore, when staying in such an area for a long time, it is necessary to use not only a gas mask for protection, but also a protective kit in the form of overalls . In addition to personal protective equipment, collective protective equipment is used to protect personnel from being hit by sarin and other POVs: hermetic mobile objects (tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, etc.), shelters, as well as dugouts under the parapet, blocked slots and communication passages that protect against drops and aerosols. Mobile objects and shelters are equipped with filter-ventilation kits that ensure the stay of personnel in them without personal protective equipment. Sarin vapors can be adsorbed by uniforms and, after leaving the contaminated air, evaporate again, contaminating clean air. This is especially dangerous when entering enclosed spaces and shelters.
Means of protection against somana the same as for Sarin.
When personnel are infected with drop-liquid agents of the type VX and their aerosols, it is necessary to immediately decontaminate exposed areas of the body with the help of PPI and replace contaminated uniforms. Weapons and military equipment contaminated with VX droplets pose a danger for 1-3 days in summer and 30-50 days in winter. After the degassing of weapons and military equipment, the danger of injury through the respiratory organs is excluded, but damage is possible upon contact with unprotected areas of the body due to the agents absorbed into the paint, wood, rubber, and then coming to the surface. Degassing of weapons and military equipment contaminated with VX is carried out with degassing solution No. 1, degassing formulation RD or aqueous suspensions of calcium hypochlorites.
For protection against mustard gas a gas mask and skin protection equipment are used: a combined-arms protective kit (OZK) and a combined-arms complex protective suit (OKZK). To protect against mustard gas vapors, a gas mask and OKZK are used, and from drop-liquid mustard gas - a gas mask and OZK (with a raincoat, worn in sleeves or in the form of overalls). If drops of mustard gas get on the skin or uniforms, the infected areas are treated with the help of PPI. The eyes are washed with a 2% solution of baking soda or clean water. The mouth and nasopharynx are also rinsed with a 2% solution of baking soda (clean water). For the degassing of weapons and military equipment contaminated with mustard gas, degassing solution No. 1, degassing formulation RD, aqueous suspensions and slurries of calcium hypochlorites are used; solvents and aqueous solutions of detergents can be used; degassing is carried out using degassing machines and various degassing kits. Terrain, trenches, trenches and other structures are degassed with aqueous suspensions and slurries of calcium hypochlorites. Linen, uniforms and equipment are degassed by boiling, as well as hot air or a vapor-air-ammonia mixture in special degassing machines.
Products, fodder, fats and oils contaminated with liquid mustard gas are unsuitable for consumption and must be destroyed. Water contaminated with mustard gas is neutralized in special installations.
A remedy for hydrocyanic acid is a combined arms gas mask. Hydrocyanic acid does not infect the terrain, weapons and military equipment. In case of infection of premises and closed objects, they must be ventilated. Food products contaminated with hydrocyanic acid can be consumed after airing.
Means of protection against cyanogen chloride the same as for hydrocyanic acid.
Defence from phosgene- combined arms gas mask. In case of phosgene damage, it is necessary to put on a gas mask on the affected person, remove it from the atmosphere of the RH, create peace and prevent the body from cooling; artificial respiration is prohibited. It is necessary to quickly deliver the injured to the point of medical care.
Degassing of phosgene in the field is not required; in case of infection of premises and closed objects, they must be ventilated. Phosgene practically does not infect water. Products exposed to phosgene vapors are suitable for consumption after ventilation (until the odor disappears) or after heat treatment.
Defence from BZ- gas mask. Degassing of weapons and military equipment contaminated with BZ can be carried out by treatment with aqueous suspensions of HA, as well as by washing with water, solvents and detergent solutions. Uniforms are to be shaken and washed.
Defence from CS (CS) - gas mask and shelters with filtering equipment.
When used by an enemy C-Ar, it must be remembered that the eyes should not be rubbed; you need to get out of the contaminated atmosphere, face the wind, rinse your eyes and rinse your mouth with water or a 2% solution of baking soda.
protection from toxins are a gas mask or respirator, weapons, military equipment and shelters equipped with filter-ventilation installations.

