Types of teaching aids and their characteristics

Means of education.

1. Teaching aids and their classification. Teaching aids, or didactic aids, are the various objects used by the teacher and students in the learning process. To material objects include material objects that directly affect the senses of students and facilitate the process of direct and indirect knowledge: textbooks; allowances; models; tables; visual aids; educational equipment; furniture; rooms, etc. To ideal objects include symbolic, verbal, model substitutes for material objects, as well as acquired knowledge, skills, social experience, i.e. means of spiritual culture that are used in the educational process. For example, to ideal objects L.S. Vygotsky attributed such teaching aids as speech, writing, symbols, works of art, etc. These also include the well-known reference signals and reference notes by V.F. Shatalova.

The objects of spiritual culture as ideal objects are very important for learning. In the process of educational cognition, they allow students to push off from material objects and, through external speech, move into inner speech, and from it to thinking. The use of such ideal objects as symbols and signs is an indicator of the development of students' thinking. With the help of signs and symbols, the student mentally transforms the object of study, transfers it to the mental sphere, thereby carrying out the process of cognition. On the other hand, mental images and operations are materialized through signs, so the use of sign-symbolic means provides an important relationship between the subject of study, its sign (symbol) and thinking for the process of educational cognition and mental development of the child.

Learning tools perform the following functions:

1) cognitive(learning tools serve to direct knowledge of reality; provide the transfer of more accurate and complete information about the object or phenomenon being studied; allow you to observe objects and phenomena that are not available or difficult to directly observe with the help of the senses. For example, a school microscope and a telescope allow you to see objects that are not available to the naked eye);

2) forming ( teaching aids form or develop cognitive abilities, feelings and will of students, their emotional sphere);

3) didactic ( teaching aids are an important source of knowledge and skills, facilitate the verification and consolidation of educational material, activate cognitive activity, intensify learning activity).

All these functions are mutually intertwined and act in the educational process in an organic unity, complementing each other.

The choice of teaching aids is determined the purpose and objectives of the lesson, the content of the educational material (its nature, degree of difficulty, volume, etc.), the methods of teaching used, the didactic and methodological competence of the teacher, the material support of education. At the same time, a novice teacher should keep in mind that overloading a lesson with visualization, a variety of teaching aids, especially technical ones, leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of the learning process by distracting students' attention, diverting them to secondary and related details.
Teaching aids are conditionally divided into teaching aids and teaching aids. To means of teaching self-learning tools are also included, for example, various self-instruction books, popular science literature, literature for extracurricular reading, do-it-yourself constructors, etc. However, this division is conditional, since many of them are used both in learning and in teaching. In modern didactics, more and more attention is paid to the means of teaching, as they largely determine the effectiveness of training. A great effect is obtained by such an organized educational activity, during which the teacher, together with the students, construct the necessary means of education. For example, during the lesson, when solving a problem, a general algorithm of actions is developed, which is then recorded in the form of notes on a poster, in a notebook and used in solving problems of this type. This approach contributes to improving the quality of knowledge, effective mental development of students.

There are several classifications of teaching aids..

By the nature of the impact on trainees teaching aids are systematized as:

Visual - objects, layouts, maps, filmstrips, slides, etc.;

Auditory (sound) - tape recorder, player, radio, etc.;

Audiovisual - television, movies.
By degree of difficulty teaching aids are divided into simple and

complex. To simple teaching aids include: textbooks, printed manuals, maps, pictures, diagrams, models, original objects, etc. To difficult- technical teaching aids: mechanical visual aids, auditory, audiovisual, language laboratories, didactic machines, computers, etc.

By origin learning tools are grouped as follows:

Natural, natural remedies - objects taken directly from reality itself (collections of stones, plants, etc.);

Symbolic means - they represent reality with the help of symbols, signs (drawings, diagrams, maps, graphs, living and printed word, etc.);

Technical means - visual, auditory and audiovisual means (models, language laboratories, didactic machines, computers, etc.).

The above classifications are rather conditional. The use of this or that classification is necessary from the point of view of the didactic description of the learning process.

Types of teaching aids and their characteristics

Verbal teaching aids known for a long time.

However, the effectiveness of their use is low, which was also noted by Ya.A. Comenius in the 17th century Onge suggested didachography(training letter) - the combination of verbal means and a textbook, which made it possible to increase the effectiveness of learning by including students in cognitive activities with a variety of use of a textbook. Then came visual instruction based on the folk wisdom “it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times.” Now in the organization of training use active | approach - "it is better to do an action once than to see how it is done a hundred times." Nevertheless, verbal means remain the main tool in the teacher's arsenal, although electronic textbooks have now appeared. The spoken word, the teacher's speech is the main tool for communication, knowledge transfer, and feedback. High demands are placed on the teacher's speech: it must be a model for students who are very sensitive to the technique of speech and especially to its shortcomings. The complexity of speech should be close to the level of development of students, but at the same time not be too academic.

Verbal communication provides not only the transfer of knowledge, but is also a means of managing cognitive activity. The logically correct construction of speech ensures the understanding and assimilation of educational material. In the speech of the teacher, his intellect, his pedagogical skill is manifested. Pupils feel in the speech of the teacher his attitude towards them and to the subject. Through speech, the teacher can control the emotions of students, excite and maintain cognitive interest in the lesson. All this is possible when the teacher not only owns the technique of speech, but he knows his subject deeply, has original thinking, and is an original personality.

On the other hand, as L.S. Vygotsky, speech
cares about the transition from word to thought and from thought to word, therefore
is the basis of thought. The process of thinking outwardly
appears in speech.

To visual aids relate:

natural objects and objects both in natural and in

Artificial environment (original items, devices, herbariums, collections, etc.);

Maps, diagrams, diagrams, models, road signs, mathematical symbols, visual aids, etc.;

Filmstrips, transparencies, codolents, films, video films;

The use of visual means makes it possible to connect mental and sensory cognition, to correlate the content of the work of the mind with reality. Mental cognition based on speech and thinking makes sense to the extent that it is associated with the objects and phenomena being studied, therefore, the use of visual aids in teaching is very important.

In some cases, visual aids are indispensable, as they allow to show inaccessible phenomena and processes or to visually reveal their features, for example, fast processes.

The use of visual aids in the classroom should be organized in accordance with the laws of learning. They should correspond to the content of the educational material, be clearly visible, arouse cognitive interest. Demonstrations are subject to certain requirements. Items displayed on the blackboard or teacher's table should be of sufficient size for good visibility even from the last seats. For small objects, various types of projections, optical magnification are used, or alternate observation is organized with the call of students to the demonstration table. During the demonstration, the teacher should choose a position facing the class in order to see the reaction of the students. When showing, you should not stand with your back to the students and block what is being demonstrated, otherwise there may be errors in the presentation of the material by students, violations of discipline. The number and volume of demonstrations should be optimal: a lack of visibility reduces the quality of education, and an excess - satiates students, scatters their attention, tires, reduces the degree of cognitive interest and activity.

A wide variety of teaching aids are used in the educational process, however, there is a mandatory list of them for all subjects, which is set out in the "Typical list of visual aids and educational equipment" published by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation for schools.

Teaching aids (TUT) are devices and technical devices used in the learning process (a slide projector, a code positive, a movie camera, etc.). They use didactic material, which includes filmstrips, slides, a video film, computer disks with educational programs, educational films, magnetic recordings, etc.

The role of TCO: TCO increase the productivity of knowledge assimilation, the efficiency and quality of training, and contribute to the expansion of the range of teaching aids used. In a number of cases, TSCs are indispensable, as they allow showing inaccessible phenomena, processes, objects, showing fast processes, etc. (For example, an educational film about the splitting of a molecule). TCO make learning lively, meaningful and interesting, allow you to diversify the forms and methods of classroom and extracurricular work.

Technical aids do not replace other training aids. They should not be used where they can be dispensed with (for example, to conduct experiments or direct observations). They only supplement and develop these observations. Technical teaching aids are only the material support of certain methods and methods of work, therefore it makes sense to talk about the effectiveness of certain methods and teaching methods using technical means.

Technical means intensify the educational process, free the teacher from the purely technical, routine part, reduce fatigue, and have an educational effect on students. They can be used as means of: information transfer; diagnostics and control of knowledge; individual information space; simulator; polyvisibility; working tool; equipping classrooms - blackboards, TSO remote control systems, etc.; a combined tool that performs several functions (language laboratories, closed-circuit television systems, computer classes, etc.).

