The relationship of great apes (anthropoids) and humans is evidenced by the similarity of many anatomical and physiological features. This was first established by Charles Darwin's colleague - Thomas Huxley. Having carried out comparative anatomical studies, he proved that the anatomical differences between humans and higher apes are less significant than between higher and lower apes.

There is much in common in the external appearance of humans and great apes: large body sizes, long limbs relative to the body, long neck, broad shoulders, absence of a tail and ischial calluses, a nose protruding from the plane of the face, and a similar shape of the auricle. The body of anthropoids is covered with sparse hair without undercoat, through which the skin is visible. Their facial expressions are very similar to human ones. In the internal structure, a similar number of lobes in the lungs, the number of papillae in the kidney, the presence of a vermiform appendix of the caecum, an almost identical pattern of tubercles on the molars, a similar structure of the larynx, etc., should be noted. in a person.

An exceptionally close similarity is noted in terms of biochemical parameters: four blood groups, similar reactions of protein metabolism, and diseases. Great apes in nature are easily infected with infections from humans. Thus, the reduction in the range of the orangutan in Sumatra and Borneo (Kalimantan) is largely due to the mortality of monkeys from tuberculosis and hepatitis B obtained from humans. It is no coincidence that great apes are indispensable experimental animals for studying many human diseases. Humans and anthropoids are also close in the number of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in humans, 48 ​​in chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans), in their shape and size. There is much in common in the primary structure of such important proteins as hemoglobin, myoglobin, etc.

However, there are significant differences between humans and anthropoids, to a greater extent due to the adaptability of humans to walking upright. The human spine is S-shaped, the foot has an arch, which softens the concussion when walking and running (Fig. 45). With the vertical position of the body, the human pelvis takes on the pressure of the internal organs. As a result, its structure differs significantly from the anthropoid pelvis: it is low and wide, firmly articulated with the sacrum. There are significant differences in the structure of the brush. The thumb of the human hand is well developed, opposed to the rest and very mobile. Thanks to this structure of the hand, the hand is capable of various and subtle movements. In anthropoids, in connection with the arboreal way of life, the hands are hook-shaped, and the type of foot is prehensile. When forced to move on the ground, great apes lean on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs. Even a gorilla that walks on its entire foot is never in a fully extended position.

Differences between anthropoids and humans are observed in the structure of the skull and brain. The human skull does not have bony ridges and continuous superciliary arches, the brain part prevails over the front, the forehead is high, the jaws are weak, the fangs are small, and there is a chin protrusion on the lower jaw. The development of this protrusion is associated with speech. In monkeys, on the contrary, the facial part, especially the jaws, is highly developed. The human brain is 2-2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes. The parietal, temporal and frontal lobes, in which the most important centers of mental functions and speech are located, are highly developed in humans.

Significant signs of difference lead to the idea that modern great apes could not be the direct ancestors of man.

Man has a great anatomical and physiological similarity with the higher apes: relatively large body size, reduction of the caudal spine. The limbs of primates and humans are five-fingered, the thumb is opposed to others. The bones of the forearm - the radius and ulna do not grow together: the radius, rotating around the ulna, rotates the hand with it. Hence the greater mobility of the hand and the forelimb as a whole. The limbs of other mammals are not capable of such movements. The ends of the fingers of primates and humans are expanded, have sensitive bare skin areas, with increased tactile sensitivity and papillary patterns on the fingers, palms and feet, the presence of nails. The dental formula consists of 32 teeth. Monkeys have the same blood types as humans. The higher anthropomorphic monkeys have a well-developed brain, and there is a similarity in the structure of the cerebral cortex.

Assessing the morphological features of humans and great apes, back in 1929, the English anatomist Arthur Case identified 1065 features in humans, of which 312 are characteristic only of humans, the remaining 700 features are characteristic of both humans and primates (of which 396 features are characteristic of humans and chimpanzees, 385 - man and gorilla, 354 man and orangutan). The greatest degree of similarity of signs in humans and chimpanzees.

It has been established that humans and gorillas have two differences in the structure of the hemoglobin molecule, while in humans and chimpanzees the amino acid composition and amino acid sequence of hemoglobin are completely the same. Therefore, human blood introduced into the vessels of a chimpanzee does not have a harmful effect on its body. When human blood was administered to other animals, the formation of blood clots due to antigenic incompatibility was observed.