Abstracts

Military topography

military ecology

Military Medical Training

Engineering training

fire training

POISONING SUBSTANCES (OV)- highly toxic chemical compounds adopted by the armies of a number of capitalist states and designed to destroy enemy manpower during hostilities. Sometimes chemical agents are also called chemical warfare agents (CWs). In a broader sense, agents include natural and synthetic compounds that can cause mass poisoning of people and animals, as well as infect vegetation, including agricultural crops (agricultural pesticides, industrial poisons, etc.).

OS cause mass damage and death of people as a result of direct impact on the body (primary damage), as well as when a person comes into contact with environmental objects or consumes food, water contaminated with OS (secondary damage). OM can enter the body through the respiratory system, skin, mucous membranes, and the digestive tract. Forming the basis of chemical weapons (see), agents are the subject of study of military toxicology (see Toxicology, military toxicology).

Certain tactical and technical requirements are imposed on the agents - they must have high toxicity, be available for mass production, be stable during storage, simple and reliable in combat use, capable of causing damage to people who do not use anti-chemical protection means, and resistant to degassers in a combat situation. At the present, the stage of development of chem. weapons of the armies of the capitalist countries, poisons can be used as agents, which under normal conditions do not act on the body through unprotected skin and respiratory organs, but cause severe injuries as a result of injuries from shrapnel or special damaging chemical elements. ammunition, as well as the so-called. binary mixtures, at the time of application of chemical. ammunition forming highly toxic agents as a result of the interaction of harmless chemical. components.

Strict classification of OM is difficult, in particular, because of the extreme diversity of physical and chemical. properties, structure, primary biochemical reactions of organic matter with numerous receptors in the body, a variety of functional and organic changes at the molecular, cellular, organ levels, often accompanied by various kinds of non-specific reactions of the whole organism.

Clinical-toxicological and tactical classifications have gained the greatest importance. In accordance with the first OB, they are divided into groups: nerve agents (see) - tabun, sarin, soman, V-gases; general poisonous toxic substances (see) - hydrocyanic acid, cyanogen chloride, carbon monoxide; blistering agents (see) - mustard gas, trichlorotriethylamine, lewisite; suffocating poisonous substances (see) - phosgene, diphosgene, chloropicrin; irritating toxic substances (see) - chloroacetophenone, bromobenzyl cyanide (lachrymators), adamsite, CS, CR substances (sternites); psychotomimetic toxic substances (see) - lysergic diethylamide to - you, substance BZ. It is also customary to subdivide all agents into two large groups: lethal (nerve paralytic, blistering, suffocating and general poisonous agents) and temporarily incapacitating (psychotomimetic and irritant).

According to the tactical classification, three groups of agents are distinguished: unstable (NOV), persistent (COV) and poisonous-smoky (POISON B).

At all variety biol, actions on an organism of OV possess nek-ry general fiz.-chem. properties that determine their group characteristics. Knowledge of these properties makes it possible to foresee the methods of combat use, the degree of danger of agents in specific meteoroids. conditions and the likelihood of secondary lesions, to substantiate the methods of indication and degassing of agents, as well as to use appropriate anti-chemical agents and honey. protection.

Practically important properties of organic matter are the melting and boiling points, which determine their state of aggregation and volatility at ambient temperature. These parameters are closely related to the resistance of agents, i.e., their ability to maintain a damaging effect over time. The group of unstable agents includes substances with high volatility (high saturated vapor pressure and low, up to 40 °, boiling point), for example, phosgene, hydrocyanic acid. Under normal weather conditions, they are in the atmosphere in a vaporous state and cause only primary damage to people and animals through the respiratory system. These substances do not require sanitization of personnel (see Sanitization), degassing of equipment and weapons (see Degassing), because they do not infect environmental objects. Persistent agents include agents with a high boiling point and low vapor pressure. They retain their resistance for several hours in summer and up to several weeks in winter and can be used in a drop-liquid and aerosol state (mustard gas, nerve agents, etc.). Persistent agents act through the respiratory organs and unprotected skin, and also cause secondary lesions upon contact with contaminated environmental objects, the use of poisoned food and water. Their application requires partial and complete sanitation of personnel, degassing of military equipment, weapons, medical equipment. property and uniforms, conducting an examination of food and water (see Indication of means of destruction).