Methodology for using TCO in the educational process has been developed in all private methods, however, we note some didactic features that affect the effectiveness of their application.

When using TCO, it is necessary:

Preliminary briefing and assignment of tasks (possibly of a problematic nature) to students;

Compliance with the measures in the use of TCO (without replacing them with other means of training);

Demonstration of video material in parts (portions), since the student can naturally experience the manifestation of the threshold of perception of educational material;

The indispensable provision of pauses in watching the film for the gradual completion of the task by the students on the film;

Mandatory return to the tasks by students after watching the video;

Compliance sanitary and hygienic standards: in relation to the duration of their use in the lesson, (in the lower grades, the recommended duration is no more than 10 minutes, i.e. one part of the film is 120 m long, in the upper grades - no more than 30 minutes); regarding the technical parameters of the instruments used and the quality of the demonstration (in particular the size and brightness of the image on the screen). For example, for eye perception it is considered optimal that the size of the image on the screen is approximately 1/5 of the distance from the screen to the last row of students.

It is possible to use such a teaching technique: in the next lesson, a fragment of the educational film is shown with the sound turned off, and the commentary is given by the called student.

Typical mistakes when using TCO: long screen display of various drawings, photographs, diagrams, designs, drawings and even formulas and definitions; students' notes while watching the film; ignoring sanitary and hygienic standards; pedagogically inappropriate choice of using TSO, etc.

Modern information teaching aids. In modern conditions, an increasing role in the information support of the learning process is given to personal computers, which provided the informatization of learning, made it possible to create new information technologies of education.

Usage personal computers is becoming more and more widespread in education. Modern personal computers are multimedia: they allow you to display a color dynamic image with stereo sound. There are a wide variety of computer-based tutorials available for most school subjects. The best of them are branched and adapt to the student's level of learning, offering different levels of difficulty (usually three) when going through the educational material.

Modern computers and telecommunication networks promote quick and wide access of students to information stored on different media in different parts of the world, in libraries, electronic archives, reference books, encyclopedias and databases. With the help of the Internet and a system of hyperlinks, students can receive information from any computer and databases in real time, for example, in a geography lesson, “look” into different parts of the globe and even see what the weather is like there. All this greatly expands the possibilities of the teacher and students in the educational process.

Computer software is constantly being improved, which now allows even poorly trained users to create the simplest control and training programs. The simplest presentations of various information on a computer are now being created in the classroom even by high school students, using application programs for creating presentations included in the standard set of personal computer software.

Worth it the question of sanitary and hygienic standards applications in teaching computers - in this direction, additional research is to be done by hygienists and teachers. For example, the duration of work on a computer for elementary school students should not exceed 10 minutes per lesson, and in middle and high school - 30 minutes.

Teaching aids are rapidly improving, appear fundamentally new. A conventional overhead projector has now become portable and, when folded, has a thickness of less than 10 cm. Now, instead of a transparent film with an image, a liquid crystal panel is placed on the overhead screen, connected to a computer or video recorder. This allows you to display bright computer and video images on a large screen.

Quite common have become electronic projectors, or, as they are also called, multimedia projectors that connect to a personal computer (usually a laptop) and allow bright, high-resolution color dynamic computer images to be displayed in darkened classrooms. They are equipped with zoom lenses that allow you to change the size of the image on the screen without changing the location of the projector. Some projector models include a built-in audio system (speaker and speakers). Such a projector can even be attached to the ceiling, which allows you not to take up additional space and not interfere with the view of the audience. You can connect not only a computer to such a projector, but also a VCR, camcorder, laser disc player.

Of great interest are electronic copy boards. Such boards look like ordinary white boards. Everything that the teacher writes on its surface is instantly transferred to a personal computer and can be stored in its memory or printed on a regular printer. The inscriptions on the board can be made with special colored markers, and copies can be printed on a color printer.

In addition to electronic copy boards, allowing to issue a paper copy on special thermal paper. By simply pressing one button on the device built into the board, the written information can be printed out and distributed to the audience. Some models of such boards have two or more working surfaces, so you can prepare drawings on one side in advance, and then, effectively pressing a button, quickly change and demonstrate them. The whiteboard surface can also be used as a normal screen.

The blackboard known to us for more than one century has undergone a major change: it now has a magnetic surface and has become light, they write on it not with chalk at all, but with multi-colored felt-tip pens, the writing is erased not with a rag, but with a wet sponge.

Instead of ordinary blackboards, in many cases so-called lecture blocks (or flipchat). They are small portable boards that resemble a large notebook with legs. A paper block is used for writing, and the sheets used are simply turned over. Advantages of lecture blocks - you can always return to previously written text and drawings, or prepare the necessary illustrations in advance. Some lecture blocks have retractable crossbars on which previous sheets can be hung.

1. The concept of teaching aids

2. Simple means

3. Complicated means

4. Informatization of general secondary education

5. Computers in education

The concept of teaching aids

Means of education - these are various materials and tools of the educational process, thanks to which a certain goal of learning is achieved more successfully and in a short time.

The teaching aids include: textbooks, teaching aids, didactic materials, technical means (TCO), equipment, machine tools, classrooms, laboratories, computers, TV and other mass media. The means of learning can also be real objects, production, structures.

Didactic means, as well as methods, organizational forms, is part of the pedagogical system. They perform the following main functions: information, assimilation of new material, control. The choice of teaching aids depends on the didactic concepts of the goal, content, methods, forms and conditions of the educational process.

In pedagogy, there is no generally accepted classification of didactic means. We use the classification of the Polish didact V. Okon, in which teaching aids are arranged as the ability to replace the actions of the teacher and automate the actions of the student increases.

Simple means. 1. Verbal: textbooks, teaching aids, etc. 2. Visual means: real objects, models, paintings, etc.

Complex means. 1. Mechanical visual devices: diascopies, microscope, codoscope and others. 2. Auditory means: player, tape recorder, radio. 3. Audiovisual: sound film, television, video. 4. Tools that automate the learning process: language classrooms, computers, information systems, telecommunications networks.

Simple means

Simple verbal and visual (visual) teaching aids have a long history. The main ones are textbooks, teaching aids.

Textbook - This is an educational book that reflects in detail the content of education, educational information to be mastered. He conveys this information not only in the form of text, but also in photographs, drawings, diagrams.

The second no less important function of the textbook is the function of managing the cognitive activity of students. The apparatus for organizing the assimilation of educational material consists of two parts: auxiliary knowledge, which is included in the main educational material, and tasks, exercises, questions, and other things that should ensure the process of assimilation of knowledge. That is why scientists interpret the textbook as an information model of learning, as a kind of scenario of the educational process, which reflects the theory and methodology of the learning process. It is from these positions that the textbook should reflect the purpose and content of education, determine the system of cognitive actions with the material, organizational forms of education and methods of control.

Simple visual aids (visual aids) help the full disclosure and assimilation of the content of educational material. Sometimes they serve as an independent source of information.

The main function of visual aids is illustration, assistance in the most complete, deep understanding and perception of an object or phenomenon.

Visual aids used in the learning process are divided into two types:

1) the image of objects and phenomena,

2) the objects themselves, layouts, models, act.

The first type includes diagrams, diagrams, drawings, paintings, reproductions, drawings, photographs, maps, globes, notes. These tools are used when the objects, phenomena, processes that are studied in the classroom cannot be directly demonstrated. For example, when teaching geography, students cannot be directly shown the desert, the ocean, the mountains, the volcano, if they are not nearby; when teaching history - various types of socio-economic formations; when teaching literature - the personality of the writer, etc. In such cases, students are introduced to objects, phenomena, processes not directly, but with the help of images.

The second type includes real objects: live or dried plants, live or preserved animals, herbariums, collections, devices, tools, devices, products, any production, models (for example, a motor, a steam engine), layouts, and active ones (for example, plastic reproduction of the earth's surface, terrain).

The objective need to use visual aids in the learning process is due to their great influence on the process of understanding and memorization: during a research test of the effectiveness of tempo memorization, it was found that 15% of information is assimilated with auditory perception, 25% with visual perception, and in the complex, that is, with visual and auditory at the same time, -65%.

