NATIONAL LANGUAGE (NE) In philosophy and linguistics, there is a thesis about the unity of the NE. If we keep in mind that the GL functions in a variety of its forms, such as literary language, dialect languages (otherwise called dialects), colloquial language (otherwise called vernacular), social languages (or social and professional dialects [jargons]), it should be clarified that the mentioned unity of the NE is nothing but the dialectical unity of its varieties. True, the structure of the Russian GL is not always interpreted in the same way by different researchers. So, Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky differentiates the Russian NY as follows: literary Russian, the language of fiction, rural or local, dialects, urban vernacular, professional jargons (otherwise unwritten arg ó ) 3 [Rozhdestvensky 2002: 129–130].
According to V. V. Vinogradov, the presented device of the NY reflects two realities: social and psychological. “The social reality consists in the fact that the language in its peripheral areas breaks up into separate spheres of communication associated with division in the areas of everyday life, differentiation of occupations and literary and written practice. The psycholinguistic reality is that language changes are reflected in the linguistic consciousness of its speakers, i.e. there is a change in the assessments of the facts of the language by speakers and writers in this language. Thus, a literary educated person evaluates and distinguishes the facts of a language related to the general literary language from the facts of the author's literary and artistic language, and the facts of these two kinds - from scientific and technical terminologies (jargon), dialects and vernacular" [Rozhdestvensky 2002: 130].
National language – language, which is the means of written and oral communication of the nation. NY is a historical category: it develops during the period of development of a nationality into a nation. A nation as a historical community of people is characterized by a common language, territory, economic life and mental make-up, manifested in a common culture [PR. Encyclopedia: 410].
In structural-linguistic In terms of NY, it completely inherits the structure of the national language. NY is a national language, that is, it is formed by all types of speech means of communication between people: systems of territorial dialects, social dialects (jargons), vernacular and the system of the literary language. This is the totality of a given language, united by the commonality of the main vocabulary, grammatical and, to a certain extent, phonetic systems. In the real structure of the GL, two kinds of phenomena are combined in one row: these are the permanent elements of the language system that equally exist in any type of GL, and the mobile elements that are present in one or more varieties of the GL and are absent in another or its other varieties. With all the variety of moving elements, they never play a decisive role in the language; the possibility of mutual understanding of people speaking the GL is determined by the presence of constant elements of the language that allow us to talk about a single GL.
The systems included in the GL are unequal: local dialects are doomed to die out in the process of developing the GL, the literary language is called upon to displace and replace all other varieties of the GL. “Dialect speech as unwritten speech is gradually losing its differences, since, along with the development of literacy and literary education, the population is moving to the general use of the Russian literary language. Dialect differences persist only among the semi-literate, predominantly rural population” [Rozhdestvensky 2002: 129].
Subjected to regulation and rationing, oral literary speech is gradually becoming a form of NE that is potentially ready to become the only means of oral communication between people in official and informal situations of communication. Thus, the development of the language in the national era turns the literary language of the nation into a processed, normalized, higher type of NY, which has both written and oral-colloquial forms.
normalization- the most important feature of the highest form of NY, and national norms are developed first in grammar, vocabulary and spelling, later - in orthoepy.
Russian NY begins to take shape in the 17th century. At the same time, the literary language began to take shape. The era of the direct formation of the Russian literary language in Russian studies is considered to be the time boundary of the 18th-19th centuries. The founder of the Russian literary language is A. S. Pushkin. Since the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian literary language has been developing the already established structure, enriching the vocabulary and improving the grammatical structure.
It should be noted that the above-mentioned division of the national language into such varieties as the literary language, territorial dialects, vernacular, professional and social jargons, in relation to the Russian national language in its current state, is true only in its essence. Such a structure characterizes the Russian national language of the Pushkin and post-Pushkin (approximately until the middle of the twentieth century) pores, and this state of the national Russian language is reflected in most scientific and scientific and educational works. Thus, considering the various relationships between different forms of existence of the Russian language, researchers interpret them as strictly delimited language formations, homogeneous in their structures (internal language structure) and compositions (a set of language tools). Or, describing the vernacular language, scientists call it such a subsystem of the Russian national language, which is used in speech communication by an uneducated or poorly educated part of the urban population. In the materials devoted to social jargon, much attention is paid to the so-called secret, or conditional, languages used in relatively closed social groups of people that were once common in Russia - itinerant merchants, migrant artisans, beggars, etc.
The modern researcher L.P. Krysin rightly notes: “Although the allocation of these subsystems as a whole correctly reflects the picture of the social and functional differentiation of the Russian language, there is a lack of historicism and historical perspective in such division: it is quite obvious that the content of such concepts as “literary language”, “territorial dialect”, “vernacular”, “social jargon”, whether we mean the Russian language of Pushkin’s times or the Russian language used by the inhabitants of Russia at the end of the 20th century” [Krysin 2003: 33]. Such a statement of the linguist is objectively conditioned by the internal and external factors of the functioning of the language itself. Human language is not a once-and-for-all formation, it, like everything else in the world around us, is changing. Moreover, not only the language itself and its varieties are changing, but also the composition of speakers of this language, as well as the composition of people who speak its various territorial and social forms. Therefore, following the indicated and other linguists, it can be stated that in modern conditions, various forms of the existence of the Russian language have changed their linguistic and social nature. “So, the literary language, in relation to the period of the late nineteenth - early twentieth centuries. considered as a single education, is now clearly divided into two independent varieties - book and conversation. Territorial dialects, subjected to the strongest shattering and leveling influence of the literary language, almost never exist in their pure form - intermediate formations that combine the features of a dialect, literary speech and vernacular are becoming more widespread. Among social jargons, corporate "languages", like the "language" of the ofenes, do not have a social basis for their existence (at least "relic"), but various forms of professional vernacular are being developed, both socially and functionally fundamentally different from corporate jargons. . Finally, the social status of vernacular and its linguistic essence has undergone such significant changes over the past half century that at present we can talk about a certain heterogeneity 4 of this subsystem of the Russian national language" [Krysin 2003: 34].