Possessing high solubility in fats (lipids), OV are capable to get through biol, membranes and to influence the fermental systems which are in membrane structures. This determines the high toxicity of many agents. Their ability to infect water bodies is associated with the solubility of OM in water, and their ability to penetrate into the thickness of rubber and other products is associated with solubility in organic solvents.

When degassing OM and the use of honey. means of protection in order to prevent damage, it is important to take into account the ability of the agent to hydrolyze with water, solutions of alkalis or to-t, their ability to interact with chlorinating agents, oxidizing agents, reducing agents or complexing agents, as a result of which the agent is destroyed or non-toxic products are formed.

The most important characteristic of OV, which determines their combat properties, is toxicity - a measure of biol, action, edges is expressed by a toxic dose, i.e., the amount of a substance that causes a certain toxic effect. When OS gets on the skin, the toxic dose is determined by the amount of OS per 1 cm2 of the body surface (mg / cm 2), and for oral or parenteral (through the wound) exposure - the amount of OS per 1 kg of body weight (mass) (mg / cm2). kg). When inhaled, the toxic dose (W, or Haber's constant) depends on the concentration of the toxic substance in the inhaled air and the time the person stays in the contaminated atmosphere and is calculated by the formula W = c * t, where c is the concentration of OM (mg / l, or g / m 3), t - time of exposure to RH (min.).

Due to accumulation (cumulation) or, conversely, rapid detoxification of chemical. substances in the body, the dependence of the toxic effect on the amount and rate of OM intake into the body is not always linear. Therefore, the Haber formula is used only for a preliminary assessment of the toxicity of compounds.

To characterize the toxicity of agents in military toxicology, the concepts of threshold (minimum effective), average lethal, and absolutely lethal doses are usually used. Threshold (D lim) consider the dose, edge causes changes in the functions of any organs or systems that go beyond the physiological. Under the average lethal (DL 50) or absolutely lethal (DL 100) dose is understood the amount of agents that causes the death of 50 or 100% of the affected, respectively.

Prevention of poisoning by highly toxic chemical compounds for various purposes is ensured by the use of personal protective equipment for the respiratory organs and skin, strict adherence to safety measures, as well as honey. control over working conditions and the state of health of persons working with them (see Poisoning).

Poison Protection

Protection from toxic substances is carried out in the general system of protection against combat weapons (see) with the participation of chemical, engineering, medical and other services of the Armed Forces and civil defense and includes: constant monitoring of chemical. situation, timely notification of the threat of chemical. attacks; providing personnel of troops, civil defense formations and the population with individual technical and medical means of protection (see), sanitation of personnel, examination of food and water that have been contaminated, medical and evacuation measures in relation to the affected (see. Center of mass destruction). Medical care in these conditions is organized in accordance with the general principles of the staged treatment of the wounded and sick with their evacuation according to their destination and taking into account the specifics of lesions by one or another agent. Of particular importance in this case are the speed and clarity of the implementation of measures to stop the further intake of toxic substances into the body and actively remove them, urgently neutralize the poison or neutralize its action with the help of specific medications - antidotes OB (see), as well as symptomatic therapy aimed at protection and maintenance of body functions, to-rye are mainly affected by these agents.

Bibliography: Harmful substances in industry, ed. N. V-. Lazareva et al., vol. 1 - 3, JI., 1977; Ganzhara P. S, and Novikov A. A. Textbook on clinical toxicology, M., 1979; Luzhnikov E.A., Dagaev V.N. and Firsov H. N. Fundamentals of resuscitation in acute poisoning, M., 1977; Emergency care for acute poisoning, Handbook of toxicology, ed. S. N. Golikova. Moscow, 1977. Guide to the toxicology of toxic substances, ed. G. N. Golikova, M., 1972; With a-notsky IV and Fomenko VN Long-term consequences of the influence of chemical compounds on the body, M., 1979; Franke 3. Chemistry of poisonous substances, trans. from German, M., 1973.

V. I. Artamonov.

WAR POISON SUBSTANCES(former name - "combat gases", "suffocating agents"), artificial chemical products used in war to destroy living targets - humans and animals. Poisonous substances are the active principle of the so-called. chemical weapons and serve directly to inflict damage. The concept of toxic substances includes such chemical compounds that, if properly used, are capable of incapacitating an unprotected fighter by poisoning him. Poisoning here refers to any disturbance of the normal functioning of the body - from temporary irritation of the eyes or respiratory tract to long-term illness or death.