Studies by physiologists have shown that a person receives 80% of information through a visual analyzer. The bandwidth of the channels for receiving and processing information along the "ear-brain" line is 50,000 bps, and along the "eye-brain" line - 50,000,000 bps.

These data allow us to conclude that it is necessary for the teacher to combine verbal and non-verbal (visual, visual) teaching methods.

Pedagogical means are called material objects intended for the organization and implementation of the pedagogical process (according to L.D. Stolyarenko). Respectively means of education- subject support of the educational process. These are objects that in the educational process act as sensorimotor stimuli that affect the sense organs of students and facilitate their direct or indirect knowledge of the world (V.A. Slastenin). Teaching aids include educational and visual aids, demonstration devices, technical means, educational and laboratory and educational and production equipment, automated learning systems, computer classes, organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, exam tickets, task cards, etc.).

Didactic tools perform motivational, informational, optimization functions and the function of managing the learning process(R. Fusch, K. Krol) These functions most often act together, while at certain stages of learning, any of them may be dominant.

Didactic tools are divided into funds for teachers and students. The first are objects used by the teacher to more effectively achieve the goals of education. The second is the individual means of students, with the help of which they carry out educational and cognitive activities (textbooks and teaching aids, stationery, etc.).

There are various classifications of teaching aids. Consider a classification based on sensory modality (see Diagram 46).

Scheme 46

· visual aids– original items or their various equivalents; among them are natural (nature, real objects), volumetric (models, geometric bodies, models of various objects), pictorial (maps, photographs, paintings), symbolic (drawings, illustrations), graphic (graphs, diagrams, tables, charts, drawings etc.) means.

· Auditory means radios, tape recorders, musical instruments, etc.

· Audiovisual - film and video equipment, computers.

Didactic tools become a valuable element of the learning process when they are used in close connection with its other components. The selection of didactic tools depends on the material base of the school, the goals of the lesson, the planned methods of educational work, the age of the students, and the characteristics of individual subjects.

It should be noted that the concept of "means of learning" has a broader meaning. In this case, learning means is understood as everything that contributes to the achievement of the goals of education: a set of forms, methods, content of education and special didactic means. The classification of teaching aids in this sense is presented in Table 12 (according to B.B. Aismontas).

Simple verbal and visual (visual) teaching aids have an ancient history. Learning tools are a source of knowledge acquisition, skills formation. These include visual aids, textbooks, didactic materials, technical means (TCO), equipment, machine tools, classrooms, laboratories, computers, TV and other mass media.

Real objects, production processes, structures can act as learning tools. Didactic means, as well as methods, are one of the main elements of the didactic system and play a leading role in it. The choice of teaching aids depends not only on the didactic concept, goals, content, methods and conditions of the educational process, but also on the specific historical time in which learning takes place. The main functions of teaching aids are didactic, informational and control.

There is no strict classification of didactic means in science. You can use the classification of the Polish didact V. Okon, in which the means are arranged in order of increasing ability to replace the actions of the teacher and activate the actions of the student both in the direction of their automation and in the direction of individualization (Table 3.10).

Table 3.10

Classification of didactic teaching aids (but V. Okonyu)

Among the complex means (TSO) the 3rd, 4th, 5th groups represent mechanical and electrical devices. The teacher is required to know their capabilities and the method of their application in the study of their subject. TV and video equipment as didactic means have great potential not only in demonstrating material, but also in organizing a fundamentally different type of teaching. However, the didactic aspects of the use of complex electronic systems have not yet been sufficiently studied, and this process is especially difficult due to their rapid increase and complication in their use, primarily by teachers of the older generation.

Η. M. Shakhmaev compiled a more extensive classification of groups of teaching aids based on the allocation of their specific characteristics (Table 3.11).

Table 3.11

Classification of teaching aids (according to Η. M. Shakhmaev)

1. Objects environmental	In natural or specially prepared form for teaching purposes: live and dried plants, samples of rocks, soils and minerals, machines and their parts, etc.
2. Operating models	Various machines, mechanisms, devices, structures, etc.
3. Models and models	Natural objects: plants and fruits, organisms and individual organs; technical installations and structures, etc.
4. Instruments and fixtures	Educational devices, modern devices (household and industrial) for educational experiments
5. Graphic tools	Products of graphic activity: paintings, drawings, geographical maps, diagrams, etc.
6. Control devices	Measuring instruments, including for the knowledge and skills of students
7. Technical means are also allocated	All teaching aids based on audio, video or complex technologies: overhead and epi projectors, overhead projectors, film and video equipment, computer equipment

A closer look at the visual characteristics allows us to highlight their common property - an increase in their visual component. So, almost all teaching aids, identified in both the first and second classifications, have the main function of visual aids - the demonstrative ability of phenomena and processes carried out with an increasingly tangible reality. Thus, it became possible to demonstrate such real objects that were previously reproduced only by the individual visual ability of the imagination.

Today, the possibility is rapidly increasing with the help of new visual technologies to present not only any real production, an object where an excursion is possible, but also virtual models of their possible future transformation. Even the vast majority of familiar visual aids - models, layouts, drawings, diagrams and maps - acquire new qualities of inclusion in interactive activities based on the acquisition of new visual properties in the conditions of their replication using modern multimedia technologies. Therefore, the main task of using teaching aids to provide the best conditions for perceiving information and stimulating learning activities requires a new understanding and application technology.

In modern didactics, another, sixth, group is distinguished - computer teaching aids. The sixth group of teaching aids, according to V. Okon, is a complex electronic devices and telecommunications networks. The development of informatics, the creation and rapid progress of modern computer systems based on the development of their material base gave impetus to the informatization of education and gave rise to a direction in science - pedagogical informatics. The informatization of education is part of the informatization of society, a process that has taken on the character of an information explosion or revolution since the middle of the 20th century, which gives grounds to characterize modern society as a society of information production. This means that in all spheres of human activity the role of information processes is growing, the need for information and the means for its production, processing, storage and use is increasing. Information becomes a scientific and philosophical category along with such categories as time, energy, matter.

The growing need for information and the increase in the flow of information in human activity leads to the emergence of new information technologies ( ICT ), in which traditional media (paper, film) are used less and less, giving way to the use of electronic means for working with information. The penetration of new information technologies into education makes us look at the didactic process as an information one, in which students receive information, process it and use it in a different way. You should know that new information technologies in education include three components: technical devices, software and educational support. Modern technical devices, in addition to a computer, include a printer, modem, scanner, television and video equipment, devices for converting information from one form to another, etc. Since the computer is the basis of information technology, informatization of education is often understood as computerization of education, i.e. . the use of a computer as a learning tool, and more broadly - as a multi-purpose use of a computer in the educational process based on the use of countless different types of electronic multimedia publications (Table 3.12).

Table 3.12

Types of electronic multimedia publications

Electronic	Textbooks, encyclopedias, reference books
Electronic catalogs	Drawings, photos, thematic illustrations. Models, videos, as well as tables, diagrams, presentations
Electronic libraries	Catalogs and collections of electronic versions of printed publications
E-learning environments	A complex of means of teaching influence as a motivation for learning: presentation of material, working out, control. The interactive nature of learning and the variability of its methods in their two varieties: scenarios and modeling learning environments
Electronic interactive learning tools	Simulators, tests - training programs, training systems

The second component of information technology are programs that manage the work on the computer, serving this work.

The third and most important component of information technology from the standpoint of didactics is educational support. This is, in fact, a special class of programs - training programs, training systems. Actually, they set, define the process, technology of computer training. They are constantly being improved by specialists. Currently, there are databases and data banks, hypertext systems created specifically for educational purposes. Among the training systems, the following are most common: for training skills and abilities, training; for the formation of knowledge, including scientific concepts; problem-based learning programs; simulation and modeling programs; didactic games.

Thus, the informatization of education leads, as was said, to a change in the essential aspects of the didactic process. The activity of the teacher and the student is changing, turning each lesson into a lesson-dialogue: teacher and student, student and student, student and educational material, information and knowledge, etc. (Fig. 3.21).

The student can operate with a large amount of various information, integrate it, has the ability to automate its processing, model

Rice. 3.21.

processes and solve problems, be independent in learning activities and much more. The teacher is also freed from routine operations, gets the opportunity to diagnose students, monitor the dynamics of learning and student development (Fig. 3.22).