The higher anthropomorphic monkeys are characterized by complex higher nervous activity, the rapid formation of reflexes, and the presence in a rudimentary form of the ability to abstract. Females have monthly menstrual cycles, the duration of pregnancy in chimpanzees and gorillas is about 9 months, feeding the cubs lasts about a year, puberty occurs by 8-12 years.

Questions and tasks for self-control

I. Give answers to control questions.

1. What is anthropogenesis? List the biological prerequisites for humanization.

2. Name the leading factors of hominization.

3. List the stages of the emergence and evolution of primitive people.

4. Great apes - Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus - what is known about them?

5. Describe Australopithecus, their way of life.

6. What was a skilled man like when he lived, his way of life and work? List the archeological finds of archanthropes.

7. Describe Homo erectus, its way of life and habitat.

8. List the main archaeological finds of fossil paleoanthropes.

9. Highlight the basis in the classification of ancient people and name the most famous archaeological finds of this period.

10. Describe the tools and lifestyle of Neanderthals.

11. Name the time of the appearance of modern man, describe his appearance.

12. Describe the lifestyle and tools of the Cro-Magnon.

13. Correlate the stages of human evolution and the emergence of cultures known to you.

14. Give the differences and similarities between primates and humans. What is the line that separates humans from monkeys?

15. What is the "hominid triad", what other biological and non-biological characters can be considered unique to hominids?

II. Choose the correct answer.

1. The type of chordates, the class of mammals, the order of primates, the family of hominids include:

And the great apes;

B semi-monkeys;

In person;

G chimpanzee;

D all answers are correct.

2. A person has the greatest degree of closeness in terms of anatomical, genetic and biochemical parameters:

And with pongids;

B with gorillas;

In with gibbons;

G with a chimpanzee;

D with orangutans.

3. Specify the sequence of appearance of links in human evolution; match the times when these creatures lived:

A man erect; 1) 5 million years ago

B early Australopithecus; 2) 2 million years ago

In Cro-Magnon; 3) 1.6 million years ago

G Neanderthal; 4) 100-30 thousand years. n.

D a skilled person 5) 40 thousand years ago.

4. Indicate at which link of human evolution the following features of life appeared, bring them into line:

1) Cro-Magnon;

2) Pithecanthropus;

3) Neanderthal;

4) a skilled person;

5) Australopithecus.

And for the first time they used tools, used meat food;

B were engaged in gathering, used a stone axe, lived in a primitive herd;

They were engaged in hunting and fishing, sewed clothes from skins with the help of bone needles, had common property, taboos, matriarchy.

G were herbivorous, did not use, did not save stone tools.

They created stone tools, lived in caves, semi-dugouts, hunted, the first art and the first burials appeared.

5. Insert the necessary words:

In the course of anthroposociogenesis - ..... and ..... acted in unity, human survival was possible only under conditions of ..... .

6. Match the link of human evolution and the name of cultures:

1) Cro-Magnon;

2) Pithecanthropus;

3) Neanderthal;

4) a skilled person;

And the Mousterian culture;

B Perigord culture, Gravettian culture, Aurignacian culture;

The Olduvai culture;

Gachelian culture;

D does not match.

7. What factors contributed to hominization:

And all answers are correct;

B development of a defense mechanism through throwing stones and especially hunting;

In a short-term increase in the level of radiation;

- changes in behavioral responses;

D labor activity.

8. What sign is not included in the hominid triad system?

And upright posture;

B highly developed brain;

In the structure of the hand, adapted to the manufacture of tools;

G blood group;

D all answers are correct.

9. What anatomical and physiological similarity does a person have with higher apes:

A well-developed brain;

B monthly menstrual cycles;

At the limb of the five-fingered, the thumb is opposed to the others;

D dental formula, consists of 32 teeth;

D all answers are correct.

10. A person is born less protected, more helpless than animals, does not have ready-made human qualities, i.e. he has:

And generic non-specialization;

B initial passivity and dependence on the environment;

The freedom to choose decisions and lifestyle;

D self-actualization and self-creation;

D all answers are correct.

similarities	Features of difference	Conclusion
1. Large body size. 4. Similar structure of the skull. 5. Well developed head 7. We get sick with the same "human diseases". 8. Pregnancy - 280 days.	2. The person has: a) long and powerful legs; b) arched foot; c) wide pelvis; d) S-shaped spine. varied movements.

