After the death of Ivan the Terrible, his son ascended the throne Fedor Ioannovich(1584–1598), but the actual ruler was Boris Godunov, to whose sister the king was married. Boris Godunov was one of the close boyars to whom Ivan IV entrusted custody of his son.

The first period of the Troubles (1598–1606)

The unrest in the Russian state was caused by a deep socio-economic crisis at the end of the 16th century, in which the country found itself after the Livonian War and the oprichnina. The ruin of the country, the tax burden that fell on the shoulders of the burdened population; dissatisfaction with their position of various categories of service people, including service Cossacks; the demoralization of the boyars after the oprichnina - all this created the conditions for the Time of Troubles. The immediate cause for the beginning of the Troubles was the dynastic crisis.

15 May 1591 under circumstances that have not yet been clarified in Uglich, the younger brother of Fyodor and the heir to the throne, Tsarevich Dmitry, the son of the last wife of Ivan the Terrible, Maria Nagoi, died. The deacon Mikhail Bityagovsky, sent from Moscow, his nephew Nikita Kachalov, and Osip Volokhov, son of the prince's mother, suspected of murdering the tsarevich, were killed.

The results of the investigation that was commissioned V. I. Shuisky, showed that the prince accidentally stabbed himself with a knife while playing "poke". Dmitry suffered from epilepsy, so it is likely that he could have accidentally run into a knife. This death was beneficial to Boris Godunov, but whether it was done on his orders is impossible to say for sure.

Thus, after the death of Fyodor Ivanovich, who left no heir, the Rurik dynasty came to an end.

February 17, 1598Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov as the new tsar. The lean years fell on his reign. (1601–1603), leading to hunger. The disaster that struck began to be perceived by the people as a punishment from God, as a punishment for the crimes committed by the king. Rumors began to spread throughout the country that Tsarevich Dmitry was alive, but forced to hide.

It's important to know

Boris Godunov suspected the Romanov family of spreading these rumors. In 1600, the Romanovs were accused of wanting to exterminate the tsar and take the tsar's throne. Four brothers (Fyodor, Alexander, Ivan and Vasily) were exiled. Fyodor was forcibly tonsured a monk under the name Filaret and sent to the Antoniev-Siysky Monastery.

In 1603, the allegedly rescued Tsarevich Dmitry appeared in Poland. Probably, it was Grigory Otrepiev, a Galician nobleman, a serf of the Romanovs, who, apparently, immediately after their exile, took the vows as a monk and served under Patriarch Job. In 1602 he fled to Poland and declared himself Prince Dmitry. Hoping for the support of the Polish king Sigismund III, he promised him the Chernigov-Seversky lands, the magnate Mnishek - Novgorod the Great and Pskov, and the Church of Rome - to introduce Catholicism in Russia.

In October 1604 the army False Dmitry I, consisting of Polish gentry and Cossacks, moved to Moscow. He was supported by servicemen on the instrument and the Cossacks of the southern counties, dissatisfied with the policies of Boris Godunov. In January 1605, the impostor's troops were defeated and he had to retreat. The situation was not going well for him, but the unexpected death of Boris Godunov in April 1605 changed everything drastically.

June 20, 1605 False Dmitry entered Moscow. His reign did not last long: from the end of July 1605 until May 17, 1606, when he was overthrown as a result of a conspiracy organized by the boyar Vasily Shuisky. The latter became the new king.

Topic: The development of the Russian state in the 17th century

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University: VZFEI

Year and city: Vladimir 2009

Introduction.

The beginning of the 17th century in the history of Russia was marked by major political and socio-economic upheavals. This time was called by historians the Time of Troubles. The consequence of the Time of Troubles was a powerful regression of the economic and socio-political situation compared to that achieved by the end of the 16th century. Documentary and literary sources of that time paint gloomy pictures of devastated, depopulated cities and villages, desolated arable land, the decline of crafts and trade. Nevertheless, the Russian people quickly coped with the disasters, and by the middle of the 17th century, life began to return to its former course. The purpose of my work is:

• identification and consideration of the main directions of development of Russia in the 17th century;
• review of Russia's foreign policy;
• analysis of the peasant war under the leadership of Stepan Razin.

Compared with Western Europe, where the 17th century meant the entry into a different cultural era - the New Age, the changes that have taken place in Russia seem to be less significant and relate mainly to the political sphere. In economic and technological terms, Russia is even further behind the West. At the same time, it was the 17th century that became, from the point of view of supporters of the idea of ​​originality, the era of the most organic development of the national spiritual foundations of pre-Petrine Russia.

During the 17th century, great changes took place in the history of Russia. They touched every aspect of her life. By this time, the territory of the Russian state had noticeably expanded, and the population was growing.

The 17th century was marked in the history of Russia by the further development of the feudal-serf system, the significant strengthening of feudal land ownership. The new feudal nobility concentrated vast patrimonial wealth in their hands.

1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century

Russia at the beginning of the 17th century - centralized feudal state. Agriculture remained the basis of the economy, in which the vast majority of the population was employed. By the end of the 17th century, there was a significant expansion of sown areas associated with the colonization of the southern regions of the country by Russian people. The dominant form of landownership was feudal landownership. Feudal ownership of land was strengthened and expanded, and the peasants were further enslaved.

In the leading branches of production, more or less large enterprises, mainly state-owned ones, began to occupy a prominent place: the Cannon Yard, the Armory, the City Order and the Order of Stone Affairs with its brick factories, etc. The creation and development of large enterprises contributed to the growth of the division of labor and the improvement of technology. A characteristic feature of the development of urban crafts was the emergence of new, narrower specialties.

The commercial and industrial population of Russia increased. Foreign specialists and merchants flocked to Moscow, which led to the emergence in Moscow of the German settlement, trading yards - English, Pansky, Armenian. This testifies to the ever-increasing role of trade in the Russian economy of that time.

The growth of handicrafts and trade was the first sign of the emergence of capitalist relations in Russia, but then there were no conditions that could radically change the existing economic structure in the country, while the economies of Western European countries were rapidly developing towards the establishment of capitalism. There was no single national market in Russia; commodity-money relations were based on the sale of the surplus product of the feudal natural economy. Market relations were based on the division of labor associated with differences in natural geographical conditions.

The main task of the country's economy in the first half of the XVII century. was to overcome the consequences of the "great Moscow ruin". This problem was hampered by the following factors:

· heavy human and territorial losses suffered by the country as a result of "distemper";

· low soil fertility of the Non-Black Earth region, where until the middle of the XVII century. housed the bulk of the population;

· the strengthening of serfdom, which did not create an interest among the peasants in the results of their labor (landowners, with the increase in their needs, confiscated not only surplus, but also part of the necessary product, increasing corvée and dues);

· the consumer character of the peasant economy, which was formed under the influence of the Orthodox communal tradition, which focused on the simple satisfaction of needs, and not on the expansion of production in order to generate income and enrichment;

· increased tax burden.

Agriculture did not recover soon, the reasons for this were the low capacity of small peasant farms, low productivity, and natural disasters. The development of this sector of the economy was strongly and for a long time hampered by the consequences of the “Lithuanian ruin”. This is evidenced by scribe books - land inventories of that time.

This was reflected in the economic situation of the nobles, their serviceability. In a number of southern counties, many of them did not have land and peasants (odnodvortsy), and even estates. Some, due to poverty, became Cossacks, serfs for rich boyars, monastic servants, or, according to the documents of that time, wallowed in taverns.

In the process of restoring the country's economy, an important place was occupied by handicrafts. Its share in the country's economy increased, the number of handicraft specialties increased, and the skill level of workers increased noticeably. Craftsmen began to work more and more for the market, and not for the order, i.e. production became small-scale. The feudal lords preferred to buy handicrafts in the city markets, rather than use the poor quality products of their rural artisans. Increasingly, peasants also bought urban products, which led to an increase in domestic demand and supply.

Replenishment of the corps of artisans was also carried out by exporting townspeople from other cities to Moscow for permanent or temporary work. For the needs of the treasury, the palace from other cities were sent to the capital of gunsmiths and icon painters, silversmiths, masons and carpenters.

The noticeable growth of Russian handicrafts in the 17th century, the transformation of a significant part of it into small-scale commodity production, consolidation, the use of hired labor, the specialization of certain regions of the country, the emergence of a labor market created the conditions for the development of manufactory production.

The number of manufactories has increased - large enterprises based on the division of labor, which remains predominantly manual, and the use of mechanisms driven by water. This indicates the beginning of the transition to early capitalist industrial production, still strongly entangled in feudal relations.

If in Western Europe the development of manufactories took place on the basis of hiring free workers, then in Russia there were almost no free people, therefore the so-called patrimonial manufactories were based on the use of serf labor. Serf artisans and peasants were forced to work at enterprises in the order of feudal conscription, their wages were almost not paid. Entire villages were often assigned to manufactories, and then serfs became serf workers. Bourgeois and feudal relations were intertwined in serf manufactories: the entrepreneur was at the same time a landowner - he owned the manufactory, land and workers, and the worker had no means of production and subsisted on the forced sale of his labor force. Such manufactories existed in Russia until the middle of the 19th century.

In Moscow, there were several state (state, possession) manufactories belonging to the Palace Order: Mint, Printed, Khamovny (linen) yards. But in general, manufactories did not yet occupy a large share among enterprises, their total number by the end of the 17th century was only two dozen. In the same period, scattered manufactory (manufactory at home) developed. A new figure appeared - a buyer, that is, a commercial intermediary between artisans and the market. Buyers from among the wealthy artisans and merchants distributed orders to the houses of producers, presenting certain quantitative and qualitative requirements for products.

The 17th century is the most important stage in the development of market trade relations, the beginning of the formation of the All-Russian national market. As trade developed, the merchant class continued to develop. The highest privileged corporation of the merchant class in Russia was guests. They conducted large-scale trade operations both within the country and abroad, and were appointed to responsible positions in central and local economic and financial bodies. For example, in Moscow there were about thirty of them. In addition, there were merchant corporations - a living hundred and a cloth hundred.

Realizing that foreign trade is an important source of income, the government of Alexei Mikhailovich encouraged its development in every possible way. This had a beneficial effect on the development of trade with European (Sweden, England) and Asian countries (Iran, India, China). Russia exported furs, timber, tar, potash, leather, ropes, canvases. Imported (for the feudal elite) wine, spices, mirrors, cloth, weapons, metal products, paper, paints and other goods.

Showing concern for the development of domestic trade, the government supported the merchants in every possible way, which was reflected in the adopted in 1653. Customs regulations. Various duties levied on sellers of goods were replaced by a single ruble duty of 5% of turnover. In the possessions of secular and spiritual feudal lords, the collection of tolls was prohibited.

In the domestic markets of Russia in the second half of the XVII century. there was a dominance of foreign capital. Experiencing the difficulties of competition, Russian merchants repeatedly turned to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to restrict the access of foreign merchants to Russian markets. In this regard, in 1667, the New Trade Charter was adopted, which provided for a number of restrictions for foreigners: they were not allowed to carry out trading operations in the internal cities of Russia; they could trade only in the border towns: Arkhangelsk, Novgorod, and Pskov, and only during fairs. For trade outside these cities, a special permit (letter) was required. Foreign merchants had to pay a duty of 6% on the sale price, and 15% on luxury goods (for example, wines).

The economic development of the country in the 17th century led to the merging of all the lands and principalities into one economic entity, predetermined by the increasing volume of goods, the unification of small local markets into one all-Russian market. Such fairs were known throughout the country as Makarievskaya not far from Nizhny Novgorod, Svenskaya near Bryansk, Irbitskaya beyond the Urals.