LITERARY LANGUAGE (LA) - the form of the historical existence of the national language, taken by its speakers as an exemplary one, is one of the systems of GL along with the system of vernacular, the system of territorial dialects and the system of social dialects (jargons). LA is a historically established system of linguistic elements, speech means that have undergone long-term cultural processing in texts (written and oral) of authoritative masters of the word, in oral communication of educated native speakers of the national language. The formation of the norms of LA is inextricably linked with the name of A. S. Pushkin. The language of the Russian nation at the time of the appearance of LA (XIX century) was very heterogeneous. A. S. Pushkin, choosing all the best from the folk language, crystallized in his works such a language that was accepted by society as exemplary. The functional purpose and internal organization of the LA are determined by the tasks of ensuring speech communication in the main areas of activity of the entire historically formed group of people who speak this national language. Language means of LA are designed to most accurately, clearly and differentiatedly express the dialectically complex world of ideas, ideas, feelings of its bearers, the whole variety of objects, concepts of phenomena of reality in their interdependence and correlation with a person. The most expressive and commonly used national idioms are concentrated in LA, associated with the peculiarities of the worldview, expressed in the specifics of the Russian language picture of the world. LA is opposed to popular colloquial speech: territorial and social dialects used by limited groups of people living in a certain area or united in relatively small social groups, vernacular - supra-dialectal non-codified oral speech of limited topics. There is a relationship between the LA and these forms of existence of the NE. LA is constantly replenished and updated due to popular colloquial speech. Such interaction with folk colloquial speech creates the national identity of the Russian language.
The development of the LA is directly related to the development of the culture of the corresponding people, first of all, its fiction. The language of fiction (YHL (see)) embodies the best achievements of the national speech culture, the main advantages of the language of this people, the national language as a whole.
LA has the following features that distinguish it from other forms of existence of the national language:
1. Traditionalism and written fixation (practically all developed LA are written). Language in general, incl. and LA, traditional in nature. This is due to the very nature and purpose of LA: to be the language of culture, to ensure the historical, spiritual continuity of generations, people, nation. In different historical periods, LA is being improved: the already existing means of linguistic expression, stylistic trends adapt to new socio-cultural tasks and conditions of speech communication, taking into account mentality specifics, and in connection with this, some of them change. This is facilitated to the maximum extent by the fixation of intellectual, ideological-aesthetic, emotionally-expressive content in literary (mainly written, partly oral) texts. LA is traditional. One of the tasks of the teaching about the culture of speech is the preservation and development of the traditions of the national speech culture, their approval and promotion, the linguistic education of LA speakers on the best examples of the national speech culture.
2. Normization of the language (speech), universal validity of norms and their codification (fixation in dictionaries and reference books). “To be generally accepted, and therefore generally understandable” is the main property of a literary language, which, “in essence, only makes it literary” (L. V. Shcherba). Within the LA, all its units and all functional areas, i.e. both bookish and colloquial speech are subject to a system of norms, thanks to which the rational functioning (the term of L. V. Shcherba) of the LA is carried out. The codification of norms implies, on the one hand, their fixation in academic grammar, in explanatory dictionaries for LA, in a set of spelling rules, in a spelling dictionary, in various philological reference books of orthological purpose. On the other hand, the system of literary norms is taught in high school, they are mandatory for all print and electronic media, all types of printed products, for the theater, variety art, for oral public speaking, in official documents, official and business correspondence. Research and popular science, educational activities in the field of speech culture are focused specifically on the system of existing norms of the FL (specific FL), on the approval, strengthening, cultivation in speech practice (written and oral) of FL carriers, on the conscious, creative attitude of FL carriers towards them .
The language norm opens the way for new trends that are replacing obsolete, obsolete forms of LA, selects from the colloquial speech those linguistic elements that have or can acquire national significance.
3. LA - a dichotomous system that combines book (book-literary) speech and colloquial speech. The norms of book and colloquial speech constitute a single system of literary norms that are correlated with each other. The norms of colloquial literary speech are less "strict" in comparison with the norms of book speech. This, as a rule, is due to the informality and ease of communication between communicants, which do not require strict control over either how correctly the addressee speaks, or the extent to which the speech of his addressee is orthologically correct. The interaction and mutual correlation of these two main functional and stylistic spheres of FL (when they are opposed to each other) ensure its socio-cultural purpose - to be a means of communication for FL speakers, the main means of expressing national culture. With serious changes in the conditions of the social existence of the Russian FL, determined by profound transformations in the social, political, cultural, economic life of society, the mutual permeability of book and colloquial speech in the FL intensifies. The convergence of these functional and stylistic spheres is observed not only in the Russian language, but also in many modern literary languages.
4. A branched polyfunctional system of styles and an in-depth stylistic differentiation of means of expression in the field of vocabulary, phraseology, word formation, grammatical variation, forming a single dynamic structure of LA.
The functional and stylistic stratification of LA is due to the social need to specialize language é dstva, to organize them in a special way in order to ensure the speech communication of LA carriers in each of the main areas of human activity. The same goals are served by the differentiation of stylistic means of expression. Functional varieties of LA are implemented in written and / or oral form. In modern LA, oral speech has become more active due to the development of the media, including electronic ones, the Internet style.
5. LA is inherent in the category of variance. This finds its expression in syntagmatic (linear, horizontal) and paradigmatic (columnar, vertical) rows of language units and their variants, which have stylistic (expressive-stylistic, functional-stylistic) and semantic (semantic) shades.
6. LA is characterized by a tendency towards functional and semantic demarcation of language units in overcoming duplication. This is associated, on the one hand, with the constantly implemented variability of means of expression inherent in the FL, on the other hand, such features typical of the FL as the richness and variety of lexico-phraseological and grammatical synonymy (as a distinctive feature of the FL), a branched and stylistically developed system of word formation, lexico-semantic differentiation of single-root words, semantic division of homonymy, subject-logical correlation of antonyms and conversives, deep stylistic differentiation of literary vocabulary. “The dignity of LA is determined ... by the wealth of ready-made opportunities to express various shades” (L. V. Shcherba). The dialectical nature of LA, the flexibility of its stylistic structure, are manifested in the interaction of ready-made means of expression and constantly renewed, creatively created expressive possibilities for conveying new concepts, ideas and other information, including through expedient word creation, leading to the emergence of occasional elocutionisms. 5
7. With all the evolutionary changes experienced by the LA, it is characterized by flexible stability (W. Mathesius). Without it, the exchange of cultural values between generations of carriers of this LA is impossible. The stability of the language is achieved, on the one hand, by maintaining stylistic traditions through written texts, and on the other hand, thanks to the operation of generally binding codified norms that serve as a reliable regulator of the synchronous existence and development of the language. The stability of the Russian LA is also facilitated by its unity, integrity, and the absence of local variations.