Rice. 3.22.

It should be said, however, that the mass of teachers, despite the rapid development of information technology, is not ready for the transition from the classroom form of education and from explanatory traditional education to the use of information technology in education. Electronic technology is still used mainly as an aid to learning. To a certain extent, teachers are right: the computer and new information technologies will gradually change the didactic process and will not completely replace traditional teaching technologies. Nevertheless, the development of information technologies should become an integral characteristic of the modern educational process, since new generations of students grow up in new conditions, the main characteristic of which is the comprehensive informatization and computerization of the educational environment.

Teaching aids in pedagogy are all the materials that the teacher uses to carry out the educational process. Together with the living word of the teacher, they are an important component of the educational process, as well as an element of the educational and material base of the educational institution. Acting as an important component of the educational process, teaching aids also influence other components, such as methods, forms, content and goals.

Classification of teaching aids

Teaching aids in pedagogy are divided into ideal and material. Ideal means- these are previously acquired skills and knowledge that the teacher and students use to obtain and master new knowledge. material are physical objects that are used by students and the teacher for detailed learning. If we talk about the subject of activity, then all teaching aids can be conditionally divided into teaching aids (used more often by students, less often by teachers) and teaching aids (used in most cases by a teacher). In turn, ideal and material means are divided into:

· Printed aids - pictures, graphics, textbooks, tables, etc.

· Volumetric aids - models, devices, collections, devices, etc.

· Projection material – video films, slides, movies.

Modern typology classifies teaching aids in pedagogy as follows:

Printed - books for reading, textbooks, teaching aids, anthologies, workbooks, handouts, atlases, etc.

Visual planar - wall maps, magnetic boards, posters, wall illustrations.

Demonstration - models, stands, herbariums, sectional models, dummies, etc.

· Electronic educational resources - multimedia textbooks and universal encyclopedias, network educational resources, etc.

· Audiovisual - slides, educational videos, educational films, including on digital media, etc.

· Teaching instruments – flasks, barometer, compass, etc.

· Sports equipment - simulators, gymnastic equipment, balls, sports equipment, etc.

· Educational equipment – ​​tractor, cars, etc.

To date, modern teaching aids in pedagogy have the greatest impact on students: audiovisual and multimedia. They are considered the most effective means of training and education.

Material teaching aids, which are so necessary for the assimilation of educational information, constitute a system that is a derivative of the general system of the subject. Such a system of teaching aids is built on the following principles:

· The equipment must fully comply with the pedagogical requirements: clearly and clearly reproduce the essential in the phenomenon, have an aesthetic appearance, be easily visible and perceived, etc.

· Teaching aids must, in their quantity, fully meet the material needs of the educational process.

· The teaching aids must be adapted to the needs of the students and the actual working conditions.

It should be noted that each subject needs its own special teaching aids. So the means of teaching the Russian language are represented by such means as educational didactic material (concepts, terms, rules, texts), teaching methods and techniques (cognitive, training, control and verification), as well as the organization of the educational process. Material means of the Russian language are represented by educational complexes (manuals, collections, textbooks), a complex of technical teaching aids (multimedia tools, a personal computer), classrooms (Russian language classroom, multimedia class, video class). The means of teaching a foreign language will be almost the same, with the exception of some special means. For example, if we talk about classrooms, then a language laboratory is more suitable for foreign languages.

/ classification of teaching aids

Moscow State University named after M.A. Sholokhov

Abstract on the topic:

"Classification of teaching aids"

Work completed:

Volchenkova Maria Andreevna 1st year student of defectology

specialty: special psychology - special pedagogy

Teacher: Bolotova N.P.

Moscow, 2015

Classification of teaching aids

1. The concept of teaching aids and their essence.

Means of education is an integral part of the teaching method. They ensure the implementation of the principle of visibility and help to increase the efficiency of the educational process, give students material in the form of observations and impressions for the implementation of educational knowledge and mental activity at all stages of education. In pedagogy today there is no unambiguous definition of the concept of "Means of learning". Means of education- these are various objects used by the teacher and students in the learning process. Teaching aids should be understood as a variety of materials and tools of the educational process, thanks to the use of which the set goals of training are achieved more successfully and in a rationally reduced time. The main didactic purpose of funds- accelerate the process of assimilation of educational material. The choice of teaching aids is determined by: the objectives of the lesson or lesson; content of educational material; applied teaching methods; teacher preferences.

Functions of Learning Tools:

1. The cognitive function consists in the fact that the teaching aids serve the direct knowledge of reality; provide the transfer of more accurate and complete information about the object and phenomenon under study, allow you to observe objects and phenomena that are inaccessible or difficult to directly observe with the help of the senses (for example, a school microscope allows you to see objects that are inaccessible to the naked eye).

2. The formative function lies in the fact that teaching aids form the cognitive abilities, feelings and will of students, their emotional sphere. 3. The didactic function is that teaching aids are an important source of knowledge and skills, facilitate the verification and consolidation of educational material, and activate cognitive activity. All functions act in the educational process in unity, complementing each other.

2. Classification of teaching aids:

1. By the nature of the impact on students: visual: objects, layouts, maps, filmstrips, slides, ICT - presentations; auditory: music center, radio; audiovisual: television, films, ICT - presentations.

2. According to the degree of complexity: simple: textbooks, printed manuals, paintings, models; complex: mechanical visual aids, language laboratories, computers.

3. By origin: natural natural remedies (objects taken directly from reality itself: a collection of stones, plants, cones, acorns, seeds); symbolic (represent reality with the help of symbols, signs: drawings, diagrams, maps; technical: visual, auditory, audiovisual means. 4. Classification by A.E. Dmitriev and Yu A Dmitriev: natural: natural objects or their images (real objects, paintings, portraits, works of art); volumetric (geometric figures, stuffed animals); visual (photo, frames of film, television, filmstrips, transparencies); graphic (diagrams, drawings, tables, diagrams); symbolic (geographic maps, globe); sound (tape recording); multimedia based on computer technologies, using interactivity and distance learning tools. BUT! The teacher should keep in mind that overloading a lesson or engaging in visualization, a variety of teaching aids leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of the learning process due to the scattering of students' attention, diverting them to minor details.

H. Types of teaching aids and their characteristics.

I. Verbal means of teaching: Remain the main thing in the arsenal: the spoken word, the speech of the teacher. The main tool of communication, knowledge transfer. 2. Visual teaching aids allow you to implement the principle of visibility in teaching. Students perceive more than 80% of information visually.

Visual aids include: Natural objects and objects in the natural and artificial environment (herbariums, collections). Maps, schemes, diagrams, models, road signs, mathematical symbols, visual aids. Filmstrips, transparencies, films, video films. When using visual aids (illustrations, tables, charts)

a number of conditions must be met:

1) the visualization used must correspond to the age of the students;

2) visibility should be used in moderation and should be shown only at the appropriate moment of the lesson or lesson;

3) it is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential when showing illustrations;

4) think over in detail the explanations given during the demonstration of objects;

5) the demonstrated visibility must be exactly consistent with the content of the material;

6) visibility should be aesthetically pleasing;

7) visibility should be clearly visible from the last desk;

8) involve the students themselves in finding the desired information in a visual aid or a demonstration device

Demonstrations are subject to the following requirements.: Items displayed on the blackboard or teacher's table should be of sufficient size for good visibility even from the last desk. For small objects, various types of projections are used, optical magnification is used, or alternate observation is organized with the student being called to the demonstration table. During the demonstration, the teacher should choose a position facing the class in order to see the reaction of the students. When showing, you should not stand with your back to the students and block what is being demonstrated, otherwise errors in the presentation of the material, violations of discipline are possible. The number and volume of the demonstration should be optimal: a lack of visibility reduces the quality of learning, and an excess of visibility scatters attention, tires, and reduces the degree of cognitive interest.

H. Teaching aids: TCO are instruments and devices used in the learning process. In a number of cases, TCOs are indispensable, because allow you to show phenomena, fast-flowing processes. They should not be used where they can be dispensed with (experiment or observations).

It is rational to combine computer technology, ICT with other teaching aids, not to exaggerate the importance of using new information technologies. They, despite their high efficiency, cannot replace the living word of the teacher, communication, the underestimation of which can lead to curbing the development of the individual.