The formation of an all-Russian market meant overcoming the economic isolation of individual territories and merging them into a single economic system. This ended the long process of formation of the Russian centralized state.

The completion of the economic unification of the country, the formation of the all-Russian market, the beginning of manufactory production created objective opportunities for overcoming the relative backwardness of Russia.

Among all classes and estates, the dominant place, of course, belonged to the feudal lords. In their interests, the state power carried out measures to strengthen the ownership of the boyars and nobles to land and peasants, to rally the strata of the feudal class, its "nobility". The nobility turned into a closed class - an estate.

Monetary reform:

In 1610, the lack of silver forced the authorities to put into circulation gold kopecks, money (denominations of 10 and 5 kopecks). The Poles who captured Moscow in 1611 and the Swedes who occupied Novgorod in 1611 began to mint coins of lesser value. For example, coins were minted from the hryvnia not for 3, but for 4 rubles.

Under the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645), feudal land ownership expanded and strengthened. Under him, the attraction of foreign specialists in the field of mining continues. The demand of the Russian population for glass, velvet, jewelry, soap, canvas has expanded. The bulk of the goods were imported from abroad, and domestic goods were inferior in quality to foreign goods.

During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, the issue of kopecks, money, half-dollars continued. With the centralization of the monetary economy in 1625-1627. in Moscow, the process of forming a unified monetary system of the country was completed. For the first time, the minting of coins was concentrated in the Moscow money yard, which was administered by the order of the Great Treasury. Moscow became the main mint, the role of the Novgorod and Pskov mints becomes secondary, and in 1620 they were completely closed. To pay for small purchases, a silver kopeck was very expensive, and the money and pennies needed for circulation were not enough. The prevailing coinage of the penny and the absence of small denominations in circulation were due to the unwillingness of the treasury to bear double and quarter consumption for coinage. The kopeck did not meet the increased demands of the market, making it difficult to make payments. Counting a significant amount of coins required a certain amount of time. This increased transaction costs and created certain inconveniences. For example, the calculation of a value in the amount of 200 rubles required the recalculation of 20,000 small nondescript kopecks. I had to maintain a large staff of counters.

The coin regalia is increasingly being used by the government to correct the affairs of the treasury. If under Ivan the Terrible they began to mint the pound instead of 1/4 - 1/5 of the ruble, then under Mikhail Fedorovich - 1/8, and under Alexander Mikhailovich - 1/10, which led to the devaluation of the ruble.

In 1654-1663. an attempt was made to reform the archaic monetary circulation by:

• expansion of the set of denominations;
• minting a ruble coin oriented towards a large European coin - "thaler";
• the use of not only silver, but also copper as monetary raw materials.

As a result of the monetary reform of 1654-63. in the circulation of Russia appeared: silver rubles; half-and-half; copper half; altyns and pennies.

An attempt was made to introduce copper altynniks into circulation. Initially, they were minted on round blanks, and then, according to the old technology, on pieces of flattened wire. The distrust of the population in unusual coins, the lightness of many denominations forced the government to start issuing full-fledged large coins in 1655 - "efimok with a sign." This is a European thaler, minted with an ordinary stamp depicting a horseman with a spear and a small hallmark with the date "1655". The course of the efimka was 64 kopecks. In the same year, according to the pattern and weight of silver coins, the production of copper kopecks began. The introduction of the silver ruble into circulation in the form of a coin ended in failure.

Despite the obvious inferiority of copper kopecks, the population accepted them as money familiar in appearance. The high authority of the tsarist government even made it possible to maintain at first an equal rate of silver and copper kopecks. However, the immoderate production of copper coins led to their rapid depreciation. By 1662, one silver kopeck was equal to the value of 15 copper kopecks.

In 1658, Alexei Mikhailovich forcibly issued copper money with a high rate, as a result, silver rose in price. In 1659, 5 altyns were given for one silver ruble, in 1660 26 altyns, in 1661 3 rubles were given for copper, in 1662 - 8 rubles, in 1663 - 15 copper rubles. This situation arose due to the fact that the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich used the minting of copper coins to cover military expenses. To get funds for the war with Poland and Sweden, they began to mint copper rubles 62 times cheaper than silver rubles. Excessive production of lightweight copper rubles led to higher prices. There was general murmuring and dangerous indignation. By 1662, one silver kopeck was equal to the value of 15 copper kopecks, so the "Copper Riot" arose in the country.

After the suppression of the "Copper Riot" in Moscow, the government began preparations for the return of the former monetary system. The tsar was forced to put silver money into circulation, and they stopped minting copper money, since for small change purposes the small copper coin in circulation was enough. It was ordered to withdraw copper coins from circulation. In 1663, copper altynniks were withdrawn from circulation along with copper kopecks. Until the beginning of the 18th century, silver wire altynniks, which were occasionally produced, continued to be used for award purposes. In 1663, copper coins were purchased from the population at a rate of 100:1. After that, it was forbidden to keep a copper coin. This crisis was stopped.

Thus, the tasks of the monetary reform of 1654-55. failed to be fully implemented. An unsuccessful attempt was made to introduce a silver ruble into circulation. For a normal monetary circulation, the following were necessary: ​​firstly, a structure of the money supply that was diverse in terms of nominal. Secondly, various types of monetary raw materials and, thirdly, international liquidity funds. While in Europe, starting from the 16th century, a large silver coin, the thaler, circulated, in Russia the following remained as counting concepts: ruble, half a penny (50 kopecks), half a half (25 kopecks), hryvnia (10 kopecks), altyn (3 kopecks), and the means of circulation were kopecks, money and polushki. Gold coins were minted in small quantities for settlements with foreign merchants. They were called chervonets. They were not used in domestic circulation during the times of Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich, as they were expensive and did not meet the demand of the domestic market.

1620-1632 Another tax reform was carried out: household taxation was introduced instead of land taxation. The year 1623 is significant in the financial history of Russia: for the first time, a “large annual estimate” was drawn up - the first Russian state budget. However, the main point of financial reforms was reduced to one thing - to increase revenues to the treasury. It has become a national tradition in Russia. The war, the army, the state apparatus and the court, and finally, the construction of state-owned manufactories - these, in fact, are all the items of expenditure of the "budget". There were no social programs at that time. In the 40s, an incredible increase in direct taxes began. It's hard to believe, but the owner's plow began to pay up to 1,700 rubles, while in the 16th century. paid 10-20 rubles. Although the money has fallen in price by half, the growth is still amazing. The amount of indirect taxes received by the treasury in 1642 also increased - in comparison with 1613 by 10 times.

At the same time, tax increases narrowed the consumer opportunities of the working population and the investment opportunities of young Russian businesses. Ultimately, there was no room left in the country for the development of the domestic market and the formation of effective demand.

In search of income, the treasury carried out various manipulations with money, sometimes very risky. So, in the second half of the XVII century. foreign coins - "efimki" - were accepted as a means of payment exclusively at a reduced rate - 14 altyn. Then they were melted down and a Russian coin was minted for 21 altyn 2 money. From this operation, the treasury received a profit of 55-60%. In connection with the wars with Poland and Sweden, the treasury tried to issue copper money, equating them to silver.

In 1678-1679. new census books were compiled, the yard became the unit of direct taxation. In 1680, the country's "normal" budget was drawn up for the first time. Three main taxes were established:

• quitrent tax;
• archery money;
• yamskaya and polonyanichnaya money, intended for the maintenance of the postal service and the ransom of captured Russian soldiers.

But the calm life of Russia did not last long. During the reign of Peter Alekseevich, all the successes and all the failures in the political life of Russia turned into an increase in taxes. Having made the unsuccessful Azov campaign in 1695 and having decided to build the Russian fleet (who will throw a stone in the memory of the tsar for this!), Peter immediately imposed a maritime service on the taxable population: having united all the peasants into “kumpanstvos” of 8,000 households, he from each such, so to speak, the company demanded one battleship each. So 35 ships were built. In addition, 12 courts paid township fees.

2. Foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century

By the middle of the XVII century. the main tasks of Russia's foreign policy are: in the west and northwest - the return of the lands lost during the Time of Troubles, and in the south - the achievement of security from the raids of the Crimean khans, who took thousands of Russians and Ukrainians into captivity.

By the 1930s, a favorable international situation was developing for the struggle against the Commonwealth for the return of Smolensk, especially since in the spring of 1632 a period of kinglessness began in Poland. In December of the same year, Smolensk was besieged by Russian troops commanded by the boyar M.B. Shein. The siege dragged on for eight months and ended in failure. The new Polish king Vladislav IV (an unsuccessful pretender to the Russian throne) arrived in time, in turn, blocked Shein's army. AT
In June 1634, the Polyanovsky peace treaty was concluded. All the cities captured at the beginning of hostilities were returned to the Poles, and Smolensk remained behind them. Vladislav finally renounced his claims to the Moscow throne. In general, the results of the Smolensk War were considered unsuccessful, and the culprits - Shein and Izmailov - were executed.

New military clashes between the Commonwealth and Russia began in 1654. At first, the war proceeded successfully for Russia: Smolensk and 33 other cities in Eastern Belarus were taken in the first campaign. At the same time, the Swedes invaded Poland and occupied its large territory. Then in October 1656 Russia concludes a truce with the Commonwealth, and in May of the same year begins a war with Sweden on the territory of the Baltic states. Having captured a number of fortresses, the Russians approached Riga, but the siege was unsuccessful. The war also went on in the lands of the Neva River, where, in particular, the Swedish city of Nyenschantz, which had great strategic and commercial importance, was taken, built by the Swedes near the mouth of the Neva at the confluence of the Okhta River. Meanwhile, Poland resumed hostilities. Therefore, at first, a truce was concluded with Sweden, and then in 1661 the Peace of Kardis (in the town of Kardis near Tartu), according to which the entire Baltic coast remained with Sweden.

The war with Poland, during which the warring parties had varying success, was long and ended with the signing in 1667 of the Andrusovo truce for 13.5 years, according to which Smolensk and all the lands east of the Dnieper were returned to Russia, and then concluded in 1686. "Eternal peace", which secured Kyiv for Russia for all eternity.

The end of the war with the Commonwealth allowed Russia to actively resist the aggressive intentions of the Ottoman Empire and its subject - the Crimean Khan. Back in 1637, the Don Cossacks captured the Turkish fortress of Azov, but, not supported by the Moscow troops, were forced to leave it in 1642, B 1677-1681. was conducted
Russian-Ottoman-Crimean war. In August 1677 and July 1678 The Ottomans are making attempts to take the fortress on the Right-Bank Ukraine - Chigirin. The second time they succeeded, the Russians left Chigirin. In January 1681, the Bakhchisarai truce was signed for 20 years. Ottomans
recognized Russia's right to Kyiv, the land between the Dnieper and the Bug
declared neutral.

Having concluded the "Eternal Peace" with the Commonwealth (1686), Russia simultaneously assumed obligations in alliance with Poland, Austria and Venice to oppose the Crimea and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), which, however, was important for Russia itself, as it provided access to to the Black Sea. This resulted in two Crimean campaigns by V. Golitsyn. During the first (in 1687), the Tatars set fire to the steppe, and in the face of a lack of water, food and fodder, the Russian army was forced to return. The second campaign allowed the 100,000th Russian army to reach Perekop, but
exhausted by the heat and incessant skirmishes with the Tatars, the troops did not dare to enter the Crimea.

3. Peasant war under the leadership of S. Razin

Peasant war led by Stepan Razin (1670-1671) - a protest movement of peasants, serfs, Cossacks and urban lower classes. In pre-revolutionary Russian historiography it was called a "rebellion", in the Soviet it was called the Second Peasant War (after the Uprising under the leadership of I.I. Bolotnikov).