To characterize a particular LA for understanding its national specifics, the social conditions of its existence, or the linguistic situation in which the LA is formed, functions and develops, are of fundamental importance (see Lecture 2). The importance of the language situation as a sociolinguistic category is determined by the fact that it has a cardinal multifaceted impact on LA: on the formation and implementation of a functional system of styles in speech communication, on the functioning and share of individual styles, on their interaction with other varieties of LA, on the state of the system of norms, on the interaction of LA with colloquial speech, on the promotion to the core or retreat to the periphery of certain lexico-phraseological categories, grammatical variants and synonyms, on the activation of certain evolutionary processes, primarily in vocabulary, phraseology, word formation, orthoepy, to a lesser extent in LA syntax, on the system of figurative means of artistic speech, on national idioms, on the typology of literary texts, their compositional and speech organization.
LA in the context of the doctrine of the culture of speech acts as a central, fundamental category. It is a factual basis for observations of speech phenomena, trends in literary speech, speech communication in general, and for their study in the aspect of speech culture. In addition, to develop recommendations on the appropriate use of language tools in certain contexts and situations of communication, in certain types of texts and genres, in certain functional and communicative conditions and circumstances. At the same time, in the circle of attention of the culture of speech, along with normative units, the norms of their use, there are also extra-literary phenomena (elements of colloquial speech, barbarisms, foreign inclusions, occasionalisms, obvious mistakes, involuntary and deliberate, as well as unusual - violation of literary norms - use normative means) appearing in literary texts, oral and written, usually used for certain stylistic purposes, with a special functional task. All of them are considered from the standpoint of the motivation for their use, from the point of view of compliance with the established traditions of the national speech culture, enshrined in artistic, journalistic, scientific, and partly folklore texts, in the everyday speech of LA speakers.
The main feature of modern LA is the existence of uniform norms common to all members of the national community and covering both book and colloquial speech, i.e. all spheres of speech communication. The main principle of LA becomes the principle of communicative-stylistic expediency and relevance.
LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE (YHL).
The correlation of the concepts "Literary language" and "Language of fiction" is important, as they are often confused.
If the concepts of GL and LA are related as general and particular: the concept of LA is narrower than the concept of GL: LA is one of the systems of GL, along with systems of extraliterary means (dialects, vernacular, jargon), then the correlation of the concepts of LA and YCL is more complicated and multifaceted.
Historically, YCL is a broader concept in relation to the concept of LA, since LA was formed through the language of the works of A.S. Pushkin, that is, through YCL. Today, YAHL is one of the LA book styles, which makes the concept of LA broader.
In this regard, it is worth noting the following. LA and YAHL are intersecting concepts. They have a common zone (overlay zone) and autonomous segments. All other book styles (except artistic) and colloquial style become the autonomy of LA, while non-literary elements (dialects, jargons, vernacular) that have the right to exist in the fabric of works of art, the purpose of which is an aesthetic impact on the interlocutor (in LA) should be called the autonomy of YCL. their use is unlikely). For YHL, see Lecture 10.
Literature:Vinogradov 1955: Vinogradov V. V. Results of the discussion of stylistics issues // Linguistics Issues. 1955. No. 1; Zemskaya 2004: Zemskaya E. A. Literary colloquial language // Language as an activity: Morpheme. Word. Speech. - M.: Languages of Slavic culture, 2004. - 291-354; Krysin 2003: Krysin L.P. Social differentiation of the modern Russian national language system // Modern Russian language: Social and functional differentiation / Ros. academy of sciences. Institute of the Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradova. - M.: Languages of Slavic culture, 2003; Pekarskaya 2000: Pekarskaya I.V. Contamination in the context of the problem of systematic stylistic resources of the Russian language. Parts 1, 2. - Abakan: Publishing House of KhSU named after. N.F. Katanov, 2000; Christmas 2002: Rozhdestvensky Yu. V. Lectures on General Linguistics: Textbook. - M .: ICC "Akademkniga", LLC "Dobrosvet", 2002; Russian language 1979: Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ed. F. P. Filina. – M.: Modern Encyclopedia, 1979. Panov 1979: Panov M. V. On the literary language // Russian language in the national school. 1972. No. 1; Shmelev 1977: Shmelev D.N. Russian language in its functional varieties. M., 1977.
Literary language as a kind of national language
The culture of speech as a branch of linguistics
Language and society
Language as the main means of human communication exists only in a society of people. The connection between language and society is two-way: there is no language outside of society and there is no society without language. During the period of emergence and development of society, language contributed to the implementation of joint activities of people, etc.
Language is primarily a social phenomenon, so it cannot but be influenced by social factors. All changes in the social structure are reflected in the language. Any society is heterogeneous in its composition: people differ in their social status, level of education, place of residence, age, gender, etc. But the social differentiation of the language is not limited to this in the speech of people united by one profession, there are words that are incomprehensible to the uninitiated - professional jargon.
The science that studies the social stratification of language is sociolinguistics. Within its framework, linguistic variability, its causes and role in the process of language development are investigated. It has been established that the social status of a person largely depends on how much the norms characteristic of people of the corresponding circle are observed in his speech. To make a good impression, to succeed in business, it is necessary to know the features of the functioning of the language in society, as well as the norms inherent in each variety of language.
Common (or national) language- the language of a given people, taken in the totality of its inherent features that distinguish it from other languages.
Any national language is not uniform in its composition, since it is used by people who differ in their social status, occupation, level of culture, etc., and use it in different situations (business conversation, lecture, etc.). These differences are reflected in the varieties of the common language.
In each national language, the main varieties:
· literary language,
· territorial dialects,
· vernacular,
· jargon.