Methodology for using TCO.

When using TCO, it is necessary to teach students how to use and perceive them. For example, before watching a video, give students instructions on: when and what to pay attention to; give a task: what to remember, what to write down. Demonstration of video films should be carried out in compliance with the following recommendations:

Before the demonstration, make an introductory speech, and after the demonstration, conduct an interview following the results of the viewing.

Avoid a long display of educational films, as students quickly get tired, and their attention is scattered (in the lower grades, the recommended duration is no more than 10 minutes, in the upper grades no more than 30 minutes).

Use the technique of silent film demonstration with the teacher's commentary.

When demonstrating complex material, pauses should be made for the teacher to comment and for students to record information. four. Modern information teaching aids.

1. The use of personal computers in education is becoming widespread. Modern personal computers are multimedia: they allow you to display a color dynamic image with stereo sound. There are a wide variety of computer-based tutorials available for most school subjects. With the help of the Internet, students can receive information from any computer and databases - all this greatly expands the possibilities of the teacher and students in the classroom. There were electronic projectors (they are also called multimedia projectors), which are connected to a computer and allow to demonstrate bright color dynamic computer images with high resolution, sometimes with an audio system (speakers and sound speakers). There were electronic copying blackboards. Such boards look like ordinary white boards. Everything that the teacher writes on its surface is instantly transferred to the computer and can be stored in its memory or printed on a regular printer. The inscriptions on the board can be made with special colored markers, and copies can be printed on a color printer. There are copy boards that allow you to issue a paper copy on special thermal paper. By pressing one button on the device built into the board, the written information can be printed out and distributed to the class. The blackboard has also undergone a strong change, it now has a magnetic surface and has become light, they write on it not at all with chalk, but with multi-colored felt-tip pens, and what is written is erased with a wet sponge.

5.Electronic journals and electronic diaries. The system of electronic journals is a convenient tool for creating a single information and educational space of an educational institution and for the interaction of an educational institution with parents of students. This is a complex of closed Internet sites for each class in the school, which includes the following functions: a student's electronic diary and a teacher's electronic journal.

The system is designed for use in schools. Access to the system is divided into 2 modules: administrative (for the director, head teacher and teachers) viewing (for parents and students) System capabilities: For students and their parents, "IN-CLASS" offers: informing about news, events in the class or school; informing about grades, the content of lessons and homework with the ability to attach files with pictures or video lessons through an electronic student diary, attendance, academic rating, various graphs for assessing academic performance; informing about the schedule and replacements of lessons; the possibility of correspondence with teachers and receiving mass messages and SMS messages from them; the ability to communicate with parents, students through a forum or private messages; the ability to express your opinion on a particular issue by answering surveys organized by school staff or class administrators, from the simplest (yes / no) to choosing an answer from pictures; parents can remotely mark the period of the child’s illness, this information immediately appears in the teacher’s journal . The listed features of the electronic diary help parents monitor the progress and attendance of children, track the material passed and missed, solve the necessary issues without waiting for the meetings, keep abreast of all the news and events in the class, receive urgent SMS on the cell. An electronic diary disciplines students and creates motivation in learning, which leads to an increase in the quality of learning. Opportunities for educators

AT In the interests of the teacher, the IN-CLASS system solves the following tasks:

1) easy and quick entry of grades into the electronic journal (one grade - one click of the mouse);

2) easy entry of data on absent, late, sick; building reports on progress and attendance;

3) convenient timetable for the teacher, easy to complete; also the ability to download the schedule from an Excel file generated by a special program for scheduling;

5) a personal forum for communication between the class teacher and the parents of students, as well as personal correspondence between them; control over the receipt of all information by parents; the ability to generate lesson planning that is not tied to dates, speeding up the completion of the "homework" page for students, and also possible for use in subsequent years;

6) placement of educational and methodological materials for preparing for classes and doing homework by students (filled in using templates);

7) convenient placement of various news, events with the ability to shift this to the class administrator (for example, the parent committee).

In the interests of managers, head teachers, the IN-CLASS system decides following tasks:

construction of administrative reports on quality control of filling electronic journals and diaries by teachers;

analysis of progress, attendance of students and the construction of relevant reports; building open school reports with the possibility of publishing them on the school website; simple feedback from parents of students. DIDACTIC CAPABILITIES OF CERTAIN TYPES OF LEARNING TOOLS

The choice of teaching aids in each specific case depends on the goals and objectives, the content of training, the patterns of the educational process, the cognitive abilities of students, the organizational forms and teaching methods used, as well as the didactic capabilities of the teaching aids themselves.

The use of teaching aids should ensure the best solution of educational, cognitive and educational tasks.

Educational visual aids. Natural aids give a specific holistic view of the objects. For example, a teacher demonstrates to students the gearbox of a certain machine. However, the principle of operation using this object is difficult to explain, therefore, after a general presentation of a natural object, using drawings and diagrams, it is necessary to explain how the gearbox works specifically.

Layouts and technical models allow students to get acquainted with the real object. They are designed so that the most significant components of the structure or principle of operation can be visualized. Models are usually smaller than natural objects, so they are more convenient to use in the educational process.

In photographs and drawings, real objects are presented in the same plane. In teaching, drawings turn out to be more productive, since they have significant advantages as a visual material: with the help of a drawing, you can show the properties of an object separately from the whole, separate the essential from the inessential, and show the most typical features of the object. In the drawings, the object is depicted schematically, simplified, emphasizing what is important for knowledge. Photographs and drawings are used if there are no natural objects, they are large or very complex (large machines, units, etc.), and also if a three-dimensional object is very difficult to study (for example, engine operation).

Depending on the conditions of the educational process, photographs and drawings offered to students can be taken from books; their functions can be performed by tables, transparencies, filmstrips. Using photographs and drawings, students can make descriptions, draw conclusions, and analyze production situations.

Listed Learning Tools have a fairly low level of abstraction, so they are the most accessible for perception. At the same time, they are overloaded with secondary material for educational cognition, which diverts students' attention from the essence. When using figurative aids, the task of the teacher is to focus on the most significant details of the visual material.

The technical drawing conveys exactly, in the form of symbols, the essential spatial features of the object (dimensions, appearance, etc.). In fact, the drawing is a conditional image. The object is shown in different projections, in a section to create in the minds of students the image of the object with all its spatial properties. For this to happen, students need to have a fairly high level of spatial awareness. Drawings can be read only with special knowledge and skills.

Graphs and diagrams are used to visually show quantitative and temporal dependencies. With the help of graphs, one can present the essence and nature of the phenomenon under study, indicate abstract relationships (for example, functional dependencies) in a concise, concrete and understandable form. Diagrams are used to compare the same feature of several objects.

Schemes show the main thing in the object; external resemblance to the object itself is absent or reduced to a minimum. They are of particular importance for the assimilation of educational material. The scheme is always a single whole, there should not be anything superfluous in it, therefore, when perceiving schemes, the most essential is updated in the memory of students. Schemes help to concretize abstract concepts and phenomena, to diversify the methods and techniques for transmitting compressed educational information.

It is especially useful for students to make collective diagrams under the guidance of a teacher. This makes it easier to analyze the relationships between phenomena. In some cases, students can draw up diagrams on their own.

For a schematic representation of a particular educational material, tables are used. They make it possible to see its structure in a clear and compact form, it is easier to remember and reproduce what you see in memory. The teacher uses tables, diagrams, graphs, drawings, as a rule, when explaining educational material and when fixing it. These visual aids can be presented in two versions. : one (full) serves to explain, and the other (with gaps, blank places)- to check what has been learned; in the latter case, the student must restore the missed one.

Particularly noteworthy is the role of the blackboard - a long-used and tested teaching tool that retains its importance at the present time. Its value lies in the fact that notes, drawings, sketches can be made on it consistently in the course of the work of the teacher and students, create conditions for establishing internal logical connections and dependencies, errors can be easily eliminated, methods for solving a cognitive task can be varied.

The board is used both for explaining new material and for organizing independent work of students, preparing individual answers when testing knowledge and skills.

For a more complete use of the capabilities of the blackboard, boards with an enlarged surface (due to the top, bottom or side flaps), magnetic, portable boards, poster and table holders on the board are used.

Verbal teaching aids .