The prerequisites for the uprising include the formalization of serfdom (the Cathedral Code of 1649) and the deterioration of the life of the lower classes in connection with the Russian-Polish war and the monetary reform of 1662. The ideological and spiritual crisis of society was aggravated by the reform of Patriarch Nikon and the church schism, the desire of the authorities to limit the Cossack freemen and integrate it added tension to the government system. The situation on the Don also aggravated due to the growth of the poor Cossacks, who did not receive, unlike the "homely" (rich Cossacks), salaries from the state and a share in the "duvan" (sharing) of fish production. A harbinger of a social uprising in 1666 led by the Cossack ataman Vasily Us, who managed to get from the Don to Tula, where Cossacks and runaway serfs from the surrounding counties joined him.

The unrest of the 1660s was mainly attended by the Cossacks, and the peasants who stuck to them tried to protect the interests not of their class, but of their own. In case of success, the peasants wanted to become free Cossacks or service people. The Cossacks and peasants were also joined by those from the townspeople who were dissatisfied with the liquidation in the cities in 1649 of the "white settlements" free from taxes and duties.

In the spring of 1667, a detachment of six hundred “raw” people appeared near Tsaritsyn, led by the “domestic” Cossack of the Zimoveysky town S.T. Razin. Having brought the Cossacks from the Don to the Volga, he began a “campaign for zipuns” (i.e., for prey), robbing caravans of ships with state-owned goods. After wintering in the Yaitsky town (modern Uralsk). The return of the Cossacks in August 1669 with rich booty strengthened Razin's fame as a successful ataman. At the same time, the legend about the massacre of the ataman with the Persian princess, captured in the form of military booty, was born that got into the folk song.

In the meantime, a new governor, I.S. Prozorovsky, arrived in Astrakhan, who carried out the order of the tsar not to let the Razintsy into Astrakhan. But the Astrakhans let the Cossacks in, saluting the lucky ataman with volleys of cannons from the only Oryol ship. According to an eyewitness, the Razints “came camp near Astrakhan, from where they went to the city in droves, dressed luxuriously, and the clothes of the poorest were sewn from gold brocade or silk. Razin could be recognized by the honor that was given to him, because it was only on their knees and, falling on their faces, that they approached him.

Thousands of Cossacks reached out to the fearless ataman. In the town of Kagalnik, created by him on the Don Island, preparations began for the campaign. Trying to show the breadth and generosity of the soul, Razin's supporters distributed and sold the loot for a pittance - oriental fabrics, dishes, jewelry, proving that everyone had enough good taken from the nobility. The voivode Prozorovsky himself could not resist the temptation and begged Razin for a sable fur coat. In the propaganda "charming sheets" Razin promised "to free everyone from the yoke and slavery of the boyars", calling to join his army.

Concerned, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich sent G.A. Evdokimov to the Don to find out about the plans of the Cossacks, but he was executed by the Razintsy on April 11, 1670 as an enemy spy. The appearance of Evdokimov was the reason for the start of hostilities of the Razintsy, which are now recognized as the Peasant War itself.

In May 1670, Razin with the Cossacks rowed up the Volga to Tsaritsyn, took him and, leaving 500 people there, returned to Astrakhan with 6,000 troops. In Astrakhan, Prozorovsky, trying to appease the archers, paid them their due salary and gave the order to fortify the city, and one of the streltsy detachments sent to detain the Razintsy. But the archers went over to the side of the rebels "with unfolded banners and drumming, began to kiss and hug, and agreed to stand for each other in body and soul, so that by exterminating the traitorous boyars and throwing off the yoke of slavery, they would become free people."

In June, about 12 thousand Cossacks approached Astrakhan. Razin sent Vasily Gavrilov and the yard Vavila to Prozorovsky for negotiations on the surrender of the city, but "the voivode tore up the letter and ordered that those who came be beheaded."

Astrakhan A. Lebedev and S. Kuretnikov led the rebels at night through the Bolda River and the tributary of the Turtle to the rear of the city. Inside the fortress, Razin's supporters prepared ladders to help the attackers. Before the assault, Razin said: “For the cause, brothers! Now take revenge on the tyrants who have hitherto kept you in captivity worse than the Turks or the pagans. I have come to give you freedom and deliverance, you will be my brothers and children, and you will be just as good as I am, just be courageous and remain faithful.

On the night of June 22, 1670, an uprising began in Astrakhan, the rebels took possession of the Zemlyanoy and Bely cities, penetrated the Kremlin, where they dealt with the boyars and the governor Prozorovsky, throwing them from the multi-tiered tower Raskat. The rebels formed a people's government in the city on the principle of the Cossack circle (Fyodor Sheludyak, Ivan Tersky, Ivan Gladkov and others, it was headed by ataman Vasily Us), after which the main part of the army moved up the Volga. The cavalry (2 thousand people) walked along the shore, the main forces sailed by water. On July 29, the Razintsy arrived in Tsaritsyn. Here the Cossack circle decided to go with the main forces to Moscow, and from the upper reaches of the Don to strike an auxiliary blow. Razin himself had a poor idea of ​​the result of the uprising and apparently meant only to create a large "Cossack republic".

On August 15, Razin with 10 thousand people was met with bread and salt in Saratov, Samara surrendered without a fight. On August 28, when Razin was 70 versts from Simbirsk, Prince Yu.I. Baryatinsky tried to drive the Cossacks out of Saransk, but was defeated and retreated to Kazan. Capturing cities, the Razintsy divided the property of the nobility and large merchants between the Cossacks and the rebels, calling "to stand for each other unanimously and go up and beat and bring out the traitorous boyars." The tsar's attempt to punish the Cossacks by stopping the delivery of grain to the Don added supporters to Razin, fugitive peasants and serfs ran to him. The rumor about Tsarevich Alexei (who actually died) and Patriarch Nikon, who was walking with Razin, turned the campaign into an event that received the blessing of the church and authorities. The Moscow authorities had to send a 60,000-strong army under the command of Yu.A. Dolgorukov to the Don.

An auxiliary detachment of the Razintsy, led by atamans Y. Gavrilov and F. Minaev (2000 people), marching up the Don to the Seversky Donets, was defeated by the Moscow army under the command of G. G. Romodanovsky, but another detachment took Alatyr on September 16, 1670. Razin stopped near Simbirsk, four times unsuccessfully tried to take the city. His supporter, a fugitive nun Alena, posing as a Cossack ataman, was taken by Temnikov, then Arzamas, where, elected head of the Cossack circle, she received the nickname Alena Arzamasskaya. A significant part of the rebels reached the Tula, Efremov, Novosilsky districts, executing nobles and governors along the way, creating authorities on the model of Cossack councils, appointing foremen, chieftains, captains, and centurions.

In mid-October 1670, the Moscow army of Dolgorukov inflicted a significant defeat on the 20,000-strong detachment of the rebels. Razin himself was wounded and went to the Don. There, on April 9, 1671, "homely Cossacks" led by Kornil Yakovlev handed him over to the authorities along with his brother Frol. Brought to Moscow, the leader of the rebels was interrogated, tortured and quartered in June 1671 in Moscow.

The news of the execution of the chieftain, having flown to Astrakhan, broke the morale of the rebels. On November 20, 1671, the new head of the Cossack circle, F. Sheludyak, tore up the sentence record, in which the Astrakhans swore to go to war against Moscow against "traitor-boyars". This meant that everyone was released from this oath. On November 27, 1671, Miloslavsky's troops recaptured Astrakhan from the Cossacks, the massacre began, which lasted until the summer of 1672. The artillery tower of the Kremlin was turned into a place of bloody interrogations (since then the tower has been renamed Torture). The Dutch eyewitness L. Fabricius recorded that they dealt not only with the leaders, but also with the rank and file participants through quartering, burying alive in the ground, hanging (“after such tyranny, no one was left alive except decrepit old women and small children”).

The reasons for the defeat of the uprising, in addition to its poor organization, the insufficiency and obsolescence of weapons, the lack of clear goals, lurked in the destructive, "rebellious" nature of the movement and the lack of unity of the insurgent Cossacks, peasants and townspeople.

The peasant war did not lead to changes in the situation of the peasantry, did not make life easier, but changes occurred in the life of the Don Cossacks. In 1671 they were first sworn allegiance to the king. This was the beginning of the transformation of the Cossacks into the support of the royal throne in Russia.

Conclusion

During the 17th century, great changes took place in the history of Russia. They touched every aspect of her life.

Under these conditions, the development of trade is of particular importance. Several large shopping centers were formed in Russia, among which Moscow stood out with its huge trade, with more than 120 specialized rows. Merchants were the leaders and masters of this process.

Meanwhile, during these same years, uprisings broke out in the country every now and then, in particular, the rather powerful Moscow uprising of 1662. The largest uprising was the uprising of Stepan Razin, who in 1667 led the peasants to the Volga.

After the peasant war in Russia, a number of important state measures were carried out, including the transition to a system of household taxation, transformations in the army, etc.

The economic prerequisites for the reforms of the early 18th century were created by the entire course of Russia's development in the 17th century. - the growth of production and the expansion of the range of agricultural products, the success of the craft and the emergence of manufactories, the development of trade and the growth of the economic role of the merchants.

Bibliography

1. Arslanov R.A., Blokhin V.V., Dzhangiryan V.G., Ershova O.P., Moseykina M.N. The history of the fatherland from ancient times to the end of the XX century. M.: Pomatur, 2006.
2. History of the world economy. Ed. G.B. Polyak, A.N. Markova. - M. Unity, 2007.
3. Novoseltsev A.P., Sakharov A.N., Buganov V.I., Nazarov V.D. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. - M.: LLC "Publishing house AST-LTD", 2007.

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In February 1613, Mikhail Romanov (1613-1645) was elected tsar at the Zemsky Sobor. A new dynasty is being established in Russia. His father, Fyodor Nikitich (monastic Filaret), cousin of the last tsar from the Rurik dynasty, Fyodor Ivanovich, after returning from Polish captivity in 1619, becomes the patriarch of all Russia,

The new government is primarily concerned with eliminating the consequences in the socio-economic and foreign policy spheres. In 1617, a peace treaty was concluded with Sweden, Russia returned Novgorod and Pskov, but lost land along the banks of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland, its only outlet to the Baltic Sea. In 1618, the Deulino truce with Poland was signed, leaving Smolensk and the Smolensk lands of the Commonwealth. The relatively calm reign of Mikhail Fedorovich was a time of gathering strength. However, these decades also became a period of latent maturation of new social contradictions that spilled onto the surface of social life in the first years of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676).

In connection with the increase in military spending in the 30-40s. taxes rise significantly. In 1646 an increased salt tax is introduced (an indirect tax to replace direct taxes). In 1647, the government renounces the salt tax and decides to collect direct taxes from the population for 1646 and 1647. and introduce new taxes. At the same time, management costs are being reduced, which deprives entire categories of the service population of wages. All this, along with the introduction of an indefinite investigation of fugitive peasants, leads to an increase in social tension.

The discontent of the population results in the Salt Riot in Moscow, unrest in Tomsk, Vladimir, Voronezh, Yelets, Kamskaya Salt and other cities. In 1650 major uprisings took place in Novgorod and Pskov. In the beginning. 60s again military spending (1654-1667 - the war with Poland due to the annexation of Ukraine) lead to a deterioration in the economic situation of the country. Trying to overcome it, the state issues copper money at the rate of gold. Taxes are collected in gold money, and wages are paid in copper. The natural consequence of this was the impoverishment of the population and the Copper Riot in Moscow in 1662. The tightening of the feudal regime leads to a peasant war led by Stepan Razin (1667 - 1671).