Literary language as a kind of national language
Literary language - the main means of communication between people of the same nationality . It is characterized by two main properties: processing and normalization.
Processedness literary language arises as a result of purposeful selection of all the best that is in the language.
normalization expressed in the fact that the use of linguistic means is regulated by a single universally binding norm. The norm as a set of rules of word usage is necessary to preserve the integrity and comprehensibility of the national language, to transfer information from one generation to another.
Unity and intelligibility − these are the basic requirements that a literary language must meet. Other varieties of the vernacular do not meet these requirements.
The modern Russian literary language is multifunctional and is used in various fields of human activity. In this regard, the means of the literary language (lexicon, grammatical constructions, etc.) are functionally delimited. The use of certain means depends on the type of communication. So The literary language is divided into two functional varieties: colloquial and bookish.. In accordance with this, there is colloquial speech and bookish language.
Colloquial speech used in informal situations. Main features:
Oral form of expression
Implementation predominantly in the form of a dialogue
Unpreparedness, unplanned, spontaneity
Direct contact between communicants.
The norm in colloquial speech is the result of a speech tradition, determined by the appropriateness of using an expression in a given situation. In oral colloquial speech, there are three styles of pronunciation:
1. Full style- distinct articulation, careful pronunciation of all sounds, unhurried pace.
2. neutral style- a fairly distinct articulation, but at the same time some reduction of sounds, a faster, average rate of speech.
3. Conversational style- characteristic of situations of communication in everyday life, in a relaxed atmosphere, fuzzy articulation, "swallowing sounds" and syllables, fast pace.
[now] - [now] - [right now].
Book language is the second functional variety of the literary language. The main features are a written form of expression and implementation mainly in the form of a monologue. The main property of the bookish language is to preserve the text and thus serve as a means of communication between generations. Since the bookish language serves different spheres of society, it is divided into functional styles.
Functional style is a kind of bookish language that is characteristic of a certain area of human activity and has a certain originality in the use of linguistic means.
Each functional style is realized in speech genres. Genre- a specific type of texts that have specific features that distinguish genres from each other, as well as commonality, which is due to the fact that certain groups of genres belong to the same functional style.
The scientific style is characterized abstraction, strict logic of presentation, a large number of special terms, certain syntax features. It uses bookish, special, stylistically neutral vocabulary. The following genres are distinguished: article, monograph, dissertation, textbook, review, review, abstract, etc.
Formal business style is distinguished by the accuracy of wording, impersonality and dryness of presentation, high standard, a large number of oral turns, clichés. Genres: law, resolution, note, agreement, instruction, announcement, complaint, etc.
Journalistic style primarily for the media. The specificity consists in the combination of two functions of the language: informational and propaganda. It is characterized by the use of expressive-evaluative vocabulary (along with neutral and general functional vocabulary), as well as phraseology. Genres: editorial, report, essay, reportage, feuilleton, etc.
Creatures-t yet the language of fiction. For artistic speech, it is characteristic that all language means can be used here: not only words and expressions of the literary language, but also elements of vernacular, jargon, territorial dialects (in the 3rd section of this manual, the issue will be discussed more fully).
National Russian language and its varieties
National language - the language of a particular nation.
Language as a means of communication within a nation, including the literary language and non-literary varieties of the language. The concept of the national language is broader than the literary language.
The literary language is the highest form of the national language. And the basis of the culture of speech.
Signs of the literary language that distinguish it from the forms of the national language:
1) normativity:
language norm - a system of rules for the use of language means. The norm covers all levels of the language system. There are orthoepic norms, that is, pronunciation, lexical, how to choose the right word to express thoughts, phraseological, grammatical (morphological and syntactic), spelling (spelling and punctuation), stylistic.
2) mandatory for all native speakers
The language must be generally accepted, and therefore generally understandable - this is the main property of the literary language, which in essence makes it literary.
3) codification
codification is a scientific description of norms, enshrined in grammars, reference books, dictionaries.
4) the relative stability of the rules, that is, historical stability, tradition.
5) availability of oral and written forms
6) the presence of functional styles in the language as part of the modern Russian literary language, six styles are distinguished:
1) scientific style;
2) official business;
3) artistic;
4) journalistic;
5) religious;
6) colloquial.
Non-literary varieties of the national language:
1) dialect (dialect or dialect) - the speech of the inhabitants of a certain region.
The vocabulary of the dialect gives an idea of the life of people, their occupations, clothes, food.
The grammatical features include the use of the preposition for instead of other prepositions. Pronoun forms are often incorrectly used in the Kuban dialect. The use of grammatical and phonetic dialectisms in speech indicates a low level of proficiency in the norms of the literary language.
As a rule, the dialect is not used by the entire population of the region, but mainly by the rural population.
2) vernacular is a non-literary form of a language, unlike dialects, it is unlimited territorially. It is characterized by deviation from literary norms at all levels of the language.
For example: in phonetics "tranway". The vernacular of the speaker is also indicated by some combinations of words: "no difference."
3) jargon is the speech of people of certain social or professional groups.
Youth
Student
Military
Athletes
The purpose of use is to psychologically and socially separate a certain circle of people from the rest. A special kind of youth jargon is student jargon: tail, scooter.
The lower classes of society have their own jargon - the declassed groups of society (homeless people). This vocabulary and phraseology has recently become widespread in society, which indicates a negative trend - the activation of jargon.
Professional jargon is manifested not only in special words, but also in special stress: sailors have a compass.
Jargon is acceptable in the circle of their own, in a homogeneous social environment. Jargon, dialect or vernacular is rarely used as a system, usually separate jargon, dialectisms and vernacular words are used in speech along with elements of the literary language.