6. HYPOTHESIS OF "CHIPANZOIDITY" OF THE HOMINID ANCESTOR. BOLKA'S FETALIZATION HYPOTHESIS. COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANS AND APETS. QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCE OF THE HUMAN FROM OTHER REPRESENTATIVES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD.

The most common point of view is that evolution

the human line took no more than 10 million years, and the monkey ancestor

the hominid had similarities with chimpanzees, was essentially a "chimpanzee-

similar." This position is substantiated by biomolecular and ethological

cal data. On a family tree built on the basis of

molecular facts, man is in the same cluster with chimpan-

ze, while the gorilla occupies a separate independent branch.

As a "model ancestor" of the human and chimpanzoid

ny, some anthropologists consider the pygmy chimpanzee -

bonobos (Pan paniscus) - small pongida from the jungles of Equatorial

Africa, discovered by the American scientist G. Coolidge in 1933. However,

there is another view of the bonobo - as a specialized form,

acquired dwarf body size and a number of related signs in

conditions of isolation.

Against the "chimpanzoid hypothesis" there are some possibilities.

fights. Since there is a mismatch in the rates of gene, chromo-

somatic and morphological evolution, biomolecular similarity of human

century and the chimpanzee is not in itself a sufficient reason for

in order to attribute a common ancestor to a chimpanzoic morphotype, or

mode of locomotion.

A purely biological concept of human evolution was put forward in 1918 by the anatomist L. Bolk. It has been called the "fetalization hypothesis". According to L. Bolk, a person is, as it were, an "immature" monkey. Many features of an adult - a large brain of a relatively small face, the absence of hair on the body and its presence in the form of hair on the head, weak pigmentation in some races - correspond to those of the chimpanzee embryo. The phenomenon of deceleration of development (retardation) of the embryo is known in many animals. The loss from the life cycle in animals of the adult stage, when the larva reproduces, is called neoteny. Thus, a person, according to L. Bolk, is a sexually mature embryo of a monkey (for more details, see: Kharitonov V.M., 1998, pp. 119-121). This concept has been heavily criticized. Thus, for example, it is impossible to explain the large absolute dimensions of the human brain by slowing down development. It is now clear that the propositions of the fetalization hypothesis cannot be taken literally. However, the comparative material collected by L. Bolk cannot be rejected, and the ideas of evolution due to embryonic changes find their followers.

Comparison of anatomical features convincingly speaks in favor of the fact that the human body is nothing more than the body of an anthropoid ape, specially adapted for walking on two legs. Our arms and shoulders differ little from those of chimpanzees. However, unlike the great apes, our legs are longer than our arms, and our pelvis, spine, hips, legs, feet, and toes have undergone changes that allow us to stand and walk with our bodies upright (Large apes can stand on two feet, only bending your knees, and walking on your feet, staggering from side to side.)

The adaptation of the feet to the new function meant that we could no longer use our big toes like our thumbs. The thumbs of our hands are comparatively longer than those of the great apes, and can, by bending over the palm, touch their tips to the tips of other fingers, which provides the precision of grasping that we need in the manufacture and use of tools. Walking on two legs, a more developed intellect and a varied diet - all contributed to the emergence of differences in the skull, brain, jaws and teeth in humans and monkeys.

Compared to the size of the body, the brain and cranium of a person is much larger than that of a monkey; in addition, the human brain is more highly organized, and its relatively larger frontal, parietal and temporal lobes jointly carry out the functions of thinking, controlling social behavior and human speech. The jaws of modern omnivorous humans are much shorter and weaker than those of the great apes, which eat a mostly vegetarian diet. Monkeys have shock-absorbing supraorbital ridges and bony cranial ridges to which powerful jaw muscles are attached. Humans lack the thick neck muscles that, in adult monkeys, support the protruding muzzle. The rows of our teeth are arranged in the form of a parabola, differing in this from the dentitions of great apes arranged in the form of a Latin letter U; in addition, the fangs of monkeys are much larger, and the crowns of molars are much higher than ours. But on the other hand, human molars are covered with a thicker layer of enamel, which makes them more wear-resistant and allows you to chew harder food. Differences in the structure of the tongue and throat between humans and chimpanzees allow us to make more diverse sounds, although facial features can take on different expressions in both humans and chimpanzees.