As a reaction to popular discontent, a new code of feudal law was adopted - the Cathedral Code of 1649, which regulated many processes in the socio-economic, political, and legal spheres: the formation of a single form of ownership was consolidated on the basis of the merger of patrimonial and local; the main classes-estates were consolidated; the transition from estate-representative to absolute monarchy was proclaimed; the church begins to obey the state through the creation of the Monastic order; there is a centralization of the judicial and administrative apparatus, a detailed development of the court system and the unification of legal relations on the basis of feudal principles; church institutions are deprived of the right to acquire new estates. In general, by confirming the abolition of fixed years, i.e., the indefinite search for fugitive peasants and the attachment of members of the township communities to the townships, the Cathedral Code strengthens and consolidates the “draft system”.

In 1652, on the initiative of Patriarch Nikon, the reform of the Russian church began. Nikon expressed the ideas of Caesaropapism, i.e., the superiority of spiritual power over secular power, and by his transformations he tried to strengthen the church organization. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich supported the reform, but wanted to subordinate the institution of the church to state interests with its help.

The reform was carried out with a focus on the Greek rites. This was opposed by the "zealots of ancient piety" led by Archpriest Avvakum - representatives of the clergy, who were guided by ancient Russian ritual traditions. The contradictions led to a split in the church and the emergence of religious opposition, which became the ideological shell of a broad social protest with an arsenal of means from armed uprisings (the Solovetsky uprising of 1 668-1676, the movement on the Don in the 80s, etc.) to mass self-immolations. By the end of the XVII century. several tens of thousands of people died in them.

The schism led to a crisis of religious and national consciousness (Moscow, which considered itself the third Rome, suddenly admits its errors and invites Greek and Ukrainian monks to copy church books), and in 1658. as a result of the conflict between the tsar and Nikon, the latter falls and the idea of ​​"the priesthood is higher than the kingdom" collapses.

Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), two more remarkable events take place. Foreign experts are beginning to be invited, and already by the middle. 17th century in Moscow, the German settlement was created. Foreign customs, clothing, and fashion began to enter the life of the Moscow aristocracy and the royal court.

A number of important socio-economic and political events marked the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682). The tax system was reformed, and from 1679 the transition to household taxation began in the country. The draft of the general reform, developed in 1681, touched upon many issues of governing the country and had a clearly anti-Duma and anti-patriarchal orientation. The main real act of Fyodor Alekseevich was the abolition of localism in 1682. From now on, the appointment to administrative posts was carried out regardless of the past merits of the family and its nobility.

In the 17th century the colonization of Siberia, begun by Yermak's campaign, continues. By the 20s. Russians established themselves already in the Yenisei region, in the 30-40s, Russian explorers reach Baikal and Transbaikalia. Thanks to the combined efforts of the Cossacks and peasants, with the support of the government, a huge distance to the Pacific Ocean was overcome in almost 100 years. Colonization was carried out by three streams: Cossacks and industrialists; governors and sovereign military people who built cities and prisons, established a management system; peasant agricultural colonization, thanks to it by the 80s. 17th century Siberia was able to provide itself with bread.

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Russian state in the 17th century.

Plan

1 Time of Troubles: civil war at the beginning of the 17th century.

2 Socio-political development of the country under the first Romanovs.

3 Church and state.

4 Socio-political struggle in the XVII century.

5 Foreign policy of Russia in the XVII century.

Literature

1 Buganov V.I. The world of history. Russia in the 17th century. M., 1989.

2 Bushuev S.V. History of the Russian State: Historical and Bibliographic Essays. Book. 2. M., 1994.

3 Demidova N.F. Service bureaucracy in Russia in the 17th century. and its role in the formation of absolutism. M., 1987.

4 Morozova L.E. Mikhail Fedorovich // Questions of history. 1992. No. 1.

5 Skrynnikov R.G. Boris Godunov. M., 2002.

6 Sorokin Yu.A. Alexey Mikhailovich // Questions of history. 1992.
№ 4-5.

7 Preobrazhensky A.A., Morozova L.E., Demidova N.F. The first Romanovs on the Russian throne. M., 2000.

One of the most difficult in the history of Russia was the period of the late 16th - early 17th centuries, known as the Time of Troubles. The turmoil shook the entire Russian society from top to bottom. Comprehending this contradictory period of Russian history, N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov and others studied in sufficient detail and exhaustively the actual sequence of events, their economic and social roots.

The beginning of the Time of Troubles was largely due to the fact that the dynasty of Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita was interrupted and the Russian throne became the arena of the struggle for power of numerous legitimate and illegal contenders - in 15 years there were more than 10 of them. , the rapidly growing Russian state. The country was plunged into a series of bloody internal upheavals that almost drew a line under its existence. The society was divided into several warring groups, part of the Russian territories was captured by enemies, there was no central government, there was a real threat of loss of independence.

turmoil- this is the product of a complex social crisis, and the reason for it was the suppression of the dynasty of Ivan Kalita. But the real reasons, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, were in the uneven distribution of state duties, which gave rise to social discord.

Historians of the Soviet period, considering these events, brought to the fore the factor of the class struggle. A number of modern researchers call the Time of Troubles the first civil war in Russia. There is another explanation for the content of the Time of Troubles - this is a powerful crisis that has engulfed the economic, socio-political sphere, morality. This is a period of virtual anarchy, chaos, unprecedented social upheavals.

The prerequisites for the Time of Troubles arose during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, who, with a sharp strengthening of despotic omnipotence, laid the foundations for this crisis.

The situation worsened due to the defeat in the Livonian War (1558 - 1583), which led to huge human and material losses. These losses increased significantly after the defeat of Moscow by the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray in 1571.

As an important prerequisite that led to the Troubles, historians also name the consequences of the "tyrannical" rule of Ivan the Terrible. Oprichnin, the repressions against the reformers shocked the whole society, dealt a blow to the country's economy and public morality.

In the historical literature it is noted that since 1588. BF Godunov became the real ruler in the country. He managed to strengthen his position even at the court of Ivan IV, by marrying the daughter of the beloved royal guardsman - Malyuta Skuratov. He took even stronger positions in Moscow, when the tsar Fedor married his sister Irina. It was during this period of time that he was given the right to independently receive foreign sovereigns by the official decision of the Boyar Duma. In this activity, he proved himself to be a far-sighted and experienced politician.

In 1598 Tsar Fedor died. With his death, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne ended. The state became a nobody's, as there were no heirs to the royal dynasty. Under these conditions, the highest Moscow aristocracy resumes the struggle for power.

There are three periods in the development of the Troubles:

- dynastic period of struggle for the throne;

- social- a period characterized by the internecine struggle of various strata of Russian society and the intervention of the interventionists in this struggle;

- National- the period during which the struggle of the people against foreign domination unfolds, the period culminating in the creation of a national government headed by M.F. Romanov.

According to the definition of S.G. Pushkarev, the struggle for power that began in 1598. led to the complete collapse of the state order, to the internecine struggle of "all against all."

At the beginning of 1598. The Zemsky Sobor elected B.F. Godunov (1598 - 1695) Tsar. He was the first elected tsar in the history of Russia. Historians differ in their assessment Boris Godunov and the period of his reign. V.N. Tatishchev called Godunov the creator of the serf regime in Russia. N.M. Karamzin believed that B.F. Godunov could earn the fame of one of the best rulers of the world, if he were the rightful king. V.O. Klyuchevsky noted the significant mind, talent of B.F. Godunov, although he suspected him of duplicity and deceit.

In modern historiography, these opposite opinions about Boris Godunov have been preserved. Some historians portray him as a temporary worker, a politician, unsure of himself and afraid of open actions. Other researchers, on the contrary, portray BF Godunov as a very wise sovereign. R.G. Skrynnikov wrote that B.F. Godunov had many great plans, but unfavorable circumstances prevented him from realizing them.

At the beginning of the XVII century. natural disasters hit Russia, and then a civil war broke out. In 1601 - 1603. a terrible famine gripped the whole country. Heavy rains and early frosts destroyed all peasant crops. Stocks of bread quickly ran out. According to written sources, a third of the kingdom of Moscow died out in three years. During the years of famine, BF Godunov twice (in 1601 and 1602) issued decrees on the temporary resumption of the output of peasants on St. George's Day. In this way, he wanted to ease the discontent of the people. Although the decrees did not apply to peasants from boyar and church lands, they aroused strong resistance from the feudal elite. Under their pressure, the tsar refused to resume St. George's Day in 1603.

A difficult situation arose in the country, which the Polish gentry took advantage of. In 1604 began the invasion of the Russian state troops False Dmitry I - a man who pretended to be Tsarevich Dmitry (the last son of Ivan IV). False Dmitry I received military support from the Polish feudal lords, who sought to capture Smolensk and Chernigov lands. The Polish intervention unfolded under the pretext of restoring the rightful tsar, Dmitry, to the Russian throne.

On August 15, 1604, having gathered a motley army of several thousand Polish adventurers, two thousand Russian Cossacks, False Dmitry I began a campaign against Russia. At the beginning of 1605 his army entered Moscow with calls to overthrow Boris Godunov. The king sent a large army against the impostor, which acted very indecisively. At this time, on April 13, 1605, Tsar Boris suddenly died in Moscow (apparently from a heart attack).

The death of B.F. Godunov gave impetus to the further development of the Time of Troubles in the Russian state. A grandiose civil war began, which shook the country to its foundations.

June 1605. a new tsar appeared on the Russian throne Dmitry I. He behaved like an energetic ruler, trying to create an alliance of European states to fight Turkey. But in domestic politics, not everything was successful for him. Dmitry did not observe the old Russian customs and traditions; the Poles who came with him behaved arrogantly and arrogantly, offending the Moscow boyars. After Dmitry married his Catholic bride Marina Mniszek, who arrived from Poland, and crowned her as a queen, the boyars, led by Vasily Shuisky, raised the people against him. False Dmitry I was killed.

Sat on the Russian throne Vasily Shuisky(1606 - 1610). Relying on the highest Moscow nobility, he became the first tsar in Russian history, who, upon assuming the throne, vowed to limit his autocracy. A cunning and treacherous politician, Vasily Shuisky promised his subjects to rule according to the law, retain all boyar privileges, and pass sentences only after a thorough investigation. This was the first treaty between the Russian tsar and his subjects. V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote that Vasily Shuisky was turning from a sovereign of serfs into a legitimate king of subjects, ruling according to the laws. It was a timid attempt to create a legal state in Russia.

But no attempts to come to an agreement with the people have brought good luck, have not reassured Russian society. The social stage of the Troubles began. In the spring of 1606 a rebellion began, known as the uprising of I.I. Bolotnikov. These events V.O. Klyuchevsky and S.F. Platonov was considered as a social struggle of the masses against the onset of serfdom. Soviet historians, emphasizing the social essence of these events, used such terms as "peasant revolution", "Cossack revolution", "peasant war". In recent years, in Russian historiography, such an assessment of the peasant war has been included as an integral part of the concept of "the first civil war in Russia."

The social base of I. Bolotnikov's uprising was very diverse: the destitute, runaway serfs, peasants, Cossacks and even boyars. According to the sources, the rebels had two armies: one was led by I. Bolotnikov with princes A. Shakhovsky and B. Telyatevsky, the other was the landowner from Tula I. Pashkov, who was later joined by the nobleman P. Lyapunov. Both rebel armies and their leaders did not differ much from each other in character, social composition, and methods of struggle.