Among them, a special role belongs to educational literature for students, which is the most important source of knowledge, and at the same time a means of stimulating cognitive interest, independent knowledge, and student activity. As observations show, independent work with a textbook in the classroom is not carried out often enough. Only by regularly using the textbook in the process of independent work, you can acquire general learning skills (read the text correctly, find the answer to the question, draw up a plan, theses, tables, diagrams), logical skills (highlight the main idea, make comparisons and evidence, establish cause-and-effect connections), subject knowledge.

To master the methodology of independent work with a textbook, students need to be taught how to use the reference and methodological apparatus of the book, pay attention to illustrative and graphic material, and the expediency of font selection of text.

Didactic materials - / type of teaching aids that have become quite widespread in recent years. By their nature, they are very diverse and can act as an independent source of knowledge on the basis of which the cognitive process proceeds, and can serve as a help to other teaching aids (textbook, additional literature, educational films, educational television, etc.).

Didactic materials provide an opportunity use time more rationally, differentiate the learning process, carry out operational control of knowledge and skills, adjust the learning activities of students.

The most accessible and mobile didactic material is the cards, which contain questions, tasks, exercises, examples of problem solving, algorithmic and non-algorithmic prescriptions; These tasks can be presented both in text form and in the form of drawings, diagrams, diagrams, etc. Often tasks are differentiated by the degree of complexity.

According to the nature of the presentation of educational information, audiovisual teaching aids are divided into screen, sound, screen-sound.

Among them, the most common slide projector, graphic projector, epiprojector, film projector, language devices.

A slide projector is designed for projecting translucent objects onto the screen.- frames of a filmstrip or transparencies (slides). All currently produced overhead projectors require complete or partial darkening of the audience, so they are usually used when organizing students' oral work or a teacher's oral explanation.

A graphic projector is used to demonstrate images printed on a transparent film, display banners (either with a finished or incomplete image), objects enclosed in a transparent (glass, plastic) form. The graphic projector can be used in a darkened or partially darkened room, which expands the scope of its application in the educational process.

A movie projector is used to show films, televisions are used to receive television programs, tape recorders are used to record and play sound information, and electric players are used to play sound from gramophone records.

In recent years, automated classrooms with consoles for students and teachers, automated teaching systems based on computers and microprocessor technology, have become widespread.

On-screen tools include educational filmstrips, a series of transparencies (slides), banners for a graphic projector, unsound films of various types, materials for epiprojection.

With the help of a filmstrip, you can talk about the object or phenomenon being studied. The frames of the filmstrip are arranged in strict accordance with the logic of the presentation of the educational material. Although filmstrips are static on-screen information carriers, the change of frames conveys the dynamics of the phenomenon, while the angle of showing the phenomena, the object is chosen so that it is possible to extract the most important thing for study.

Transparencies provide the teacher with more opportunities to independently choose the method of working with screen material. Their display can be combined, for example, with an experiment, laboratory work, or used selectively. Filmstrips and slides allow you to arouse and consolidate interest in the educational topic, illustrate the explanation of the educational material, formulate the conditions of the educational, cognitive task, generalize and systematize the educational material.

With the help of filmstrips and transparencies, students get acquainted with reproductions of paintings by artists, drawings, photographs, graphs, diagrams, drawings, maps, tables, the content of which does not require a long, constant study.

Filmstrips and slides are used to present new material during a lecture, to talk about viewed frames, to retell (collectively, individually) the content of a filmstrip or its fragment.

Banners are used to work with graphic projectors. The easiest way to use banners is to demonstrate the images printed on them and work on these images (adding formulas, inserting what is missing in a table, diagram, drawing).

Overhead banners are widely used to demonstrate the gradual change of a phenomenon or an object. This is a series of banner sheets that can be combined. With their help, educational information is introduced in portions, according to the stages of development of an event, phenomenon, object. The teacher controls the image by overlaying or removing banners, highlighting individual parts of the banner, focusing the students' attention on them. Overhead banners allow you to present visually abstract and systematic structures in parts and as a whole.

The overlay method ensures the active participation of students in the learning process. They can observe specific facts, phenomena and the development of the processes under study, obtain source material for abstract thinking, and build algorithms.

Banners are used as a motivational tool that arouses interest in the topic being studied. This can be achieved by showing a schematic lesson plan, complete with a brief explanation of its purpose. To organize independent work, banners-instructions are used. Independent work of students with banners may include redrawing them or drawing graphs of schemes. Banners are used to test and assess the knowledge and skills of students. To do this, a part of the image is covered with an opaque shutter, then it is moved, opening the answers. It is especially easy to organize with the help of banners an operational check of the assimilation of the working material. Tasks are projected on the screen or blackboard by options. After finishing the work, the correct answers are shown on the screen, and students compare them with their own. This form of control is educational in nature and takes little time.

Sound means - educational radio broadcasts, tape and gramophone records - have ample opportunities for learning.

According to the goals and didactic purpose of the educational radio transmission, sound recordings can be conditionally divided into motivational-cognitive (creating a certain emotional mood, arousing interest in what is being discussed and encouraging independent activity); problematic (creating conditions for the emergence of a problem situation and the activation of cognitive activity); teaching (acting as a source of new knowledge); generalizing-repetitive (giving in a concentrated form and from a new angle the most significant in the material being studied); illustrative (explaining and supplementing the material of the textbook, transparencies, teacher's story, students' answers).

Sound means containing new information, vivid facts, make the learning process as saturated as possible, affect the depth and strength of memorization of educational material. They are used to reproduce the speeches of scientists, designers, specialists employed in the field of knowledge that students master. This has a positive effect on the formation of the personality of students, especially their motivational sphere.

An important feature of the use of sound-means is associated with the formation of technical hearing. The noise of operating equipment serves as a source of diagnosing its condition, identifying possible malfunctions, and preventing emergencies. The specificity of sound means requires a careful selection of language means.

Tape and gramophone recordings allow students to focus on the content side of the story without going into details.

METHODS AND MEANS OF TRAINING

Professional knowledge of the theory of teaching methods contributes to confident prediction of results, error-free problem solving, achievement of the goal of versatile development of the individual.

Teaching method - it is a way of ordered interconnected activities of a teacher and students, aimed at solving a complex of educational tasks. The teaching method is realized in the unity of purposeful cognitive activity of the teacher and students, their active movement towards understanding knowledge, mastering skills and abilities. Reception, a detail is a part, an element of a method. In pedagogical practice, a methodological technique is used to enhance the perception of educational material by students, deepen knowledge, and stimulate cognitive activity.

The objective basis for the scientific substantiation of the teaching method is the methods of cognition by people of reality, as well as ways of exchanging information, their communication in the process of cognitive activity. There are three public sources that are the basis for the development, creative creation of teaching methods: scientific knowledge, everyday knowledge, ways of exchanging information. The peculiarity of pedagogical teaching methods is that they synthesize, include in a generalized form the methods of cognition of all three sources.

Teaching methods can be presented in various types of classifications, taking into account their practical functions and capabilities in organizing the learning interaction between teachers and students. Modern approaches to the classification of teaching methods are preceded by a deep and comprehensive analysis of them by well-known teachers.

So, B. Vsesvyatsky proposed consideration of two groups of methods: the transfer of ready-made knowledge and research; A. Pinkevich - passive and active. K.P. Yagodovsky considered four groups of methods: dogmatic and illustrative, heuristic, research. E.I. Perovsky and E.L. Golant.

M.A. Danilov and other didacticians drew attention to the need to take into account the logical aspect, and N.M. Verzilin proposed to combine the source and logical approaches to the classification of teaching methods. AND I. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin proposed to distinguish five general didactic methods: explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, problem presentation, heuristic and research. V.A. Sukhomlinsky combined teaching methods into two large groups: primary perception of knowledge, skills and comprehension, development and deepening of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Classifications of teaching methods, being global or local, generalized or particular, are logically interconnected and subordinated. The methods presented in different groups perform several functions simultaneously.

The most common in modern didactics is the classification according to the methods of organizing the interrelated activities of the teacher and students in order to form the knowledge, skills, and abilities of personality traits necessary for the successful completion of educational and other tasks.

Yu.K. Babansky distinguishes three groups of teaching methods:

- organization of educational and cognitive activity of trainees;

- stimulation of educational and cognitive processes;

- monitoring the effectiveness of these processes and, in general, of all activities.