There is a difference between the literary language and the national language. The national language appears in the form of a literary language, but not every literary language immediately becomes a national language. Each of the languages, if it is sufficiently developed, has two main functional varieties: the literary language and live colloquial speech. Every person masters live colloquial speech from early childhood - dialects, urban vernacular, youth and professional jargon, slang. The assimilation of a literary language occurs throughout the development of a person, right up to old age. The literary language should be generally understandable, that is, accessible to perception by all members of society. The literary language must be developed to such an extent that it can serve the main areas of human activity. In speech, it is important to observe the grammatical, lexical, orthoepic and accentological norms of the language. The national language is a system of several forms of language existence: the literary language (oral and written forms), the colloquial language (varieties of language and dialects). In the process of the formation of the national language, the relationship between the literary language and dialects changes significantly. The national literary language is a developing form that occupies a leading position, gradually replacing the dialects that dominated the early stages of language development, especially in the field of oral communication.
language norm. Norm functions. Kinds.
The language norm is a generally recognized exemplary, fixed in dictionaries, use of elements of the Russian language.
Norm functions.
1. Language protection function (helps the literary language maintain its integrity and intelligibility, protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech).
2. The function of reflecting the history of the language (the norms reflect what has developed in the language historically).
Types of norms
1. Orthoepic norms - it is a set of rules that establish uniform pronunciation.
2. Lexical norms are the rules for the use of words in accordance with their meanings and compatibility possibilities.
3. Morphological norms are the rules for the formation of words and word forms.
4. Syntactic norms These are the rules for constructing phrases and sentences.
5. Stylistic norms- these are the rules for choosing language means in accordance with the situation of communication.
6. Spelling norms- spelling rules.
7. Punctuation norms- punctuation rules.
8. Dynamism of norms. The concept of norm variance.
The constant development of the language leads to a change in literary norms. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago today may become a deviation from it. In the Russian language, grammatical norms, spelling and lexical norms are changing. An example of a change in stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialect and vernacular words. Each new generation relies on existing texts, stable turns of speech, ways of thinking. From the language of these texts, it chooses the most suitable words and turns of speech, takes from what was developed by previous generations what is relevant for itself, bringing its own to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations refuse what seems archaic, not consonant with the new manner of formulating thoughts, conveying their feelings, attitude to people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new perspectives of understanding.
Under the variance of the norm, we understand the existence of variant means in the synchronously considered literary norm.
orthoepic norms.
Orthoepic norms - it is a set of rules that establish uniform pronunciation. Orthoepy in the proper sense of the word indicates how certain sounds should be pronounced in certain phonetic positions, in certain combinations with other sounds, as well as in certain grammatical forms and groups of words, or even individual words, if these forms and words have their own pronunciation features.
Pronunciation of vowels.
In Russian speech, only vowels that are under stress are pronounced clearly: s[a]d, v[o]lk, d[o]m. Vowels that are in an unstressed position lose clarity and clarity.
· In an unstressed position (in all unstressed syllables, except for the first pre-stressed one) after hard consonants in place of the letter o pronounced briefly unclear sound, the pronunciation of which in different positions ranges from [s] to [a]. Conventionally, this sound is denoted by the letter [b].
After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of letters a, e, i pronounce sound, middle between [e] and [u]. Conventionally, this sound is indicated by the sign [and e].
· Vowel [and] after a solid consonant, preposition, or when the word is fused with the previous one, it is pronounced as [s].
Pronunciation of consonants.
The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants in Russian - stun and likeness.
· voiced consonants, standing before the deaf and at the end of words, are stunned.
· [G] pronounced like [X] in combinations of gk and gch.
Voiceless consonants before voiced ones are pronounced as their corresponding voiced ones.
· In the pronunciation of words with a combination of ch, there is a fluctuation, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation. According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination ch that's how it's usually pronounced [h], this is especially true for words of bookish origin, as well as for relatively new words. Chn is pronounced like [sn] in female patronymics on –ichna.
Some words with a combination of ch in accordance with the norm have a double pronunciation.
In some words, instead of h be pronounced [w].
The letter g in the endings -whoa-, -his- reads like [in].
final -tsya and -tsya verbs are pronounced like [tsa].
· Pronunciation of borrowed words.
· As a rule, borrowed words obey modern orthoepic norms and only in some cases differ in features in pronunciation. For example, the pronunciation of the sound [o] is sometimes preserved in unstressed syllables (m[o] del, [o] asis) and solid consonants before the vowel [e]: an [te] nna, ko [de] ks, ge [ne] tika ). In most borrowed words, the consonants are softened before [e].
· Variant pronunciation is allowed in the words: dean, therapy, claim, terror, track.
· Pay attention to for setting the accent. Stress in Russian is not fixed, it is mobile: in different grammatical forms of the same word, the stress can be different:
Morphological norms.
Morphological norms- these are the rules for using grammatical forms of different parts of speech. Morphological norms regulate morphology- a section of linguistics, which includes the doctrine of word forms and ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the doctrine of parts of speech and their features.
The morphological norm regulates word formation and inflection.
When morphological norms are violated, various speech errors occur. Examples of such violations are the use of words in a form that does not exist for them: shoes, theirs, victory, etc.
A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in an inappropriate context or in a non-existent form. For example: imported shampoo, railway rail, patent leather shoes, registered parcel post, lobster - lobster, mongoose - mongoose, sprat - sprat. Many difficulties and fluctuations in terms of morphology arise in the formation and use of various grammatical forms and categories of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs and verb forms.
1. Compoundly abbreviated words (abbreviations) formed by combining the first letters from the words of the full name determine their gender according to the gender of the leading word of the compound name. For example: CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States). The main word is commonwealth, which means an abbreviation of the middle gender. CIS arose…. ITAR (Information Telegraph Agency of Russia) is the main word agency, therefore they say: ITAR reported. However, sometimes in the minds of people, such words are associated with well-known ones by gender: if the ending is zero, then it is perceived as masculine. For example, Yulian Semenov titled his novel "TASS is authorized to announce." Or the housing office allowed ..., although the main word in the first example agency, in the second - office.
2. The gender of indeclinable nouns of foreign origin is defined as follows: if indeclinable nouns denote inanimate objects, they belong to the middle gender, except for the word coffee (coffee is masculine). For example: scarf, kimono, domino. If indeclinable words denote living beings, their gender depends on the gender of the latter: old frau, famous maestro, young croupier or young croupier. If they denote animals, birds, then they refer to the masculine gender, except when the female is meant: funny pony, huge chimpanzee. But chimpanzee feeding a baby.