The reasons for this uprising are quite complex. On the one hand, a deep social crisis and the strengthening of serfdom worsened the situation of the people and contributed to the growth of local unrest. On the other hand, Cossacks, nobles, boyars joined the rebel serfs. In the appeals of the leaders of the uprising there were no slogans to change the social order. Moreover, I. Bolotnikov distributed confiscated lands to his associates, and they became landowners. Therefore, it is impossible to interpret this uprising as a whole as anti-feudal.

Both rebel armies reached Moscow, where in the spring of 1607. I. Bolotnikov's army was defeated. This event further complicated the situation: robberies and criminality spread, False Dmitry II. The identity of a man who pretended to be Tsar Dmitry, who miraculously escaped a boyar conspiracy in Moscow, has not yet been reliably established. Oppressed peoples, Cossacks, part of the service people, detachments of Polish and Lithuanian adventurers gathered under his banner. False Dmitry II relied on the forces of the Polish feudal lords and on detachments of the Cossacks. According to V.B. Kobrin, the impostor inherited the adventurism of his predecessor, but not his talents. Having an army of almost 100,000, he was unable to restore order in its ranks, to drive Vasily Shuisky out of Moscow. False Dmitry II in July 1608 set up camp near the capital. For a year and a half there were two equal capitals in Russia - Moscow and Tushino, each with its own king, Duma and patriarch. The country was divided: some were for Tsar Vasily II, others - for False Dmitry II. The struggle between the king and the impostor went on with varying success until a third force appeared - the son of the Polish king Sigiz-mund III Vladislav.

The fact is that in 1609. V. Shuisky called for help Swedish army. At first, the Russian-Swedish troops successfully fought against the Polish, but soon the Swedes began to seize the Novgorod lands. As a result, intervention expanded. The presence of Swedish troops in Russia angered the Polish king Sigismund III, as he was at enmity with Sweden. September 1609. he crossed the border with his army and besieged Smolensk. At this time, sane people from different camps came to a compromise: they offered the Russian throne to Vladislav, the son of the Polish king. The Tushino camp disintegrated. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was killed at the end of 1610. Tsar Vasily was overthrown from the throne in the summer of 1610. and forcibly tonsured a monk. A group of 7 boyars turned out to be in power - “ Seven Boyars". At this moment, Sigismund, unexpectedly for everyone, decided to take the throne from his son. All plans of supporters of conflict resolution collapsed. The Moscow throne was again empty.

The growth of the Polish-Swedish intervention on Russian territory led to the beginning of the third - national stage of the Time of Troubles. In this extremely difficult time for the country, its patriotic forces managed to unite and repulse the claims of the invaders. In 1611 Zemsky Novgorod headman Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky united the people in the militia and managed to free the Russian lands from the invaders. This was the beginning of the struggle for the revival of the Russian state.

A strong central government was needed. At the beginning of 1613 was convened Zemsky Sobor to elect a new king. He was elected the son of a noble boyar - Mikhail Romanov(1613 - 1648). His reputation was pure, the Romanov family was not involved in any adventure of the Time of Troubles. And although M.F. Romanov was only 16 years old and had no experience, behind him stood an influential father - the Metropolitan Filaret.

The government of the young king faced very difficult tasks: 1) to reconcile the warring factions; 2) to repel the attacks of the invaders; 3) return some native Russian lands; 4) conclude peace treaties with neighboring countries; 5) to establish economic life in the country. In a relatively short period of time, these difficult tasks were solved.

The consequences of the Troubles for the country were ambiguous. Russia emerged from the Time of Troubles exhausted, with huge territorial and human losses. The international position of the country has sharply worsened, the military potential has weakened. At the same time, Russia retained its independence and strengthened its statehood through the strengthening of autocracy. There were changes in the social image of the country. While in the European states there was a slow erasure of differences between estates, in Russia the estate hierarchy was strengthening. Gradually, it was not the landed aristocracy (boyars), but the service nobility, that gradually began to take the first roles in the system of governing the country. The position of the bulk of the population (peasantry) worsened due to the onset of serfdom. Anti-Western sentiments intensified in the country, which aggravated its cultural and civilizational isolation.

In the 17th century our state, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, was an "armed Great Russia". It was surrounded by enemies and fought on three fronts: eastern, southern and western. As a result, the state had to be in a state of full combat readiness. Hence, the main task of the Moscow ruler was the organization of the country's armed forces. A powerful external danger created the prerequisites for an even greater strengthening of the central, that is, royal, power. From now on, the legislative, executive and judicial powers were concentrated in the hands of the king. All government actions were carried out on behalf of the sovereign and by his decree.

Mikhail Romanov(1613 - 1645) was the third elected tsar in the history of Russia, but the circumstances of his coming to power were much more difficult than those of B. Godunov and V. Shuisky. He got a completely devastated country, surrounded by enemies and torn apart by internal strife. Having ascended the throne, Michael left all the officials in their places, without sending anyone into disgrace, which contributed to general reconciliation. The government of the new king was quite representative. It included: I.B. Cherkassky, B.M. Lykov-Obolensky, D.M. Pozharsky, I.F. Troekurov and others. In the difficult situation in which the reign of Mikhail Romanov began, it was impossible to govern the country alone, authoritarian power was doomed to failure, so the young sovereign actively involved the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobors in solving important state affairs. Some researchers (V.N. Tatishchev, G.K. Kotoshikhin) consider these measures of the king to be a manifestation of the weakness of his power; other historians: V.O. Klyuchevsky, L.E. Morozova), on the contrary, believe that this reflected Mikhail's understanding of the new situation in the country.

Boyar Duma constituted the circle of the closest advisers to the tsar, which included the most prominent and representative boyars of that time and hokolniki, who received the boyar title from the tsar. The number of members of the Boyar Duma was small: it rarely exceeded 50 people. The powers of this body were not determined by any special laws, but were limited by old traditions, customs or the will of the king. IN. Klyuchevsky wrote that "the Duma was in charge of a very wide range of judicial and administrative issues." This confirms Cathedral code 1649, where it is indicated that the Duma is the highest judicial authority. During the XVII century. from the composition of the Boyar Duma, as needed, special commissions were allocated: laid judgment, reciprocal, etc.

Thus, in the period under review, the Boyar Duma was a permanent governing body that had advisory functions.

Zemsky Sobors were another body of the political system of that period. The composition of the cathedrals included representatives of four categories of society: the clergy, the boyars, the nobility, and the serving townspeople. Usually the composition consisted of 300 - 400 people.

Zemsky Sobors in the 17th century convened irregularly. The first decade after the Time of Troubles, their role was great, they met almost continuously, the composition of the participants changed. With the strengthening of the royal power, the role in solving issues of foreign, financial, tax policy is constantly falling. They are increasingly becoming informational meetings. The government of Mikhail Romanov needed information about the economic situation, about the country's financial capabilities in the event of a war, and information about the state of affairs in the provinces. The last time the Zemsky Sobor met in full force was in 1653.

From the second half of the XVII century. Another function of Zemsky Sobors is manifested. Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov(1645 - 1676) began to use them as an instrument of domestic policy in the form of a declarative meeting. It was a time in the history of our state when the first signs of absolutism Therefore, Zemsky Sobors served the government mainly as a place for declarations.

By the end of the XVII century. zemstvo cathedrals have disappeared. The main reason for this phenomenon is the absence of a third estate, citizenship. Throughout the 17th century throughout the country there was a process of steady development of commodity-money relations, the strengthening of cities, the gradual folding of the all-Russian market. But at the same time, the tradition of an alliance between the tsarist government and the boyars was strengthened, which was built on the further ruin of the population. Under these conditions, the central government rather unceremoniously treated the merchant class, which had never been a full-fledged private owner, occupying a humbled position. The city riots of the middle of the 17th century tried to change this situation, but the union of the tsarist government and the boyars was once again recorded in the Cathedral Code of 1649, according to which an even tougher tax and legislative oppression was imposed on the cities, at the same time there was a rapprochement between the noble estate and the boyars. estates.

Thus, the 17th century is associated with the strengthening of private property in its feudal form, which was one of the reasons for the decline in the role of zemstvo sobors.

The organs of central administration in the Muscovite State were orders. The first orders were created in the 16th century, in the 17th century. they have become more widespread. As noted in the historical literature, orders arose gradually, as administrative tasks became more complex, that is, they were not created according to a single plan, so the distribution of functions between them was complex and confusing. Some orders dealt with affairs throughout the country, others - only in certain regions, others - in the palace economy, fourth - in small enterprises. The number of employees in the orders steadily increased, and eventually they turned into a broad bureaucratic system of administration.

local government in Russia in the XV - the first half of the XVI century. was, as already mentioned, in the hands of governors and volostels, whose positions were called "feeding", and they - "feeders". In order to protect the population from arbitrariness and abuse in this area, the new government in the 17th century. introduced voivodeship. The governors were replaced by elected zemstvo authorities. Positions appeared in the cities governor who concentrated in their hands the civil and military power. They obeyed orders.

The voivodship government significantly reduced the abuses in tax collection, and most importantly, further centralized the administration of the country.

An analysis of the governing bodies at this stage of the country's development allows us to conclude that in the first half of the 17th century. Muscovy continues to be class-representative monarchy The power of the Russian sovereign was far from always unlimited. In addition, even having lost its exclusively aristocratic character, the Boyar Duma defended its rights, and the tsar was forced to reckon with this.

From the second half of the XVII century. the nature of the state becomes autocratically-bureaucratic. This was the period of the fall of the zemstvo principle, the growth of bureaucratization in the bodies of central and local self-government. In the mid 50s of the XVII century. autocracy was formally restored: Alexei Mikhailovich took the title of "Tsar, Sovereign, Grand Duke and Great and Small and White of Russia." At the same time, he spoke sharply about red tape in the order system, tried to restore order, suppressing bribery and self-interest.

Alexey Mikhailovich relied on smart, reliable people, therefore, during his reign, a galaxy of talented statesmen came to the fore: F.M. Rtishchev, A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin, A.S. Matveev, L.D. Lopukhin and others.

In addition, Tsar Alexei tried to solve many problems bypassing the order system. A huge number of complaints were received in his name about red tape and an unfair trial, so the king established Order of secret affairs, with significant functions and broad powers. The secret order acted on behalf of the king, was not constrained by laws. His activities allowed the king to concentrate in his hands the main threads of government. According to A.E. Presnyakov, the Secret Order of Alexei Mikhailovich played the same role as the Cabinet of His Majesty in the 18th century.

With the desire to concentrate in his hands the main levers of control was associated with a new social role of Alexei Mikhailovich, due to the beginning of the transition to absolute monarchy. In the historical literature, it is noted that Tsar Alexei, with his reforms and deeds, prepared and laid the foundation for the future transformations of Peter I.

So, in the XVII century. under the first Romanovs, those main features of the state and social system were formed that dominated Russia with minor changes until the bourgeois reforms of the 60s and 70s of the 19th century.

By the middle of the XVII century. fundamental changes taking place in Russian society and the state, caused by the desire to strengthen the centralization of the Russian church and strengthen its role in uniting with the Orthodox churches of Ukraine and the Balkan peoples, urgently demanded church reform. The immediate reason for the church reforms was the need to correct the liturgical books, in which many distortions had accumulated during the rewriting, and the unification of church rites. However, when it came to choosing models for correcting books and changing rites, strife arose among the clergy. Some argued that it was necessary to take as a basis the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551, which proclaimed the inviolability of ancient Russian rites. And others suggested using only Greek originals for “reference”, from which Russian translations of liturgical books were once made. According to the latter, including the rulers of the Moscow Printing House, this work could only be entrusted to highly professional theologian translators. In this regard, by decision of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Joseph, the learned monks of the Kyiv Mohyla Collegium (school) Epiphanius Slavinetsky, Arseniy Satanovsky and Damaskin Utitsky were invited to Moscow.