Story . April 22, 1915 is considered the beginning of the combat use of poisonous substances, when the Germans launched the first chlorine gas attack against the British. Since the middle of 1915, chemical projectiles with various toxic substances were widely used in the war. At the end of 1915, chloropicrin began to be used in the Russian army. In February 1916, the French introduced phosgene into combat practice. In July 1917, mustard gas (a blistering poisonous substance) was used in the German army in combat operations, and in September 1917 arsines were introduced into it (see Combat arsines) - arsenic-containing poisonous substances used in the form of poisonous smoke and fog. The total number of various poisonous substances used in the world war reached 70. At present, the armies of almost all countries have various types of poisonous substances in service, which will undoubtedly be used in future military clashes. Further research on the improvement of production methods and the use of already known poisonous substances is being carried out in all major states.

Combat use of poisonous substances carried out by introducing them into the atmosphere in the form of vapors, smoke or fog, or by applying toxic substances to the surface of the soil and local objects. The most convenient and commonly used medium for introducing toxic substances into the body is air; in certain cases this role can be played by soil, water, vegetation, foodstuffs and all artificial structures and objects. To defeat through the air requires the creation of a certain "combat" concentration of poisonous substances, calculated in weight units (mg per liter of air) or volumetric (% or ‰). When soil is contaminated, a certain "density of infection" is required, calculated in grams of toxic substances per m 2 of surface. To bring poisonous substances into an active state and to transfer them by the attacking side to the objects of attack, special mechanical devices are used, which make up material part chemical attack techniques.

During the World War, poisonous substances were used in the following methods of chemical attack: 1) gas balloon attack, i.e., the release of a gaseous poisonous substance from special cylinders, carried to the enemy by the wind in the form of a poisoned air wave; 2) firing of field artillery with chemical projectiles containing poisonous substances and an explosive charge; 3) firing chemical mines from ordinary or special mortars (gas throwers); and 4) throwing hand and rifle chemical grenades. At present, the following methods have been developed: 5) burning special candles that produce poisonous smoke when burned; 6) direct contamination of the area with toxic substances by means of ground (portable) vehicles; 7) bombardment from aircraft with aerochemical bombs; and 8) direct spraying or spraying of poisonous substances from aircraft over the surface of the earth.

Poisonous substances as a weapon has a massive damaging effect. The main difference from mechanical weapons is that the very damaging effect of poisonous substances is chemical, based on the interaction of a poisonous substance with the tissues of a living organism, and causes a certain combat effect as a result of a known chemical process. The action of various toxic substances is extremely diverse: it can vary widely and take the most diverse forms; the defeat usually captures a huge number of living cells (general poisoning of the body). Other features of poisonous substances as weapons are: a) high fragmentation of the substance at the time of action (up to individual molecules, about 10 -8 cm in size, or smoke and fog particles, 10 -4 -10 -7 cm in size), due to which a continuous zone is created defeat; b) the ability to spread in all directions and penetrate with air through small holes; c) the duration of action (from several minutes to several weeks); and d) for some poisonous substances, the ability to act slowly (not immediately) or gradually and imperceptibly accumulate in the body until life-threatening quantities are formed (“cumulation” of poisonous substances).

Requirements for poisonous substances, are put by tactics, military equipment and supply agencies. They boil down mainly to the following conditions: 1) high toxicity (the degree of poisoning effect), i.e., the ability of poisonous substances to incapacitate in low concentrations and with a short action, 2) the difficulty of protection for the enemy, 3) ease of use for the attacking side , 4) convenience of storage and transport, 5) availability of manufacturing in large quantities and low cost. Requirement (5) implies the need to closely link the production of poisonous substances with the peaceful chemical industry of the country. Satisfaction of all these requirements is achieved by proper selection of the physical, chemical and toxic properties of poisonous substances, as well as by improving the methods of their manufacture and use.

Tactical characteristics of poisonous substances. Poisonous substances that are difficult to fly and possess high chemical strength are called persistent (for example, mustard gas). Such toxic substances are capable of exerting a long-term damaging effect in the place where they were released from the shell; therefore, they are suitable for pre-infection of areas of the area in order to make them inaccessible or impassable (gas locks). On the contrary, highly volatile or rapidly decomposing toxic substances are classified as unstable, short-acting. The latter also include toxic substances used in the form of smoke.