similarities	Features of difference	Conclusion
1. Large body size. 2. Lack of tail and cheek pouches. 3. Well developed mimic muscles. 4. Similar structure of the skull. 5. Well developed head the brain, especially the frontal lobes, a large number of convolutions in the cerebral cortex. 6. Similar in Rh factor and blood types (ABO). 7. We get sick with the same "human diseases". 8. Pregnancy - 280 days. 9. More than 95% similarity of genes. 10. High level of development of higher nervous activity. 11. Similarity of stages of embryogenesis	1. Only a person is characterized by a true upright posture. 2. The person has: a) long and powerful legs; b) arched foot; c) wide pelvis; d) S-shaped spine. 3. Flexible hand and human movable fingers provide precise and varied movements. 4. In humans, the brain is complex, the average volume is 1350 cm 3 (in a gorilla - 400 cm 3). 5. A person is capable of articulate speech	Man is a biosocial being occupying a high stage of evolutionary development, possessing consciousness, speech, abstract thinking and capable of social work.

The qualitative difference between man and other representatives of the animal world.

One of the main differences between man and animal lies in his relationship with nature. If an animal is an element of living nature and builds its relationship with it from the standpoint of adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding world, then a person does not just adapt to the natural environment, but seeks to subordinate it to himself to a certain extent, creating tools for this. With the creation of tools, the way of life of a person changes. The ability to create tools for the transformation of the surrounding nature testifies to the ability to work consciously. Labor is a specific type of activity inherent only to man, which consists in the implementation of influences on nature in order to ensure the conditions for its existence.

The main feature of labor is that labor activity, as a rule, is carried out only jointly with other people. This is true even for the simplest labor operations or activities of an individual nature, since in the process of their implementation a person enters into certain relationships with the people around him. For example, the work of a writer can be characterized as individual. However, in order to become a writer, a person had to learn to read and write, receive the necessary education, i.e. his labor activity became possible only as a result of involvement in the system of relations with other people. Thus, any work, even seemingly purely individual at first glance, requires cooperation with other people.

Consequently, labor contributed to the formation of certain human communities that were fundamentally different from animal communities. These differences were that, firstly, the unification of primitive people was caused by the desire not just to survive, which is typical to a certain extent for herd animals, but to survive by transforming the natural conditions of existence, i.e. through teamwork.

Secondly, the most important condition for the existence of human communities and the successful performance of labor operations is the level of development of communication between members of the community. The higher the level of development of communication between members of the community, the higher not only the organization, but also the level of development of the human psyche. Thus, the highest level of human communication - speech - has led to a fundamentally different level of regulation of mental states and behavior - regulation with the help of the word. A person who is able to communicate using words does not need to make physical contact with the objects around him to form his behavior or idea of ​​the real world. To do this, it is enough for him to have information that he acquires in the process of communicating with other people.

It should be noted that it is the features of human communities, which consist in the need for collective labor, that determined the emergence and development of speech. In turn, speech predetermined the possibility of the existence of consciousness, since a person's thought always has a verbal (verbal) form. For example, a person who, by a certain coincidence, came to animals in his childhood and grew up among them, cannot speak, and his level of thinking, although higher than that of animals, does not at all correspond to the level of thinking of a modern person.

Thirdly, for the normal existence and development of human communities, the laws of the animal world, based on the principles of natural selection, are unsuitable. The collective nature of labor, the development of communication not only led to the development of thinking, but also led to the formation of specific laws of the existence and development of the human community. These laws are known to us as the principles of morality and morality. At the same time, it should be emphasized that such a logical sequence is only a hypothesis stated from rationalistic positions. Today, there are other points of view on the problem of the emergence of human consciousness, including those stated from irrational positions. This is not surprising, since there is no consensus on many issues of psychology. We give preference to the rationalistic point of view, not only because such views were held by the classics of Russian psychology (A.N. Leontiev, B.N. Teplov, etc.). There are a number of facts that make it possible to establish patterns that determined the possibility of the emergence of consciousness in humans.

First of all, attention should be paid to the fact that the emergence of human consciousness V, the emergence of speech and the ability to work were prepared by the evolution of man as a biological species. The upright freed the forelimbs from the function of walking and contributed to the development of their specialization associated with grasping objects, holding them and manipulating them, which in general contributed to the creation of an opportunity for a person to work. Simultaneously with this, the development of the sense organs took place. In humans, vision has become the dominant source of information about the world around us.