The impetus for the reform was also the activity of the established in the late 1640s. in the court environment of the mug "zealots of ancient piety", which was headed by the archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral, the confessor of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Stefan Vonifatiev. It included the archpriest of the Moscow Kazan Cathedral Ivan Neronov, the tsar's favorite deceitful Fyodor Rtishchev, the deacon of the Annunciation Cathedral Fyodor, the archimandrite of the Moscow Novospassky Monastery Nikon and his future opponent, Archpriest Avvakum from Yuryevets-Povolzhsky, as well as a number of other local archpriests. The main task of this circle was the development of a program of church reform, which, in accordance with the royal decision, was nevertheless based on Greek samples. This decision later became the formal reason split among the Russian clergy.

All work on the implementation of innovations introduced in accordance with the church reform was headed by the one elected to the patriarchal throne in 1652. a talented administrator, but an imperious and ambitious bishop Nikon, who made a rapid career with the support of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Having become patriarch, Nikon soon broke with his recent associates in the circle of "zealots of piety", who remained committed to the "old times", and he himself began to decisively introduce new church rites according to the Kievan and Greek models. So, the custom of being baptized with two fingers was replaced by three fingers, the word "hallelujah" during prayer had to be pronounced not twice, but three times, now it was necessary to move around the lectern not in the direction of the sun, but against it. He also made changes to the Greek style in the vestments of the Russian clergy (bishop's staff, hoods and mantles). All these innovations were approved by the church council, held in the spring of 1654. in Moscow with the participation of the Eastern Patriarchs. However, this further aggravated the confrontation between Patriarch Nikon and the "zealots", among whom stood out archpriest Avvakum, who became the recognized leader of the Old Believer movement. At the next council convened on the initiative of the patriarch in 1656. with the participation of the Patriarch of Antioch and the Serbian Metropolitan, the innovations introduced in church rituals were approved, and the supporters of the two-fingeredness were anathematized and subjected to exile and imprisonment.

However, the victory of Patriarch Nikon over the "zealots of ancient piety" at the same time contributed to the development of the discussion about church reforms from purely theological disputes into a broader socio-political movement. This was also facilitated by a personal factor - the character of Nikon himself, who, due to his ideas that the "priesthood" is higher than the "kingdom", soon came into conflict not only with the church hierarchs opposed to him, but also with influential court nobles, and then with himself king.

Open confrontation between Alexei Mikhailovich and Ni-. The end took place in the summer of 1658, when the tsar began defiantly to avoid communication with the patriarch, stopped inviting him to court receptions and attending patriarchal services. In response, Nikon decided to abandon his patriarchal duties and left Moscow for the magnificent New Jerusalem Resurrection Monastery he had built not far from the capital, hoping that the tsar would humble his pride and beg him to return to the patriarchal throne. However, the government of Alexei Mikhailovich did not intend to enter into negotiations with the rebellious patriarch. The church reform that had begun continued to be carried out in the country even without his participation. True, serious problems arose with the formal removal of Nikon from the patriarchate. Although he left Moscow, he did not lay down his dignity. This very delicate situation lasted for eight long years. Only in 1666. A new church council was convened with the participation of two Eastern patriarchs. Nikon was brought to Moscow by force. A trial took place over him, by the decision of which Nikon was officially deprived of the patriarchal rank for unauthorized abandonment of the department. After that, he was exiled north to the Ferapontov Monastery, and then he was imprisoned in the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, where he died in 1681.

Church Cathedral 1666-1667 by his decisions, he confirmed the need to continue the reforms of the Russian Orthodox Church, which were now carried out under the personal control of the tsar. By the same decisions, the struggle against the supporters of Archpriest Avvakum was even more severe. Now the schismatics were brought to trial by the "city authorities", that is, representatives of the secular authorities, and they were subject to criminal penalties in accordance with the norms of the Council Code of 1649. The very same ideological inspirer of the Old Believers, the talented church writer Archpriest Avvakum, who left behind a great literary heritage, after long-term imprisonment in Pustozersk in an "earth prison" by decision of the church council of 1681-1682. was burned alive in a log house along with his closest associates. By royal decree in 1685. schismatics were punished with a whip, and in the case of conversion to the Old Believers, they were burned.

Despite the most severe repressions, the Old Believer movement in Russia did not stop even after the execution of its spiritual leaders, but, on the contrary, took on an ever wider scope, often, both in the 17th century and in subsequent centuries, becoming the ideological justification for sometimes very sharp forms of social protest. in various strata of Russian society. The dogmas of the Old Believers were supported not only by the most oppressed social ranks of the serfs, but also by representatives of the nobility (for example, the noblewoman F.P. Morozova and her sister, Princess E.P. Urusova), as well as a considerable part of the Russian merchants and Cossacks. The schismatics, trying to evade the performance of the church rites of "Nikonianism", often fled to the outlying lands of Russia, went to the Volga and Siberia, to the remote regions of the North and the Kama region, as well as to the free Don. In these places, the schismatics founded their hermitages and deserts, made a significant contribution to the economic development of previously uninhabited lands. Already in the XVIII century. the tsarist government was forced to officially recognize the existence of splitism. In a number of large cities, including the capital, it was allowed to open Old Believer churches, cemeteries and even monasteries.

The development of the country's economy was accompanied by major social movements. It was not by chance that the 17th century was called the "rebellious age" by contemporaries.

In the middle of the century, there were two peasant "disturbances" and a number of urban uprisings, as well as the Solovetsky rebellion and two streltsy uprisings in the last quarter of the century.

The history of urban uprisings opens salt riot 1648 in Moscow. Various segments of the population of the capital took part in it: townspeople, archers, nobles, dissatisfied with the pro-boyar policy of the government of B. I. Morozov. The reason for the speech was the dispersal by archers on June 1 of a delegation of Muscovites who were trying to submit a petition to the tsar at the mercy of orderly officials. Pogroms began in the courts of influential dignitaries. The Duma clerk Nazariy Chistoy was killed, the head of the Zemsky order, Leonty Pleshcheev, was given to the crowd to be torn to pieces, and the devious P.T. Trakhaniotov was executed in front of the people. The tsar managed to save only his "uncle" Morozov, urgently sending him into exile in the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery.

The uprising in Moscow received a wide response - a wave of movements in the summer of 1648. covered many cities: Kozlov, Salt Vychegodskaya, Kursk, Ustyug the Great, and others. The most stubborn and prolonged uprisings were in 1650. in Pskov and Novgorod, they were caused by a sharp increase in the price of bread as a result of the government's commitment to deliver grain to Sweden. In both cities, power passed into the hands of zemstvo elders. The Novgorod elected authorities showed neither steadfastness nor decisiveness and opened the gates to the punitive detachment of Prince I. N. Khovansky. Pskov, on the other hand, offered successful armed resistance to government troops during a three-month siege of the city (June-August 1650). Zemskaya hut, headed by Gavriil Demidov, became the sovereign owner of the city, distributing bread and property confiscated from the rich among the townspeople. At the emergency Zemsky Sobor, the composition of the delegation was approved to persuade the Pskovites. The resistance ended after all the participants in the uprising were forgiven.

In 1662 in Moscow there was a so-called copper riot, caused by the protracted Russo-Polish war and the financial crisis. The monetary reform (the minting of depreciated copper money) led to a sharp fall in the exchange rate of the ruble, which primarily affected the soldiers and archers who received monetary salaries, as well as artisans and small merchants. On July 25, "thieves' letters" with an appeal to action were scattered around the city. The excited crowd moved to seek justice in Kolomenskoye, where the tsar was. In Moscow itself, the rebels smashed the courts of the boyars and wealthy merchants. While the tsar was persuading the crowd, and the boyars were holed up in the distant chambers of the tsar's palace, regiments of archers loyal to the government and the "foreign system" approached Kolomenskoye. As a result, several hundred people died, and 18 were publicly hanged.

The culmination of popular performances in the XVII century. became an uprising Cossacks and peasants under the leadership of S. T. Razina. This movement originated in the villages of the Don Cossacks. The Don freemen have always attracted fugitives from the southern and central regions of the Russian state. Here they were protected by an unwritten law - "there is no extradition from the Don." The government, needing the services of the Cossacks for the defense of the southern borders, paid them a salary and put up with the self-government that existed there.

Stepan Timofeevich Razin, a native of the village of Zimoveiskaya, belonged to the homely Cossacks, enjoyed great prestige. In 1667 he led a detachment of a thousand people, who went on a campaign "for zipuns" to the Volga, and then to the river. Yaik, where the Yaitsky town was occupied with a fight. In the summer of 1668 already almost 2,000 Razin's army successfully operated in the possessions of Persia (Iran) on the Caspian coast. The captured valuables were exchanged for. Russian prisoners who replenished their ranks. In the summer of 1669 the Cossacks defeated the fleet near Pig Island (south of Baku), equipped against them by the Persian Shah. This greatly complicated Russian-Iranian relations and aggravated the government's position towards the Cossacks.

In early October, Razin returned to the Don via Astrakhan, where he was greeted with triumph. Inspired by good luck, he began to prepare a new campaign, this time "for the good king" against the "traitor-boyars". The next campaign of the Cossacks along the Volga to the north resulted in peasant turmoil. The Cossacks remained the military core, and with the influx into the detachment of a huge number of fugitive peasants, the peoples of the Volga region - Mordovians, Tatars, Chuvashs - the social orientation of the movement changed dramatically. In May 1670 The 7,000-strong detachment of S. T. Razin captured the city of Tsaritsyn, at the same time, detachments of archers sent from Moscow and Astrakhan were defeated. Having approved the Cossack administration in Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, Razin moved north - Saratov and Samara voluntarily went over to his side. Razin turned to the population of the Volga region with "charming letters", in which he called for joining the uprising and harassing "traitors", that is, boyars, nobles, governors, and orderly people. The uprising covered a vast territory, on which numerous detachments were operating, led by atamans M. Osipov, M. Kharitonov, V. Fedorov, nun Alena, and others.

In September 1670 Razin's army approached Simbirsk and stubbornly besieged it for a month

Russia during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible. The reign of Ivan IV Vasilyevich lasted more than half a century (1533 - 1584) and was marked by many important events. This period of Russian history, as well as the personality of the monarch himself, has always provoked discussions. According to N.M. Karamzin, "this era is worse than the Mongol yoke." ON THE. Berdyaev wrote that "in the atmosphere of the 16th century everything sacred was suffocated."

a) domestic policy and reforms of Ivan the Terrible. Years of life Ivana IV - 1530 - 1584 . He was 3 years old when his father - Vasily III (1533) died. The mother, Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya, (from the princes of Glinsky, immigrants from Lithuania) became the regent for the young Grand Duke. A struggle for power breaks out between the boyar factions. Ivan's paternal uncles, Yuri and Andrei Ivanovich, were imprisoned and died a "suffering death" (because they claimed the throne). In 1538 Elena dies (perhaps she was poisoned by the boyars). The era of boyar rule begins - unrest, the struggle for influence on the young grand duke, especially at the same time the princes Shuisky and Belsky were zealous.

Ivan boyars were poorly fed and clothed, humiliated in every possible way, but at official receptions they showed him signs of respect. Hence, from childhood, he developed distrust, suspicion, hatred for the boyars, but at the same time - disregard for the human person and human dignity in general.