The chemical composition of poisonous substances. Almost all poisonous substances, with few exceptions, are organic, i.e., carbonaceous, compounds. The composition of various toxic substances known so far included only the following 9 elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, nitrogen, sulfur and arsenic. Among the poisonous substances used were representatives of the following classes of chemical compounds: 1) inorganic - free halides and acid chlorides; 2) organic - halogenated hydrocarbons, ethers (simple and complex), ketones, mercaptans and sulfides, organic acid chlorides, unsaturated aldehydes, nitro compounds, cyanide compounds, arsines, etc. The chemical composition and structure of the molecule of poisonous substances determine all their other properties, important in combat.

Nomenclature. To designate poisonous substances, either their rational chemical names (chlorine, bromoacetone, diphenylchlorarsine, etc.), or special military terms (mustard gas, lewisite, surpalite), or, finally, conditional ciphers (D. M., K., yellow cross). Conditional terms were also used for mixtures of poisonous substances (martonite, palite, vincennite). During the war, poisonous substances were usually encrypted to keep their composition secret.

Individual representatives The most important chemical agents used in the World War or described in the post-war literature are listed in the attached table along with their most important properties.

Physical properties of toxic substances, affecting their combat suitability: 1) vapor pressure, which should be. significant at ordinary temperatures, 2) evaporation rate or volatility (high for unstable poisons and low for persistent ones), 3) volatility limit (maximum achievable concentration), 4) boiling point (low for unstable poisons and high for persistent ones), 5 ) melting point, 6) state of aggregation at ordinary temperature (gases, liquids, solids), 7) critical temperature, 8) heat of vaporization, 9) specific gravity in liquid or solid state, 10) vapor density of toxic substances (d. b greater than the density of air), 11) solubility (ch. arr. in water and substances of the animal organism), 12) the ability to be adsorbed (absorbed) by anti-gas coal (see Activated carbon), 13) the color of toxic substances and some other properties.

Chemical properties of toxic substances entirely dependent on their composition and structure. From a military point of view, the following are of interest: 1) the chemical interaction of poisonous substances with substances and tissues of an animal organism, which determines the nature and degree of toxicity of poisonous substances and is the cause of their damaging effect; 2) the ratio of toxic substances to water (ability to be decomposed by water - hydrolysis); 3) relation to atmospheric oxygen (oxidizability); 4) attitude towards metals (corrosive effect on shells, weapons, mechanisms, etc.); 5) the possibility of neutralizing poisonous substances with available chemicals; 6) the possibility of recognizing poisonous substances with the help of chemical reagents; and 7) the smell of poisonous substances, which also depends on the chemical nature of the substances.

Toxic properties of toxic substances. The variety of toxic effects of poisonous substances is determined by the diversity of their composition and structure. Substances that are close in chemical nature act in a similar way. Carriers of toxic properties in the molecule of a poisonous substance are certain atoms or groups of atoms - "toxophores" (CO, S, SO 2, CN, As, etc.), and the degree of action and shades of it are determined by the accompanying groups - "auxotoxes". The degree of toxicity, or the strength of the action of toxic substances, is determined by the minimum damaging concentration and duration of action (exposure): it is the higher, the smaller these two values. The nature of toxicity is determined by the routes of penetration of toxic substances into the body and the predominant effect on certain organs of the body. According to the nature of the action, toxic substances are often divided into asphyxiating (affecting the respiratory tract), lachrymal ("lachrymators"), poisonous (acting on the blood or nervous system), abscesses (acting on the skin), irritating or "sneezing" (acting on the mucous membranes of the nose and upper respiratory tract), etc.; the characteristic is given according to the "predominant" effect, since the effect of toxic substances on the body is very complex. Combat concentrations of various toxic substances vary from a few mg to ten-thousandths of a mg per liter of air. Some poisonous substances cause fatal injuries when introduced into the body in doses of about 1 mg or even less.