The first group includes verbal, visual and practical teaching methods . These include: a lecture, a conversation, a story, a demonstration of visual material, exercises, practical tasks, and so on.

Verbal methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods. They allow in the shortest possible time to transfer a large amount of information, to pose problems for the trainees and indicate ways to solve them. With the help of the word, the teacher can evoke vivid pictures of the past, present and future of humanity in the minds of students. The word activates the imagination, memory, feelings of students.

verbal methods are divided into the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

Story involves an oral narrative presentation of the content of the educational material. This method is applied at all stages of training. Only the nature of the story, its volume, duration changes.

Under explanation one should understand the verbal interpretation of regularities, essential properties of the object under study, individual concepts, phenomena. Explanation is a monologue form of presentation. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying the theoretical material of various sciences, solving chemical, physical, mathematical problems, theorems; in the disclosure of root causes and effects in natural phenomena and social life.

Conversation- a dialogical method of teaching, in which the teacher, by setting a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what they have already studied.

Has a wide distribution heuristic conversation(from the word "Eureka" - find, open). In the course of a heuristic conversation, the teacher, relying on the knowledge and practical experience that students have, leads them to understand and assimilate new knowledge, formulate rules and conclusions.

Used to communicate new knowledge informing conversations based on student knowledge. Reinforcing conversations applied after learning new material.

During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student - individual conversation or students of the whole class - frontal conversation.

Discussion based on an exchange of views on a particular issue. It has great educational and educational value: it teaches a deeper understanding of the problem, the ability to defend one's position, and to take into account the opinions of others.

Lecture- a monologic way of presenting voluminous material. It is used, as a rule, in high schools, universities, technical schools and occupies the entire or almost the entire lesson. The advantage of the lecture lies in the ability to ensure the completeness and integrity of the students' perception of the educational material in its logical mediations and relationships on the topic as a whole. The relevance of using lectures in modern conditions is increasing due to the use of block study of new educational material on topics or large sections. Review lectures are held on one or more topics to summarize and systematize the studied material.

Work with textbook and book is the most important teaching method. In elementary grades, work with the book is carried out mainly in the classroom under the guidance of a teacher. In the future, students learn more and more to work with the book on their own. There are a number of techniques for independent work with printed sources. The main ones are: note-taking, drafting a text plan, thesis, citing, annotating, reviewing, compiling a certificate, compiling a formal-logical model, compiling a thematic thesaurus, compiling a matrix of ideas.

Visual Methods training can be conditionally divided into two large groups: the method of illustrations and the method of demonstrations.

illustration method involves showing students flat and three-dimensional visual aids: posters, tables, pictures, maps, sketches on the board, diagrams, dummies and other things.

Demo method usually associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips and others.

Such a division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstration ones is conditional. It does not exclude the possibility of classifying individual visual aids as both illustrative and demonstrative (for example, showing illustrations through an epidiascope or overhead scope). The introduction of new technical means in the educational process (TVs, video recorders, computers) expands the possibilities of visual teaching methods.

Practical Methods learning is based on the practical activities of students. These methods form practical skills and abilities. Practical methods include exercises, laboratory and practical work.

Exercises- repeated (multiple) performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality. Exercises are categorized into oral, written, graphic and educational and labor.

According to the degree of independence of students when performing exercises, there are: reproducing, training, commented exercises.

Exercises are effective only if a number of requirements for them are met: a conscious approach of students to their implementation; compliance with the didactic sequence in the performance of exercises - first, exercises for memorizing and memorizing educational material, then - for reproduction - the application of previously learned - for independent transfer of what has been studied to non-standard situations - for creative application, which ensures the inclusion of new material in the system of already acquired knowledge, skills and abilities. Problem-search exercises are also extremely necessary, which form students' ability to guess, intuition.

Laboratory works – this is the conduct by students, on the instructions of the teacher, of experiments using instruments, the use of tools and other technical devices, that is, this is the study by students of any phenomena with the help of special equipment.

A variety of research laboratory work can be long-term observations of students for individual phenomena, for example, the growth of plants and the development of animals, the weather.

Practical work are carried out after studying large sections, therefore they are of a generalizing nature. They can be carried out not only in the classroom, but also outside the educational institution (for example, measurements on the ground), in a computer class.

The group of methods for stimulating and motivating learning can be divided into two large subgroups. In the first of them to present methods of formation of cognitive interests in students. In the second - methods, mainly aimed at developing a sense of duty and responsibility in teaching.

Methods of stimulating interest in learning can be called cognitive games, scientific and cognitive disputes, analysis of life situations. One of the effective methods of stimulating interest in learning is to create situations of success in the educational process for students who experience certain difficulties in learning, to provide a favorable moral and psychological atmosphere in the course of performing certain educational tasks. A favorable microclimate during study reduces the feeling of insecurity, fear. The state of anxiety is replaced by a state of confidence.

Motives of duty and responsibility are formed on the basis of the application of a whole group of methods and techniques: explaining to students the social and personal significance of learning; making demands; accustoming them to fulfill the requirements and the like.

The group of methods of control and self-control in training includes methods of oral and written control. Oral control carried out by individual and frontal survey. In an individual survey, the teacher poses several questions to the student, answering which he shows the level of assimilation of educational material. With a frontal survey, the teacher selects a series of logically interconnected questions and puts them in front of the whole class, calling for a short answer from one or another student.

Methods of written control in the learning process, they involve the conduct of written tests, essays, presentations, dictations, written tests, and so on. Written tests can be either short-term, conducted within 15-20 minutes, or occupying the entire lesson. In recent years, more and more often began to use control written work of a programmed type, solving graphic problems, laboratory work, and others.

An essential feature of the current stage of improving control is the comprehensive development of students' skills of self-control over the degree of assimilation of educational material, the ability to independently find mistakes, inaccuracies, and outline ways to eliminate detected gaps.

Each teaching method is specified by a set of techniques, methods and means of organizing learning cognition. Techniques and methods for implementing the teaching method are used by the teacher, depending on the characteristics of the educational material and the specific situation of the educational process, his personality, the degree of mastery of the elements of pedagogical skill.

The choice of teaching methods is determined by the following provisions: pedagogical and psychological expediency, functional certainty; focus on organizing the activities of teachers and students: communication, discussion, application of knowledge; compliance with the age capabilities of students, the characteristics of their thinking, memory, emotional development, life experience; compliance with age capabilities, general cultural, pedagogical training of the teacher; compliance with the nature of the content of the studied material; correspondence of methods to the form of education; the correspondence of methods to the originality of the emerging situation in the learning process; interrelation and interaction of methods among themselves, their inclusion in each other, complexity of application.

Means of education is a source of obtaining new knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities. These include visual aids, scientific and fiction literature, cinematography, TCO, audio and video equipment, computer classes, real objects, production, etc. The main functions of learning tools - informational, didactic and control. Conventionally, all didactic tools can be divided into simple and complex in terms of increasing ability to replace the actions of the teacher and automate the actions of the student.

Simple means: a) textbooks, anthologies, handouts; b) visual means - pictures, maps, models, real objects, etc.

Complex tools: a) mechanical visual devices - epidiascope, microscope, codoscope, etc.; b) audio means - tape recorder, radio, player; c) audiovisual - TV, video, film; d) automating the learning process - language laboratories, computers, telecommunication networks.

Scientific comprehension of the nature of teaching methods and means helps to correctly understand the sources of scientific and methodological creativity, to stimulate the creation of new, more intense, innovative ways of teaching interaction between a teacher and students. On this theoretical basis, modern teachers-innovators create not only separate new methods, but also design whole methodological systems. S.N. Lysenkov includes commented management, work on support schemes, which are widely used in the life learning interaction of children and adults.

The methodological system of the labor teacher I.P. Volkov includes the widespread use of interdisciplinary connections in the lesson, the connection of theory with practice, element-by-element learning, the alternation of the studied issues and types of work, the periodic repetition of differently organized material being studied, the involvement of all students in the work during the lesson, teaching creativity.

Teacher V.F. Shatalov, widely using well-known methods and teaching aids, has developed an integral methodological system, in the center of which reference signals are involved.

Methodically liberated teacher E.N. Ilyin boldly relies on the techniques and methods of everyday communication, improvises, pedagogically rethinks them and turns them into an original and effective methodological system for involving students in cognitive and educational communication.