The gender of nouns denoting geographical names is determined by the generic name: river, city, lake, island ( beautiful Capri, magnificent Sochi)
Indeclinable nouns that have a generic name in Russian correspond to the gender of the latter: salami- Well. R. (sausage), kohlrabi- f.r. (cabbage).
The names of the letters refer to words of the middle gender: Russian BUT, capital D; the name of the sounds - middle or masculine: unstressed BUT - unstressed BUT; Note names are neuter: long mi.
The gender of nouns formed as a result of the addition of two words is determined depending on the animateness and inanimateness of the name. In animate nouns, the gender is determined by the word indicating the gender of the person: female astronaut- female, miracle hero- m.r. For inanimate nouns, the gender is determined by the gender of the first word: museum-apartment- m.r., dressing gown- cf.. If a compound noun has an indeclinable word in its composition, then the gender is determined by the inflected noun: cafe-dining room- f.r. taxi car- m.r.
3. Proper name and norms of its use.
Among proper names there are a large number of invariable ones, and determining the gender of such words can be difficult. Immutable proper names include:
1) foreign nouns with a vowel stem. For example: Rabelais, Sochi. Ontario and etc.;
2) Ukrainian surnames ending in -ko: Matvienko, Sergienko, Shevchenko etc.;
3) Russian surnames ending in - s, - them, - ago, - ya
go, - ovo: Black, White, Durnovo, Zhivago, etc.;
4) Women's surnames with a basis in a consonant: Voynich, Perelman, Chernyak etc.;
6) names - abbreviations formed by adding the first letters: BSPU, Moscow State University, power lines.
syntactic rules.
Syntactic norms- these are norms that regulate the rules for constructing phrases and sentences. Along with morphological norms, grammatical norms are formed.
Syntactic norms regulate both the construction of individual phrases (attaching definitions, applications, additions to the main word), and the construction of entire sentences (word order in a sentence, subject and predicate agreement, the use of homogeneous members, participial and adverbial phrases, the connection between parts of a complex sentence) .
Order of words in a sentence
In Russian, word order in a sentence relatively free. The main one is the direct word order adopted in the neutral style: subject + predicate: students write lecture.
Changes in word order depend on the actual division of the sentence - the movement of thought from the known (theme) to the new (rheme). Compare: The editor read the manuscript. The editor has read the manuscript.
A change in word order is called an inversion. Inversion is a stylistic technique for highlighting individual members of a sentence by rearranging them. Usually inversion is used in works of art.
Difficult cases of agreement between subject and predicate
The relationship between subject and predicate is called coordination and is expressed in the fact that the subject and predicate are consistent in their general categories: gender, number. However, there are also difficult cases of coordination. Usually in such cases, the subject has a complex structure - it includes several words.
Coordination of definitions with the word being defined
1) Definition + counting turnover (= numeral + noun). What matters is the position the definition occupies!
Definition ahead of the countable turn: in the form of the Nominative case: recent two years, new five letters young three girls.
Definition within counting turnover: in the Genitive case for masculine and neuter nouns, and for feminine nouns - in the Nominative case: two recent years, five new letters, three young girls.
2) Homogeneous definitions + noun (denotes similar but separate objects):
a noun in the singular, if objects and phenomena are closely related in meaning or have a terminological character: In the right and left half Houses. Industrial and agricultural a crisis.
a noun in the plural, if you need to emphasize the difference between objects and phenomena: Biological and chemical faculties . Amateur and professional tournaments .
3) Definition + homogeneous nouns: the definition is in the singular or in the plural, depending on whether it refers in meaning to the nearest word or to the entire phrase: Russian literature and art. Capable student and student.
4). Definition + noun with attachment: the definition agrees with the main word (that is, with the noun): new laboratory car.
Coordination of applications with the word being defined
Applications have an additional meaning in relation to the noun (profession, status, occupation, age, nationality). For this reason, it is perceived as a single unit with the noun:
1) the application, which is written with a hyphen, is consistent with the word being defined: on the new sofa e-bed and .
2) appendices that are written separately from the defined word do not agree with the defined word: in the newspaper "Working Territory".
þ The norm related to the harmonization of geographical names is being changed. Today it is possible to coordinate with the word being defined Russian geographical names and names on -and I : In the city of Smolensk, in the village of Goryukhino, on the Volga River, in the Republic of India.
However, there is no such agreement in the case of foreign geographical names and astronomical names: In Texas, on Mount Elbrus, on the planet Venus.
Features of the use of homogeneous members
There are rules for constructing sentences with homogeneous members:
1) It is impossible to make words that are heterogeneous in meaning homogeneous members. Wrong: By that time he already had a young wife and big library .
2) It is impossible to make words with generic and specific meanings homogeneous members (only: genus → species!). Wrong: Release of equipment(generic concept), devices and instruments(species concept).
3) It is impossible to make lexically and grammatically incompatible words homogeneous members. Wrong: Wishes and conclusions expressed(only: Wishes are expressed and conclusions are drawn). Supervise and manage work(only: To supervise and supervise the works).
4) It is impossible to make grammatically and syntactically different words (different parts of speech, a word and part of a complex sentence) homogeneous members. Wrong: Books help us in our studies and generally learn a lot of new things.(only: Books help us in our studies, give us the opportunity to learn a lot of new things). Wrong: The dean talked about academic performance and that exams are starting soon(only: The dean talked about academic performance and exams that will be coming soon).
5) If there is a preposition before homogeneous members, it should be repeated before each homogeneous member: Information received as from official and from unofficial sources.
7. The use of participial and participial phrases
It is necessary to follow the rules for constructing sentences with participial and participle turnover:
1) The participial turnover should not include the word being defined. Wrong: Fulfilled plan plant(only: factory-made plan or factory-made plan).
2) Participles agree with the word being defined in the form of gender, number and case, and with the predicate in the form of time. Wrong: He went down the path paved his father(only: padded). Wrong: speaker with a closing speech, the speaker answered questions (only: speaker).
3) Participles cannot have the form of the future tense and cannot be combined with the particle by. Wrong: A student who is about to graduate. Wrong: Plans that would find leadership support.