We have the right to believe that the development of the sense organs could not occur in isolation from the development of the nervous system as a whole, since with the advent of man as a biological species, significant changes are noted in the structure of the nervous system, and above all the brain. Thus, the volume of the human brain exceeds the volume of the brain of its closest predecessor - the great ape - more than twice. If in a great ape the average brain volume is 600 cm 3, then in humans it is 1400 cm 3. The surface area of ​​the cerebral hemispheres increases even more in proportion, since the number of convolutions of the cerebral cortex and their depth in humans is much greater.

However, with the advent of man, there is not only a physical increase in the volume of the brain and the area of ​​the cortex. There are significant structural and functional changes in the brain. For example, in humans, in comparison with the great ape, the area of ​​projection fields associated with elementary sensory and motor functions has decreased in percentage terms, and the percentage of integrative fields associated with higher mental functions has increased. Such a sharp growth of the cerebral cortex, its structural evolution is primarily due to the fact that a number of elementary functions, which in animals are entirely carried out by the lower parts of the brain, in humans already require the participation of the cortex. There is a further corticalization of the control of behavior, a greater subordination of elementary processes to the cortex in comparison with what is observed in animals. It should also be noted that the results of the evolution of motor organs affected the nature of structural changes in the human brain. Each muscle group is closely associated with certain motor fields of the cerebral cortex. In humans, the motor fields associated with a particular muscle group have a different area, the size of which directly depends on the degree of development of a particular muscle group. When analyzing the ratios of the sizes of the areas of the motor fields, attention is drawn to how large the area of ​​the motor field associated with the hands is in relation to other fields. Consequently, the human hands have the greatest development among the organs of movement and are most associated with the activity of the cerebral cortex. It must be emphasized that this phenomenon occurs only in humans.

Thus, the most complex structure that the human brain has and which distinguishes it from the brain of animals is most likely associated with the development of human labor activity. Such a conclusion is classical from the point of view of materialistic philosophy. However, we will not focus our attention on theoretical disputes, but only note that the emergence of consciousness in a person as the highest known form of development of the psyche became possible due to the complication of the structure of the brain. In addition, we must agree that the level of development of brain structures and the ability to perform complex labor operations are closely related. Therefore, it can be argued that the emergence of consciousness in humans is due to both biological and social factors. The development of wildlife has led to the emergence of a person with specific structural features of the body and a more developed nervous system compared to other animals, which generally determined the ability of a person to work. This, in turn, led to the emergence of communities, the development of language and consciousness, i.e. the logical chain of regularities mentioned above. Thus, labor was the condition that made it possible to realize the mental potentials of the biological species Homo Sapiens.

It must be emphasized that with the advent of consciousness, man immediately stood out from the animal world, but the first people, in terms of their level of mental development, differed significantly from modern people. Thousands of years passed before man reached the level of modern development. Moreover, the main factor in the progressive development of consciousness was labor. So, with the acquisition of practical experience, with the evolution of social relations, there was a complication of labor activity. A person gradually moved from the simplest labor operations to more complex activities, which entailed the progressive development of the brain and consciousness. This progressive development testifies to the social nature of consciousness, which is clearly manifested in the process of development of the child's psyche.

7. Australopithecus: GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY OF DISTRIBUTION. MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE MASSIVE AND GRACIL AUSTRALOPITECUS. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WAY OF LIFE ACCORDING TO THE DATA OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. MAIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THIS TAXON.

Autralopithecines are considered the oldest hominids. The earliest finds date back to 6-7 million years ago in Toros-Menalla (Republic of Chad). The latest dating of 900 thousand years ago is the findings of massive australopithecines in Svartkranes (South America). For the first time, the skeletal remains of Australopithecus were discovered in 1924 in southern Africa, which is reflected in the name (from the Latin "Australis" - southern and the Greek "Pitekos" - monkey). This was followed by numerous finds in East Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Afar Desert, etc.). Until recently, the most ancient (age 3.5 million years) skeleton of an upright human ancestor was considered to be a female skeleton, which is known to the whole world as “Lucy” (found in Afar in the 1970s).

The territory of Australopithecus settlement is also very large: all of Africa south of the Sahara and, possibly, some territories to the north. As far as is known, the Australopithecus never left Africa. Inside Africa, Australopithecus locations are concentrated in two main areas: East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia) and South Africa. Separate finds have also been made in North Africa; perhaps their small number is due more to the burial conditions or the poor knowledge of the region, and not to the actual distribution of Australopithecus. It is clear that in such a wide time and geographical framework, natural conditions have changed more than once, which led to the appearance of new species and genera.