Production of poisonous substances requires the presence in the country of large reserves of affordable and cheap raw materials and a developed chemical industry. Most often, for the production of toxic substances, the equipment and personnel of existing chemical plants for peaceful purposes are used; sometimes special installations are built (Edgwood chemical arsenal in the USA). The peaceful chemical industry has raw materials in common with the production of poisonous substances, or it produces ready-made semi-finished products. The main branches of the chemical industry, which provide material for poisonous substances, are: the electrolysis of common salt, coke-benzene and wood-acetomethyl production, the production of bound nitrogen, arsenic compounds, sulfur, distillery, etc. Artificial paint factories were usually adapted for the production of poisonous substances.

Determination of poisonous substances can be done in the laboratory or in the field. The laboratory definition represents the precise or simplified chemical analysis of poisonous substances by conventional methods of analytical chemistry. Field determination aims to: 1) detect the presence of poisonous substances in air, water or soil, 2) establish the chemical nature of the applied poisonous substance and 3) determine its concentration, if possible. The 1st and 2nd tasks are resolved simultaneously with the help of special chemical reagents - "indicators" that change their color or release a precipitate in the presence of a certain poisonous substance. For colorful reactions, liquid solutions or papers impregnated with such solutions are used; for sedimentary reactions - only liquids. Reagent d. b. specific, sensitive, acting quickly and sharply, not changing during storage; use of it d. b. simple. The 3rd task is in rare cases solvable in the field; for this, special devices are used - gas detectors, based on known chemical reactions and allowing, by the degree of color change or by the amount of precipitation, to approximately judge the concentration of toxic substances. The detection of poisonous substances using physical methods (changes in the diffusion rate) or physicochemical methods (changes in electrical conductivity as a result of the hydrolysis of poisonous substances), which has been proposed many times, turned out to be very unreliable in practice.

Protection against toxic substances can be individual and collective (or mass). The first is achieved by the use of gas masks that isolate the respiratory tract from the surrounding air or purify the inhaled air from the admixture of toxic substances, as well as special insulating clothing. The means of collective protection include gas shelters; measures of mass protection - degassing, used mainly for persistent poisonous substances and consisting in the neutralization of poisonous substances directly on the ground or on objects with the help of "neutralizing" chemical materials. In general, all methods of protection against poisonous substances come down either to the creation of impenetrable partitions (mask, clothing), or to filtering the air used for breathing (filtering gas mask, gas shelter), or to such a process that would destroy poisonous substances (degassing).

Peaceful use of poisonous substances. Some poisonous substances (chlorine, phosgene) are starting materials for various branches of the peaceful chemical industry. Others (chloropicrin, hydrocyanic acid, chlorine) are used in the fight against pests of plants and bakery products - fungi, insects and rodents. Chlorine is also used for bleaching, for sterilizing water and food. Some poisonous substances are used for preservative impregnation of wood, in the gold industry, as solvents, etc. There are attempts to use poisonous substances in medicine for medicinal purposes. However, most poisonous substances, the most valuable in combat terms, have no peaceful use.

Classification and brief description of chemical warfare agents

Chemical weapons are poisonous substances and the means by which they are used on the battlefield. The basis of the damaging effect of chemical weapons is toxic substances.

Poisonous substances (abbreviated as CW) are chemical compounds that, when used, can cause damage to unprotected manpower or reduce its combat capability. In terms of their destructive properties, agents differ from other combat weapons: they are capable of penetrating, together with air, into various structures, tanks and other military equipment and inflicting damage on people in them; they can retain their damaging effect in the air, on the ground and in various objects for some, sometimes quite a long time; spreading in large volumes of air and over large areas, they defeat all people who are in their area of ​​\u200b\u200baction without protective equipment; vapors are capable of propagating in the direction of the wind over considerable distances from areas of direct use of chemical weapons.

Chemical weapons are classified according to the following characteristics:

• 1) the nature of the physiological effects of OM on the human body;
• 2) tactical purpose;
• 3) the speed of the oncoming impact;
• 4) resistance of the used agent;
• 5) means and methods of application.

According to the nature of the physiological effects on the human body, six main types of toxic substances are distinguished:

Poisonous nerve agents that affect the central nervous system. The purpose of the use of agents of nerve paralytic action is the rapid and massive incapacitation of personnel with the greatest possible number of deaths. The toxic substances of this group include sarin, soman, tabun and V-gases. damaging chemical weapon poisoning combat

Poisonous substances of blistering action. They cause damage mainly through the skin, and when applied in the form of aerosols and vapors - also through the respiratory system. The main toxic substances are mustard gas, lewisite.