þ If it is difficult to correct a sentence with a participial turnover, the sentence can be rebuilt in NGN with an attributive clause (with an allied word which).
1) The actions of the predicate and adverbial turnover are performed by one subject. Wrong: Passing the station, I flew off hat (only: when I drove up to the station, my hat fell off).
2) The adverbial turnover should not be attached to impersonal and passive constructions. Wrong: Opening the window, I It became cold(only: when I opened the window, I froze).
þ If it is difficult to correct a sentence with an adverbial turnover, the sentence can be restructured into NGN with an adverbial clause (with conjunctions when, if, because).
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Page creation date: 2016-02-13
ODA + features
the presence of a corpus of texts;
1) the presence of writing;
6) prevalence;
7) general usage;
8) general obligatoriness;
Literary and national language.
Comparison. Literary is included in the national
Non-literary forms of language, dialects.
The national language is a form of language that exists in the era of the nation.
The national language is a hierarchical integrity within which a regrouping of linguistic phenomena takes place.
National language:
· literary language:
written form (book);
oral form (colloquial);
non-literary forms:
territorial dialects;
social phraseological units;
Prison (argotic vocabulary);
vernacular;
jargon
A dialect is a means of communication between people united territorially (national language + ter. features).
Jargon is a social dialect that is distinguished by specific vocabulary, phraseology, expressive means, without affecting the phonetic and grammatical foundations. The main function is to express belonging to an autonomous social group. ( 18th - 19th century based on loanwords)
Slang ( from eng) is a set of special words or meanings of words, also used in various social groups, but with a short lifetime.
Argotic vocabulary is the language of any closed social group, which does not affect the phonetic and grammatical foundations.
Vernacular is a distorted, misused form of lit. language, i.e., in fact, a deviation from the literary language norm. (At all language levels) Opposes all other forms, because it distorts the lexical bases. The main features of vernacular: carelessness, loss of self-control, fuzzy articulation, the presence of erroneous forms, oversimplification. (oral speech is not the same as vernacular)
The history of the formation of the Russian literary language
Indo-European linguistic unity
Common Slavic 1500 BC - 400 AD
Old Russian language
Beginning of formation 14th century
The special role of the Church Slavonic language
Two elements:
Old Russian language (mostly without writing);
Church Slavonic (mostly bookish);
Many borrowings of different time and source.
A large number of dialects of the Old Russian language.
The Russian language was originally part of the East Slavic language (Old Russian), which was spoken by the East Slavic tribes that formed the Old Russian people within the Kyiv state in the 10th century. Over time (X1U - XV centuries) the Russian language stood out from the general group and formed as an independent language, along with Ukrainian and Belorussian with k and m.
The ancient Russian language (the common ancestor of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian) is reflected in the written monuments. Of the surviving and extant manuscripts, the earliest manuscript belongs to the 11th century (dated - 1057).
Until the XIV century. Old Russian existed as a common language of the ancestors of Ukrainians, Belarusians and Russians. The Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. This group includes Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. In addition to the eastern group, among the Slavic languages there is also a southern group (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian) and a western group of languages (Polish, Slovak, Czech and some other languages). All Slavic languages are closely related, have many common words, are significantly similar in grammar and phonetics. In the XIV century. there was a separation of this East Slavic language (in connection with the formation of the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian nation), and since then the Russian language of the Russian people has existed.
From Peter I to the XIX century - the normalization of the Russian language.
Stalinist normalization - Lomanosov.
Later: Ushakov, Vinogradov, Ozhegov...
One can detect the similarity of words in the Indo-European family of languages:
Russian language in the system of languages of the world
Map of language families
Genealogical and typological classifications
language families. Basque language isolated. Japanese isolated. RF (???)
In total, there are about 5,000 languages in the world.
Related languages are called languages that came out of the same “parent” language. All related languages descending from a common ancestor are called language family.
World languages:
· North Caucasian family of languages;
Indo-European family of languages:
Slavic group of languages:
West Slavic subgroup:
· Polish;
· Czech;
East Slavic subgroup:
· Ukrainian;
· Russian;
Belarusian
South Slavic subgroup:
· Bulgarian;
· Macedonian;
Basque family:
The Basque language
Chinese → Eastern language group → Sino-Tibetan language family
There are about 1000 dialects in the Papuan languages *trollface*
Japanese language isolated
Example: the word "house"
Russian language: house
Serbian: house
Polish language: dom
Journalistic style.
A distinctive feature of the journalistic style is considered to be the combination of the opposite in it: standard and expression, strict logic and emotionality, intelligibility and conciseness, informative richness and economy of language means.
The journalistic style is inherent in the periodical press, socio-political literature, political and judicial speeches, etc. It is used, as a rule, to highlight and discuss current problems and phenomena of the current life of society, to develop public opinion, which is formed in order to solve them. Let's make a reservation that the journalistic style exists not only in verbal (oral and written) form, but also in graphic, pictorial (poster, caricature), photo and cinematographic (documentary film, television) and other forms.
One of the central functions of the journalistic style of speech is the information function. Realizing it, this style performs another function - the impact on the reader and listener. It is associated with the public upholding of certain ideals, with the conviction of others in their justice and justification.
The journalistic style, in contrast to the scientific one, for example, is associated with simplicity and accessibility of presentation, often uses elements of appeal and declarativeness.
His verbal expressiveness is manifested in the desire for novelty of presentation, in attempts to use unusual, unhackneyed phrases, to avoid repetition of the same words, turns, constructions, to address the reader or listener directly, etc. Publicism is inherent in public accessibility, because it is intended for the widest audience. The stylistics of journalistic speech allows to implement the mass nature of communication.
Another important manifestation of journalistic style is the use of so-called intellectual speech. It is characterized by strict documentaryism, focusing on the accuracy, verification, objectivity of the facts presented. Such speech, as a rule, is replete with professional terminology, but the use of figurative, metaphorical terms is limited in it. She claims to be analytical and factual in the presentation of the material. The author of the speech seeks to draw attention to the significance of the facts cited, the information published, highlights the nominal, personal, personal nature of the speech. In a word, the stylistic core of intellectual speech is its emphasized documentary and factual accuracy.