Gracile Australopithecus.

In Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia, fossils have been discovered in many locations gracile australopithecines.

Gracil Australopithecus were upright creatures about 1-1.5 meters tall. Their gait was somewhat different from that of a human. Apparently, Australopithecus walked with shorter steps, and the hip joint did not fully extend when walking. Together with a fairly modern structure of the legs and pelvis, the arms of Australopithecus were somewhat elongated, and the fingers were adapted for climbing trees, but these signs can only be a legacy from ancient ancestors. Like the early members of the group, the gracile australopithecines had a highly ape-like skull that matched the almost modern rest of the skeleton. The Australopithecus brain was similar to that of a monkey in both size and shape. However, the ratio of brain mass to body mass in these primates was intermediate between a small simian and a very large human.

During the day, Australopithecus roamed the savannah or forests, along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the evening climbed trees, as modern chimpanzees do. Australopithecus lived in small herds or families and were able to travel quite long distances. They ate mainly plant foods, and they usually did not make tools, although not far from the bones. one of the types scientists found stone tools and antelope bones crushed by them.

The best-known finds are from the Hadar area in the Afar Desert, including a skeleton nicknamed Lucy. Also, in Tanzania, fossilized traces of erect walking creatures were found in the same layers from which the remains of Afar australopithecines are known. In addition to the Afar australopithecines, other species probably lived in East and North Africa in the time interval of 3-3.5 million years ago. In Kenya, at Lomekwi, a skull and other fossils were found, described as Kenyanthropus platyops(Kenianthropus flat-faced). In the Republic of Chad, in Koro Toro, a single jaw fragment was found, described as Australopithecus bahrelghazali(Australopithecine Bahr el Ghazal). At the other end of the continent, in South Africa, in a number of localities - Taung, Sterkfontein and Makapansgat - numerous fossils have been discovered, known as Australopithecus africanus(Australopithecine Africanus). To this species belonged the first find of Australopithecus - the skull of a cub known as "Baby from Taung". African Australopithecus lived from 3.5 to 2.4 million years ago. The latest gracile Australopithecus - dated to about 2.5 million years ago - was discovered in Ethiopia in Bowri and named Australopithecus garhi(Australopithecine gari).

Massive Australopithecus.

The oldest stone tools are known from several sites in Ethiopia - Gona, Shungura, Hadar - and are dated 2.5-2.7 million years ago. At the same time, new species of hominids arose, possessing a large brain and already attributable to the genus Homo. However, there was another group of late australopithecines that deviated from the line leading to man - massive australopithecines.

Paranthropes were large - up to 70 kg in weight - specialized herbivorous creatures that lived along the banks of rivers and lakes in dense thickets. Their way of life was somewhat reminiscent of the way of life of modern gorillas. However, they retained their bipedal gait and may even have been able to make tools. In layers with paranthropes, stone tools and bone fragments were found, with which hominids tore up termite mounds. Also, the hand of these primates was adapted for the manufacture and use of tools.

The paranthropes relied on size and herbivory. This led them to ecological specialization and extinction. However, in the same layers with paranthropes, the remains of the first representatives of hominins, the so-called "early Homo"- more advanced hominids with large brains.

The oldest massive australopithecines are known from Kenya and Ethiopia - Lokalei and Omo. They have dates about 2.5 million years ago and are named Paranthropus aethiopicus(Paranthropus Ethiopian). Later massive Australopithecus from East Africa - Olduvai, Koobi-Fora - dating from 2.5 to 1 million years ago are described as Paranthropus boisei(Paranthropus of Boyce). In South Africa - Swartkrans, Kromdraai, Drimolen Cave - are known Paranthropus robustus(Paranthropes are massive). The massive Paranthropus was the second species of Australopithecus to be discovered. When examining the skull of Paranthropus, huge jaws and large bone ridges are striking, which served to attach the chewing muscles. The jaw apparatus reached its maximum development in East African Paranthropus. The first open skull of this species, due to the size of the teeth, even received the nickname "The Nutcracker".