Poisonous substances of general poisonous action. Once in the body, they disrupt the transfer of oxygen from the blood to the tissues. This is one of the fastest operating systems. These include hydrocyanic acid and cyanogen chloride.

Asphyxiating agents affect mainly the lungs. The main OMs are phosgene and diphosgene.

Psychochemical agents are capable of incapacitating the enemy's manpower for some time. These toxic substances, acting on the central nervous system, disrupt the normal mental activity of a person or cause such mental deficiencies as temporary blindness, deafness, a sense of fear, and limitation of motor functions. Poisoning with these substances, in doses that cause mental disorders, does not lead to death. OBs from this group are quinuclidyl-3-benzilate (BZ) and lysergic acid diethylamide.

Poisonous substances of irritating action, or irritants (from the English. irritant - an irritating substance). Irritants are fast-acting. At the same time, their effect, as a rule, is short-lived, since after leaving the infected zone, the signs of poisoning disappear after 1-10 minutes. A lethal effect for irritants is possible only when doses enter the body that are tens to hundreds of times higher than the minimum and optimally acting doses. Irritant agents include lachrymal substances that cause profuse lacrimation and sneezing, irritating the respiratory tract (may also affect the nervous system and cause skin lesions). Tear agents are CS, CN or chloroacetophenone and PS or chloropicrin. The sneezers are DM (adamsite), DA (diphenylchlorarsine) and DC (diphenylcyanarsine). There are agents that combine tear and sneezing actions. Irritating agents are in service with the police in many countries and therefore are classified as police or special non-lethal means (special means).

There are known cases of the use of other chemical compounds that do not aim at directly defeating the enemy's manpower. So, in the Vietnam War, the United States used defoliants (the so-called "Agent Orange", containing toxic dioxin), causing the leaves to fall from trees.

Tactical classification subdivides the weapons into groups according to their combat purpose. Lethal (according to American terminology, lethal agents) are substances intended for the destruction of manpower, which include agents of nerve paralytic, blistering, general poisonous and asphyxiating effects. Temporarily incapacitating manpower (according to American terminology, harmful agents) are substances that make it possible to solve tactical tasks of incapacitating manpower for periods ranging from several minutes to several days. These include psychotropic substances (incapacitants) and irritants (irritants).

However, non-lethal substances can also cause death. In particular, during the Vietnam War, the US Army used the following types of gases:

CS -- orthochlorobenzylidene malononitrile and its formulations

CN -- chloroacetophenone

DM -- adamsite or chlordihydrophenarsazine

CNS -- prescription form of chloropicrin

BAE - bromoacetone

BZ -- quinuclidyl-3-benzylate.

According to the US military themselves, the gases were used in non-lethal concentrations. However, as Francis Kahn, a professor at the Sorbonne Faculty of Medicine, pointed out, conditions were created in Vietnam (use in large quantities in a confined space) when CS gas was a deadly weapon.

According to the speed of exposure, high-speed and slow-acting agents are distinguished. Fast-acting drugs include nerve agents, general poisons, irritants, and some psychotropic substances. Slow-acting substances include blistering, asphyxiating and certain psychotropic substances.

Depending on the duration of the preservation of the damaging ability, agents are divided into short-term (unstable or volatile) and long-term (persistent). The damaging effect of the former is calculated in minutes (AC, CG). The action of the latter can last from several hours to several weeks after their application.

During the First World War, chemical weapons were widely used in hostilities, but despite the lethality of their action, their effectiveness did not justify itself. The possibility of application was extremely dependent on the weather, the direction and strength of the wind, suitable conditions for massive use had in some cases to be expected for weeks. When used during offensives, the side using it itself suffered losses from its own chemical weapons, and the losses of the enemy did not exceed the losses from traditional artillery fire during the artillery preparation of the offensive. In subsequent wars, the massive combat use of chemical weapons was no longer observed.

At the end of the 20th century, in view of the high development of the protection of troops from WMD, the main purpose of combat weapons was considered to be the exhaustion and shackling of the enemy's manpower.