Ivan had a natural inquisitive mind, and although no one cared about his education, he read a lot, knew all the books that were in the palace. His only friend and spiritual mentor is the Metropolitan Macarius(since 1542 the head of the Russian church), compiler of the Four Menaia, a collection of all church literature known in Russia. From the Holy Scriptures, Byzantine writings, Ivan brought a high idea of ​​\u200b\u200bmonarchical power and its divine nature - "the king is the vicar of God." He himself later also engaged in writing, his famous "Messages" to Prince A. Kurbsky, the English Queen Elizabeth, the Polish King Stefan Batory and others have been preserved.

Boyar rule led to a weakening of the central government, which in the late 40s. caused discontent in several cities. In addition, terrible fires broke out in Moscow in the spring and summer of 1547, and "the black people of the city of Moscow shook from great sorrow." Glinsky was accused of arson, many boyars, incl. relatives of Ivan, "pobisha". Ivan was frightened, repented of his sins and promised to atone for them with his transformative activity. In the same 1547, he came of age and, on the advice of Macarius, was married with the "cap of Monomakh" for the reign, officially taking the title "the king and Grand Duke of All Russia. The independent reign of the young king begins. Then Ivan married the boyar Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina-Yuryeva, having lived with her for 13 years. Anastasia was probably the only one of Ivan's wives whom he truly loved, she had a beneficial effect on him.

The reign of Ivan IV is usually divided into two periods: the first - internal reforms and foreign policy successes; second - oprichnina.

First period - 1547 - 1560 - associated with activity Chosen Rada, which included Metropolitan Macarius, clerk Ivan Viskovaty, Archpriest Sylvester, Alexei Adashev (head of the Petition Order, which gave him knowledge of the real state of affairs in the country), Prince Andrei Kurbsky. They made up the inner circle of the king, who sought to rely on trusted people when carrying out reforms.

In 1549 - the first was convened Zemsky Sobor, which included the Boyar Duma, the clergy, the nobility, the top of the cities. At the councils, issues of reforms, taxes, and the judicial system were resolved. Ivan denounced the abuses of the boyars and promised that he himself would be a "judge and defense" for the people. boyar turmoil formidable

AT 1550 new Sudebnik, which limited the power of governors . The old custom was confirmed that in the court of governors and volosts appointed by the king, there were elders and "best people" from the local population, who began to be called "kissers"(because they took the oath by kissing the cross). It was decided that "without the headman and without kissers, the court cannot be judged." Sudebnik also confirmed St. George's Day and established a single rate of taxation - a large plow (400 - 600 hectares of land, depending on the fertility of the soil and the social status of the owner of the land).

In 1551, a church council was convened, called Stoglav, according to the number of answers to one hundred royal questions, exposing church orders. Stoglav- a code of legal norms for the inner life of the clergy and its relationship with society and the state. The main decisions of the cathedral: an all-Russian list of saints was compiled; unified church rites; to oversee the clergy, "priest elders" were established; monasteries were forbidden to acquire patrimonial possessions "without a report" to the king. Objectively, this was another stage on the path of subordinating the church to the state.

Reform of the central administrative apparatus. Instead of the Sovereign Palace and the Treasury, a system of specialized orders. The first orders arose even before the reforms of Ivan IV (an order, i.e. an instruction to manage certain industries or territories); by the middle of the 16th century. there were already two dozen of them - Ambassadorial, Local, Bit, Petition, Sagittarius, Rogue, Serf etc .

Local government reform. In the mid 50s. governors are abolished, feeding is cancelled. Positions have arisen labial(from local nobles) and zemstvo(from wealthy peasants) elders, who began to head the local administration, carry out the court and collect taxes.

Military reform. The core of the army was noble militia. In 1550, "the tsar and the boyars were sentenced" to distribute estates in Moscow and neighboring districts to "children of the boyars, the best servants of a thousand people," who then formed a detachment of service people "according to the Moscow list." Was created archery army. In peacetime, the archers were engaged in agriculture, carried the protection of the Kremlin, participated in the suppression of riots, i.e. also performed police functions.

In 1556, a general Service regulations landlords (nobles) and estates. Specially sent officials "on the estates, they arrange land surveying for them, so arrange what is worthy for anyone, and divide the surplus among the poor." Landowners and votchinniki necessarily and equally carried out military service according to the general norm: "from a hundred-quarters of good, pleasing land, a man is on horseback and in full armor, and on a long trip - about two horses" (1 quarter - 1/2 ha, 100 quarters with three fields - 150 ha). In addition to the estates, for the worthy and the needy, "the sovereign's monetary salary" was supposed. (If the possessions were less than 150 hectares, then the state compensated the lack to the owner; if more, then he himself paid extra to the treasury). Thus, the army was divided into two parts: " service people in the homeland", (i.e. by origin) - boyars and nobles who were part of the militia; " service people on the instrument", (i.e., by recruitment, conscription) - archers, gunners, city guards, Cossacks.

Reforms of the middle of the XVI century. strengthened the power of the king, streamlined local and central government, strengthened the military power of the country. However, their results did not quite suit Ivan the Terrible.

The second period of Ivan's reign IV - 1560 - 1584 Its main content was oprichnina(1560 - 1572). In 1560, Sylvester and Adashev fell into disgrace (the latter, among other things, was accused of the slow course of the Livonian War), and the activities of the Chosen Rada ceased. In August of the same year, Ivan's first wife, Anastasia, died; with her death, an important deterrent in the policy and behavior of the tsar disappeared. In 1563, his longtime mentor, Metropolitan Macarius, died. The tsar's indignation is also caused by the betrayal of Prince A. Kurbsky and his flight to Lithuania in 1564. There is a famous exchange of messages between Ivan the Terrible and Kurbsky: Ivan defends the principles of autocracy, and Kurbsky accuses him of terror. All these circumstances exacerbate the tsar's suspicion, and are for him a confirmation of the boyars' "treason".

On December 3, 1564, Ivan, together with his family, elected boyars and nobles, went to the village of Kolomenskoye to celebrate St. Nicholas Day (December 6). He takes with him "Moscow holiness" (the main icons and crosses of Moscow churches), "his entire treasury", clothes, jewelry. He stayed in Kolomenskoye for two weeks because of the mud, then settled in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda (now it is the city of Aleksandrov, Vladimir Region, about 150 km northeast of Moscow).

A month later, on January 3, 1565, Ivan sent two messages to Moscow. The first was addressed to the metropolitan, where he accused the boyars and clerks of "treason" and causing damage to the state before reaching his majority. The second - to the townspeople that "there is no anger and disgrace" against them. The mob of Moscow still remembered the boyars' arbitrariness, so they asked the tsar to return and rule "as he pleased the sovereign", expressing their readiness to destroy the "traitors" themselves. In February 1565, Ivan returned to Moscow and announced his conditions: "to put disgrace on traitors, to execute others," and to take their property to the treasury.

Thus, Ivan the Terrible established oprichnin y. This word was borrowed from the terminology of the period of feudal fragmentation ("oprich" - "except"). In the XIV - XV centuries. this was the name of the landed property of the widow princesses, which was given to them in full ownership, in addition to " subsistence"- life-long use of her husband's land. Ivan created for himself a special court with boyars, clerks, courtiers, everything here -" inflict yourself especially. "He selected a thousand people from the service people (then their number increased to 5 thousand). According to Kurbsky, this “bad people and filled with all sorts of wickedness.” Special streets in Moscow were assigned to them for living, and their former inhabitants were evicted.

All guardsmen swore an oath of allegiance to the king - "not to know anyone." In black clothes, on black horses, to the neck of which dogs' heads were tied, and tow (imitation of a broom) on the whip, they, like dogs, had to "gnaw out treason" and sweep it with a broom. At the head of the guardsmen was Malyuta Skuratov.

Ivan singled out about 20 cities with districts for the maintenance of the oprichnina court. The lands there were distributed to guardsmen, the former owners moved to the outskirts. AT oprichnina part included the most economically developed regions of the country, trading centers along navigable rivers, important border outposts. The rest of the state zemshchina- formally controlled by the Boyar Duma and orders. They reported to the king only on the most important matters.

Having established the oprichnina, Ivan began to "put disgrace" on the traitors. He began with the closest supporters of Kurbsky, six boyars were beheaded, another one was impaled. Has begun oprichnina terror, which immediately provoked resistance from both individual influential persons (the boyar Repnin), and in general opposition from the zemshchina, boyars and nobles. In 1566, the Zemsky Sobor, convened to resolve the issue of financing the Livonian War, instead demanded the abolition of the oprichnina.

Moscow Metropolitan Philip in 1568, publicly, during a service in the Assumption Cathedral, demanded that executions be cancelled. He was deposed from the metropolitan throne, exiled to one of the Tver monasteries and soon killed. In 1570, a terrible rout of Novgorod was carried out on a false slander about his betrayal in favor of Lithuania. This caused general outrage.

The king realized that it was time to cancel the oprichnina. In part, she achieved her goals, in part, he himself was afraid of what he had done. However, the foreign policy factor played a decisive role here - the attacks of the Crimean Tatars. In 1571, Khan Devlet-Girey captured and burned Moscow, the guardsmen failed to resist him, but in the next 1572 he suffered a crushing defeat, and the archers played the main role in his defeat. This showed the ineffectiveness of the oprichnina army, which was disbanded. By decree of 1572, it was even forbidden to use the word "oprichnina". Mass terror ceased, however, some historians (S.M. Solovyov, S.F. Platonov and others) believed that the oprichnina actually remained until the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, because. continued lawlessness, "brute force people."

Results of oprichnina rule: 1) Gain centralization; after the execution of Prince V. Staritsky, the last specific principality disappeared;

• 2) economic crisis; including . reduction in crop areas, which caused massive famine; on the whole, the economic resources of the country were undermined (for example, in 1565 Ivan took 100,000 rubles from the zemstvo to "uplift" himself, with this money one could buy 100,000 working horses);
• 3) population decline; losses from terror, plague and famine amounted to approx. 500 thousand (the entire population of Russia numbered approximately 7 - 9 million); all social strata were subjected to terror, for one executed boyar there were 3 - 4 noblemen, and for one "serving in the fatherland" - a dozen commoners (V.B. Kobrin); in addition, the peasants fled to the new eastern lands, to the Don, which caused the introduction in 1581 of the reserved years, when the transition of the peasants was forbidden on St. George's Day.

In general, the oprichnina can be viewed as forced centralization, the purpose of which was to strengthen the personal power of the tsar, and mass terror became the main method. The Russian monarchy under Ivan IV takes on the character despotism.

b) the foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible. The main tasks of Russia's foreign policy in the middle of the 16th century: in the West- the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea; in the east- the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, the development of Siberia; on South- protection from the raids of the Crimean Tatars.

In 1552 conquered Kazan Khanate, then the peoples subject to Kazan (Mordovians, Chuvashs, Bashkirs, Udmurts, Tatars) were conquered. The accession of the southern Udmurts to the Russian state took place in 1558. In 1556 it was conquered Astrakhan. All the Middle and Lower Volga regions, the Kama region are included in Russia. In the 80s. there are new cities - Samara, Tsaritsyn, Saratov, Ufa.

Colonization begins Siberia. The merchants Stroganovs, who had a charter from the tsar for the development of lands east of the Urals, hired a large detachment of Cossacks led by Yermak to fight the Siberian Khanate. In 1581 Yermak defeated Khan Kuchum and occupied his capital Kashlyk. The fight against Kuchum ended in 1598 with the annexation of Western Siberia to Russia, which at the same time became the patrimony of the Stroganovs.