Thus, teaching methods, as a set of techniques, methods and means, are scientifically and pedagogically transformed on the basis of the general requirements imposed on them and are the most important mechanism for implementing the creative process of teaching interaction between the teacher and students.

The whole system of teaching and upbringing methods must be understood and used as a trinity, which simultaneously ensures the transfer of knowledge, skills, develops mental strength and awakens internal incentives for cognition, which has an educational effect on the educated person. Preparing for a lesson, organizing socially useful affairs, a teacher, educator, carefully thinks over his pedagogical position, those methods of teaching and educational interaction in a single system that he will use in relations with students. At the same time, it is necessary to ensure that teaching methods and their system turn for each student into a system of self-learning methods, developing an independent ability to acquire, process, analyze facts, generalize them, and implement continuous education.

The teacher, no matter what work he does with students, constantly monitors the teaching and educational effect of teaching and upbringing methods. This is necessary because the transformation of pedagogical methods into internal ways of organizing the behavior and activities of the students themselves is one of the most important channels for the formation of personality. The more clearly these channels of self-education work, the more the pupil (student) is predisposed to the perception of pedagogical influence. And the less a pupil (student) appropriates pedagogical methods, transfers them to the arsenal of his own ways of behavior and communication, the more he is subject to random influences.

Classification of teaching aids

Teaching aids in unity with teaching methods contribute to the qualitative assimilation of knowledge, expand the volume of the studied material, and mobilize the mental activity of students.

Teaching aids are specially created manuals and materials of a different nature that help the teacher manage the cognitive and practical activities of schoolchildren, solve the tasks they face: give knowledge, form knowledge, skills and abilities, influence children, and help the student learn.

Means of training - a source of knowledge, the formation of skills. Teaching aids, as one of the most important didactic principles, are developed and implemented in the theory and practice of teaching economics throughout school education, but will be useful only if they are organically related to the content of the lesson as a whole.

Teaching aids help to solve such problems as mobilization of mental activity of students; introduction of novelty into the educational process; increased interest in the lesson; increasing the possibility of involuntary memorization of material; expansion of the volume of the studied material; highlighting the main thing in the material and its systematization. Thus, learning tools are used at almost all stages of learning:

At the stage of explaining new material;

At the stage of consolidation of knowledge;

At the stage of knowledge control;

At the stage of systematization of the studied material.

There are several types of classifications of teaching aids. A.V. Khutorskoy gives the following classification of teaching aids:

* according to the method of objects - material(premises, equipment, furniture, computers) and ideal(figurative representations, symbolic models, thought experiments);

* in relation to the sources of appearance - artificial(devices, pictures, textbooks) and natural(natural objects, preparations, herbariums);

* by complexity - simple(samples, models, maps) and complex(video recorders, computer networks);

* according to the method of use - dynamic(video) and static(code positives);

* according to the features of the structure - flat(cards), voluminous(layouts), mixed(Earth model), virtual(multimedia programs);

* by the nature of the impact - visual(diagrams), auditory(tape recorder, radio) audiovisual(television, video films);

* by information carriers - paper(textbook), magneto-optical(movies), electronic(computer games), laser(CD-ROM, DVD);

* by levels of education content - lesson-level audio(test material), at the subject level(textbook), at the level of the entire learning process(study room);

*in relation to technical progress - traditional(visual aids, museum, library), modern(media, multimedia, computers), promising(websites, local and global computer networks, systems of distributed education).

In addition, teaching aids are divided into basic and non-basic.

To basic teaching aids include: school textbooks, teacher's word; educational materials that supplement textbooks (collections of exercises and tasks, reference books, dictionaries); visual aids of various types, technical teaching aids.

To non-core learning tools include: handout; banners; transparencies.

Let's take a closer look at some learning tools.

Visual learning aids:

1. Tables. The main didactic function of the tables is to equip students with a guideline for applying the rule, to reveal economic patterns, and to facilitate the memorization of economic phenomena.

When explaining new material, the teacher often uses notes on the board, which make it easier to assimilate the material being studied. For example, when studying the topic "Production Costs", the layout of the board might look like this:

production costs

Permanent

AT

When explaining new material, empty parts of the table are filled in, which makes the material easier to understand with visual perception.

2. Painting. When using reproductions of paintings by artists, a preliminary pronunciation of the economic term is required, and then an examination of the picture and the definition of its economic meaning. With the help of paintings, not only economic thinking is formed, but also the aesthetic perception of the surrounding world develops.

3. Demonstration cards. These are cards with missing words and phrases that need to be filled in. Demonstration cards allow you to repeatedly present the same word for its complete assimilation and ability to use it in speech. Demo card example.

4. Handout (card with a picture) is used to enrich the vocabulary of students, accompanied by additional tasks to clarify certain economic concepts.

5. Transparencies. When working with a frame, it is necessary to play with economic material, which is depicted in the form of a drawing, diagram, drawing, graph.

6. Banners. This is one of the types of movable tables that provide portioned supply of material, which makes it possible to show the image in dynamics. The content of the banners is projected using a codoscope. Overlaying transparent films on top of each other allows you to create dynamic tables in the lesson and thus demonstrate the course of reasoning when mastering new material.

7. Filmstrips help to see the economic story in action, which develops attention and thinking.

8. Computer programs allow you to see ongoing events and change them in order to improve the economic conditions of the game.

9. Didactic games.

Working with terms during a didactic game is of great importance in the study of economics. The need for special work to enrich the vocabulary of students is determined through the ability to use economic vocabulary, which carries a variety of semantic information - conceptual, emotive, functional, stylistic, grammatical. In addition, the larger the stock of economic terms students have, the more accurately they implement communication both orally and in writing.

Sources for enriching the vocabulary of students are books, dictionaries, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, speeches of the teacher and peers, television and radio programs, visits to stock exchanges, banks, firms, etc.

10. Crosswords. Crossword puzzles of economic content play the role of entertainment and at the same time expand the vocabulary of students in economics.

Auditory teaching aids.

1. Gramophone record. Sound recording performs a special didactic function. It is a sample of sounding speech and serves as a means of forming a culture of oral speech. Excerpts from works of fiction recorded on a gramophone record can be analyzed from the point of view of economic processes and patterns: to explain the reason for the increase or decrease in prices and how this affects the well-being of the family, what property is, how to manage property wisely, what is the economy of the immediate environment.

2. Tape recording. It is used when explaining new material, when the content of the studied material is dictated to a tape recorder. Students listen to the teacher's explanation from a tape recorder, while it is possible to use a language laboratory to assimilate knowledge. In addition, using a tape recorder, you can listen to excerpts from works of art that make economic sense, then explain what you heard in terms of economic processes and patterns.

At the preparatory stage, which precedes listening to the tape recorder, students are given tasks about what they should hear, what to pay attention to. The teacher prepares students for purposeful and conscious listening to the text. While listening to the text, it is important not to disturb the sound of the text, not to interrupt with comments or questions. The student must listen without distraction. At the final stage, after listening, students answer the questions posed before listening, complete tasks, give their interpretation of the events they heard in the plot and comment on the text from an economic point of view.

Visual-auditory teaching aids.

1. Media education. Media education is a direction in pedagogy. Elements of the information environment are used as means in school education: a textbook, print, radio, television, video, computer training programs, games, multimedia, and the Internet.

2. Educational CDs and laser CDs. Disks with various screen and audio information are used with the help of a computer to demonstrate information, for frontal and individual work with students in the classroom and at home.

3. Electronic textbook. Electronic textbooks allow graphics, animation, speaker's speech, registration forms, interactive tasks, multimedia effects, provide great opportunities for personal creative work, increase students' attention to the subject, develop individuality. These textbooks are the future.

4. Educational website. The websites provide information for teachers, students and their parents. The main principle of constructing an educational site is its targeting, interactivity, and productivity.

5. Educational web quests. Web quests are web pages on a specific topic on educational sites. Web pages are dedicated to a topic. Each thesis of the question is accompanied by links to articles, illustrations related to the issue under study, and are located both on this server and on remote web servers.

Visual-auditory teaching aids are one of the effective means of developing students' speech, as they allow you to combine an image and a sounding word together.

In general, visual aids develop coherent logical speech, form economic concepts and the ability to use them in theoretical and practical activities.