The most important role in the journalistic style of speech is played by emotional means of expression. Among them - the use of words with a bright emotional coloring, the use of figurative meanings of words, the use of various figurative means. Epithets, lexical repetitions, comparisons, metaphors, appeals, rhetorical questions are widely used. Proverbs, sayings, colloquial turns of speech, phraseological units, the use of literary images, the possibilities of humor and satire also act as means of emotional expressiveness. Emotional linguistic means act in a journalistic style, combined with figurativeness, logic, evidence.
Art style
The artistic style of speech is distinguished by figurativeness, the wide use of figurative and expressive means of the language. In addition to its typical linguistic means, it uses the means of all other styles, especially colloquial. In the language of fiction, vernacular and dialectisms, words of a high, poetic style, jargon, rude words, professionally business turns of speech, journalism can be used. HOWEVER, ALL THESE MEANS IN the artistic style of speech ARE SUBJECT TO ITS MAIN FUNCTION - AESTHETIC.
If the colloquial style of speech performs primarily the function of communication, (communicative), scientific and official-business function of the message (informative), then the artistic style of speech is intended to create artistic, poetic images, emotional and aesthetic impact. All linguistic means included in a work of art change their primary function, obey the tasks of a given artistic style.
In literature, language occupies a special position, since it is that building material, that matter perceived by ear or sight, without which a work cannot be created. The artist of the word - the poet, the writer - finds, in the words of L. Tolstoy, "the only necessary placement of the only necessary words" in order to correctly, accurately, figuratively express an idea, convey the plot, character, make the reader empathize with the heroes of the work, enter the world created by the author.
All this is accessible ONLY to the LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE, therefore it has always been considered the pinnacle of the literary language. The best in language, its strongest possibilities and the rarest beauty - in the works of fiction, and all this is achieved by the artistic means of the language.
The means of artistic expression are varied and numerous. You are already familiar with many of them. These are such tropes as epithets, comparisons, metaphors, hyperbole, etc. Tropes - a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to our consciousness to be close in some way. The most common types of tropes are allegory, hyperbole, irony, litote, metaphor, metomia, personification, paraphrase, synecdoche, simile, epithet.
For example: What are you howling about, the night wind, what are you complaining about insanely - personification. All flags will visit us - synecdoche. A man with a fingernail, a boy with a finger - litote. Well, eat a plate, my dear - metonymy, etc.
The expressive means of the language also include STYLISTIC FIGURES of speech or simply figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion, multi-union, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora. The means of artistic expression also include rhythm (poetry and prose), rhyme, and intonation.
Each author has his own unique author's style. For example, when publishing classical literary works, the author's neologisms and even obvious grammatical and spelling mistakes of the author are often preserved to convey the author's style as fully as possible. Sometimes later they even become a new literary norm.
Conversational style
The colloquial style is mostly spoken, but can also be recorded.
Conversational style features:
Vocabulary is neutral, specific-subject;
a large place is occupied by expressive, emotionally colored words;
folk phraseology;
Abstract nouns are uncharacteristic;
almost no participles and participles are used;
Simplified syntax: sentences are usually simple, often incomplete;
word order is free, inversion is easily allowed;
intonation with a clearly noticeable transition from rising to falling;
At the same time, colloquial speech is open to various intrusions, including foreign ones. So, a purely colloquial word, like “to act up” and a term, coexists in it. In a conversational style, you can also talk about a business topic, if it is appropriate for the conditions of communication (for example, if friends are talking). The conversational style is not completely homogeneous: it can be neutral speech, colloquial business and familiar. With all the freedom of colloquial style, it still remains the style of the literary language, that is, it does not go beyond the limits of the language norm. Therefore, it has no place for vernacular and other types of profanity.
Successful colloquial speech prevents conflicts, greatly contributes to the adoption of optimal decisions, the establishment of the desired moral climate in the family and the team.
We emphasize that the colloquial (colloquial-everyday) style fully performs the function of communication. Along with the domestic environment, it is also most widely used in the professional field. In everyday life, the conversational style is manifested both in oral and written form (notes, private letters), in the professional sphere - mainly in oral form.
The everyday situation of communication, especially dialogic, is characterized by an emotional, primarily evaluative reaction. Such communication is characterized by the unity of its verbal and non-verbal manifestations.
The conversational style is also characterized by a sensually specific nature of speech, the absence of strict logic and inconsistency of presentation, discontinuity, the predominance of emotional and evaluative information content, frequent manifestations of violent expression, and the personal nature of speech. All this, of course, has a tangible effect on the functioning of the language units that serve the colloquial style, i.e. on the general direction of their use.
The colloquial style is inherent in the active operation of lexical, syntactic and grammatical synonyms (words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning; constructions that match in meaning).
Literary language. Its main features.
ODA + features
The literary language is an exemplary, standard, codified, processed form of the national language:
the presence of a corpus of texts;
processing and codification;
universal nature of use;
stylistic differentiation;
Literary language is the national language of writing, the language of official and business documents, school education, written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form (written and sometimes oral), perceived by native speakers of this language as exemplary. Literary language is the language of literature in the broadest sense. The Russian literary language functions both in oral form and in written form.
Signs of literary language:
1) the presence of writing;
2) normalization is a fairly stable way of expression that expresses the historically established patterns of development of the Russian literary language. Normalization is based on the language system and is fixed in the best examples of literary works. This mode of expression is preferred by the educated part of society;
3) codification, i.e. fixation in the scientific literature; this is expressed in the presence of grammatical dictionaries and other books containing the rules for using the language;
4) stylistic diversity, i.e. variety of functional styles of literary language;
5) relative stability;
6) prevalence;
7) general usage;
8) general obligatoriness;
9) compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system.
The protection of the literary language and its norms is one of the main tasks of the culture of speech. Literary language unites the people in terms of language. The leading role in the creation of the literary language belongs to the most advanced part of society.
The literary language must be generally understandable, i.e. accessible to all members of society. The literary language must be developed to such an extent that it can serve the main areas of human activity. In speech, it is important to follow the rules of the language. Based on this, an important task of linguists is to consider everything new in the literary language from the point of view of compliance with the general laws of the development of the language and the optimal conditions for its functioning.