In the West, a struggle is unfolding for access to the Baltic Sea, incl. for the Baltic lands, formerly belonging to Veliky Novgorod and captured by the Livonian Order. In 1558 began Livonian War, which began successfully, Narva, Yuriev, 20 Livonian cities were taken. However, then the master of the Livonian Order, Kepler, surrendered under the patronage of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Revel and Estonia recognized the authority of the Swedish king, which meant war with Lithuania and Sweden. In 1563, Ivan devastated the Lithuanian possessions and took Polotsk, this was the last military success of Russia.

In 1582 it was concluded Yam-Zapolskoye truce with Commonwealth(formed in 1569 as a result of the unification of Poland and Lithuania), and Plyusskoe a truce with the Swedes in 1583 ended the Livonian War. Russia lost the conquered lands and did not get access to the Baltic Sea.

On the southern borders of the Muscovite state, it was possible to create a defensive line against Crimean Khanate. In this way, results of foreign policy are ambiguous. Russia achieved the greatest success in the east, destroying the remnants of the Golden Horde and annexing the Volga region, the beginning of the development of Siberia was laid.

In 1581 the tsar killed his eldest son Ivan in a fit of rage. The weak, sickly Fyodor Ivanovich became the heir to the throne.

• March 18, 1584 Ivan the Terrible suddenly died. Results his reign- contradictory. On the one hand - important reforms (during the first period of government), the expansion of the territory of the state. However, failures in the Livonian War, the oprichnina led to the destruction of the country and actually prepared " Troubled time".
• in) features of the political development of the Muscovite state in the XVI century. The question of the form of the Russian state in the XVI century. is debatable. A number of historians believe that as a result of the reforms of Ivan the Terrible, estate-representative monarchy. However, while outwardly similar to the class-representative institutions of Western Europe (the English Parliament, the Estates General in France, the Cortes in Spain, the German Reichstags), Zemsky Sobors differed from them in the way they were formed (convened by the tsar, not elected), in composition (in they included senior officials appointed by the government), by function (they did not have the right to legislative initiative, did not protect the interests of the estates).

Thus, Zemsky Sobors did not limit the power of the sovereign, but rather served to strengthen it. According to a number of historians (V.F. Petrakov), the idea of ​​separation of powers is being affirmed in the West, and in Russia - the idea catholicity authorities and society. The Russian state has acquired a special political form - autocracy,- when the only bearer of power was the king.

Russia at the turn XVI-XVII centuries Time of Troubles. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the king becomes Fedor Ioannovich(1584 - 1598). The struggle for influence on the weak, "crazy" (according to contemporaries) tsar begins. The king's brother-in-law comes first Boris Godunov(his sister Irina is Fyodor's wife). Godunov actually becomes the ruler of the state. He came from a minor boyar family, so they treated him like an upstart.

The main danger for Godunov is the tsarevich Dmitry, the son of the fifth wife of Ivan the Terrible, Maria Nagoy, is the last heir to the throne from the Rurik dynasty. He lived with his mother in Uglich and in 1591 died under unclear circumstances, and the rumor immediately blamed Boris for his death. In reality, the reasons for the death of the prince are unknown, but Godunov was followed by the trail of the murderer of the legitimate heir. It became one of psychological background Troubles.

In 1598 Tsar Fedor dies. The Moscow branch of the Rurikovich is interrupted, which caused dynastic crisis and the struggle for power, because state - " draw"In 1598, the Zemsky Sobor, with the assistance of Patriarch Job (the patriarchate in Russia was established in 1589 precisely on the initiative of Godunov), elects Boris to the throne. The period begins" Time of Troubles".

Causes of the Troubles of 1598 - 1613: 1) The desire of the big boyars to seize power, using the termination of the legitimate dynasty, and compensate for the losses and humiliations during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, especially during the oprichnina.

• 2) Severe socio-economic crisis at the turn of the XVI - XVII centuries. as a result of the Livonian War and the oprichnina. A stream of people from the central regions rushed to the Middle and Lower Volga; the landowners sought to compensate for the shortage of labor force by increasing duties and even greater enslavement of the peasants. At the end of the XVI century. a decree is issued that all free servants and workers who have served the masters for more than six months become indentured serfs.
• 3) The consequences of the oprichnina. The destruction of old customs, the split of society, demoralization - the neglect of someone else's life and property.
• 4) The end of the old dynasty is both a pretext and a reason for the Troubles. While there were Rurikovichs, everyone, despite the problems and difficulties, basically obeyed the "natural sovereigns". But when the state is "no one's", then everyone starts pursuing their own interests. Boyars were dissatisfied with the unlimited power of the king; metropolitan nobility opposed the strengthening of the boyars; provincial nobility wanted to have their share in the government of the country; hard population, the peasantry fought against the oppression of the state and the landowners in general, etc. Each group nominated its own candidate for the throne. A phenomenon arises imposture. "The Pretender is baked in a Polish oven, but fermented in Moscow" (V.O. Klyuchevsky).
• 5) The policy of Godunov himself, who had a distrust of rival boyars, encouraged espionage and denunciations. In 1601, several boyars, accused of treason, fell into disgrace, incl. - the Romanov brothers, the most capable of them - Fedor Nikitich (father of the future Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich) - was forcibly tonsured a monk under the name Filaret.
• 6) Natural disasters - in 1601 there was a crop failure, repeated for the next two years. As a result - " great smoothness and pestilence". A lot of people went around the world, rich people released their servants "to freedom" so as not to feed them and, thereby, increased the number of homeless people, vagrants and robbers. In 1604, there was an uprising led by Cotton Clubfoot.

At this moment in Poland appears impostor, posing as a "miracle escaped" Tsarevich Dmitry. It is still not known exactly who he is. Godunov's official propaganda claimed that he was a boyar's son Grigory Otrepiev, who became a monk of the Chudov Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin and then fled to Lithuania. Help an impostor - False Dmitry I- provided by some Polish magnates, incl. governor Yuri Mnishek (for a promise to marry his daughter Marina), King Sigismund III (in exchange for part of Western Russian lands), the Pope (in the hope of spreading Catholicism in Russia).

In October 1604, False Dmitry I enters Russia, issues appeals to the people, and promises everyone freedom and privileges. One by one, the cities, the Dnieper and Don Cossacks, go over to his side. In April 1605, Boris suddenly dies, and the boyars do not recognize his son Fyodor as king. The Moscow army goes over to the side of False Dmitry, and in June 1605 Moscow solemnly welcomes the impostor.

However, Muscovites soon become dissatisfied with the new ruler, because. he did not observe the old customs (rarely took a bath, did not sleep after dinner), and the Poles who came with him behaved arrogantly. The culmination of discontent was the arrival of Marina Mnishek. False Dmitry married her, crowned her as a queen, but she refused to convert to Orthodoxy.

IN AND. Shuisky together with the boyars, he organizes a conspiracy and on May 17, 1606, convenes the people with a tocsin. False Dmitry I was captured and killed, his corpse was burned, the ashes were mixed with gunpowder, a cannon was loaded with this mixture and fired in the direction from which he came, i.e. in the direction of the Commonwealth.

Thus ended the first dynastic, the stage of the Time of Troubles (classification by S.F. Platonov), when there was an apex struggle for the throne. Then the second phase began social,- when mass unrest occurs, incl. rebellion led by Ivan Bolotnikov(1606 - 1607). In essence, this is Civil War.

It begins with the election of Vasily Shuisky as king, which was a signal for general disorder and chaos. He, like Godunov, had no legal rights to the throne. Strictly speaking, Shuisky was not elected, but " shouted out"by the tsar with his supporters on Red Square.

Soon appeared False Dmitry II. Everyone understood that this was an impostor, but no one was interested in his origin. The main thing is that he united all those who were dissatisfied against the boyar tsar, promised "uncomplicated wealth." The social rank and file, Cossacks, service people, Polish and Lithuanian adventurers joined the new impostor. Marina Mnishek agreed to become his wife. Approaching Moscow, False Dmitry II stopped in Tushino, hence his nickname - " Tushinsky thief".

To fight False Dmitry II, Vasily Shuisky turns to the Swedes for help. At the head of the united army - Vasily's nephew, Prince Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky. He cleared the north of Russia from the Tushinians and moved to Moscow. Tushinsky thief fled to Kaluga. Skopin-Shuisky enters Moscow, but in April he suddenly fell ill and died (perhaps he was poisoned by envious people).

The intervention of the Swedes caused an intervention from Poland, hostile to Sweden. IN AND. Shuisky finally lost all authority. On July 17, 1610, he was deposed from the throne and forcibly tonsured a monk. After that, "Prince F.I. Mstislavsky and his comrades rule" (" Seven Boyars"). In order to get rid of the "Tushino thief", they preferred a lesser evil - to nominate Prince Vladislav, the son of the Polish king Sigismund III Vaz, to the kingdom. On August 27, Moscow swore allegiance to Vladislav and, at the same time, was occupied by the Poles, who caused general discontent, but they were tolerated because of fear of the “Tushino thief.” However, when in December 1610 the “thief” was killed in Kaluga as a result of internecine skirmishes, the Russians were left with one main enemy - foreigners.

Begins last period Troubles - fight with foreign intervention. At the head of the national-religious resistance - the patriarch Hermogenes. In his letters, he calls on the Russian people to rise up to fight against the common enemy - the Poles, for which he was sent to prison and died of starvation.

In response to the call of the patriarch, two zemstvo militias. First- led by Procopius Lyapunov - in the spring of 1611 besieges Moscow. However, disagreements arise between its participants, Lyapunov, on a false slander, was killed by the Cossacks, and the nobles who joined the militia went home.

Second militia create Kuzma Minin-Sukhoruk(Zemsky headman from Nizhny Novgorod) and voivode prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. In September 1612, the second militia and the remnants of the first decided to "act together in everything" (a kind of "provisional government" arose). On October 22, the Cossacks took Kitai-Gorod, and on October 26 ( November 4 according to the new style) the Polish garrison in the Kremlin surrendered. Both militias solemnly entered Moscow.

At the initiative of Prince D.M. Pozharsky is convened Zemsky Sobor(January - February 1613). It was the most complete cathedral in terms of representation (all classes were present, including state peasants, there were only lackeys and landlord peasants). The question of a new king was being decided. After much debate, we decided to choose a 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov. He is a compromise figure, he was not a participant in the Troubles, he was not tainted with ties with the interventionists. The most important circumstance was his kinship with the former dynasty. Mikhail's father, Fyodor Nikitich Romanov, is a cousin of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich on the part of Anastasia Zakharyina-Yuryeva, the first wife of Ivan the Terrible, thus Mikhail is Ivan the Terrible's great-nephew. He was recognized as a "natural king", which ensured the legitimacy and continuity of power. There was another reason for the election of Mikhail, which the boyar Sheremetev frankly formulated in a letter to Prince Golitsyn in the famous phrase: "Misha Romanov is young and has not yet reached his mind, he will be familiar to us" (i.e., convenient).

The turmoil generally ends with the signing Stolbovsky world with Sweden (1617) and Deulino truce with the Commonwealth (1618). As a result, Russia lost many Western Russian lands, incl. Smolensk, Chernigov, and finally - access to the Baltic Sea.

Consequences of the Troubles: 1) further weakening of the boyars, whose positions were undermined during the oprichnina; 2) the rise of the nobility, who received new lands; 3) heavy damage to the economy, "death and desolation" reigned everywhere. However, unlike many civil wars, the Time of Troubles did not end with the establishment of a new socio-political system, the restoration of the former statehood is taking place: autocracy as a form of political government serfdom as the basis of the economy, orthodoxy like an ideology.