State educational institution of higher professional education

"East Siberian State Academy of Education"

Man and monkey. Similarities and differences

Performed:

Ropel Alina

Group 2b3

Irkutsk 2010

1. Introduction

2. Evidence of human animal origin

3. Differences in the structure and behavior of humans and animals

4. Conclusion

5. Bibliographic list

1. INTRODUCTION

Great apes resemble humans in many ways. They express feelings of joy, anger, sadness, gently caress the cubs, take care of them, punish them for disobedience. They have a good memory, highly developed higher nervous activity.

J.B. Lamarck proposed a hypothesis about the origin of man from ape-like ancestors who switched from climbing trees to walking upright. As a result, their body straightened, the foot changed. The need for communication led to speech. In 1871 Ch. Darwin's work "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection" was published. In it, he proves the kinship of man with great apes, using data from comparative anatomy, embryology, and paleontology. At the same time, Darwin rightly believed that not a single living ape can be considered a direct ancestor of man.

similarity difference human monkey

2. PROOF OF THE ANIMAL ORIGIN OF MAN

Man belongs to mammals, as he has a diaphragm, mammary glands, differentiated teeth (incisors, canines and molars), auricles, his embryo develops in utero. Humans have the same organs and organ systems as other mammals: circulatory, respiratory, excretory, digestive, etc.

Similarities can be traced in the development of human and animal embryos. Human development begins with a single fertilized egg. Due to its division, new cells are formed, tissues and organs of the embryo are formed. At the stage of 1.5-3 months of intrauterine development, the caudal spine is developed in the human fetus, gill slits are laid. The brain of a month-old fetus resembles the brain of a fish, and a seven-month-old fetus resembles the brain of a monkey. In the fifth month of intrauterine development, the embryo has a hairline, which subsequently disappears. Thus, in many respects, the human embryo resembles the embryos of other vertebrates.

The behavior of man and higher animals is very similar. The similarity between humans and anthropoid apes is especially great. They are characterized by the same conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. In monkeys, like in humans, one can observe developed facial expressions, care for offspring. In chimpanzees, for example, as in humans, there are 4 blood types. Humans and monkeys suffer from diseases that do not affect other mammals, such as cholera, influenza, smallpox, tuberculosis. Chimpanzees walk on their hind limbs, they do not have a tail. The genetic material of humans and chimpanzees is 99% identical.

Monkeys have a well-developed brain, including the forebrain hemispheres. In humans and monkeys, the terms of pregnancy and the patterns of embryonic development coincide. As monkeys age, their teeth fall out and their hair turns gray. An important evidence of the animal origin of man is the development of signs of distant ancestors (body hairiness, external tail, multi-nipples) and underdeveloped organs and signs that have lost their functional significance, of which there are more than 90 in humans (ear muscles, Darwin's tubercle on the auricle, semilunar fold of the inner corner of the eye , appendix, etc.).

The gorilla has the greatest resemblance to humans in terms of such features as body proportions, relatively short upper limbs, the structure of the pelvis, hands and feet; chimpanzees are similar to humans in the structural features of the skull (large roundness and smoothness), the size of the limbs. An orangutan, like a human, has 12 ribs. But this does not mean that man is descended from any of the current species of monkeys. These facts indicate that man and great apes had a common ancestor, which gave a number of branches, and evolution went in different directions.

The scientific study of the intelligence of monkeys began with Charles Darwin. He owns a book that today remains a classic in its field - "On the Expression of Sensations in Man and Animals" (1872). In it, in particular, it is shown that the facial expressions of monkeys are similar to those of humans. Darwin considered this a consequence of the similarity of facial musculature in primates.

He also determined that facial expressions, the expression of emotions are, one might say, a means of communication. Darwin also announced such a detail: the great ape is able to mimic almost all human emotions, except for amazement, surprise and disgust.

Many neurological diseases in humans and chimpanzees and even other monkeys are very similar. Relatively recently, it became known that the monkey is the only animal that has been successfully used in psychiatric research: in studying the model of isolation, phobia, depression, hysteria, neurasthenia, autism and other features of schizophrenia. A satisfactory model of human psychosis can be obtained from the "social" isolation of monkeys.

At present, important results, already used in practice, have been obtained by studying the model of human depression on lower monkeys. Various forms of major depression in monkeys usually developed as a result of separation of monkeys from an object of affection, such as a baby from his mother, which affected both of them severely. The symptomatology of depression in monkeys is in many respects parallel to similar conditions in children and adults: depressed mood, sleep disturbance, lack of appetite, a clear decrease in motor activity, loss of interest in games. It has been shown that the young of different species of macaques isolated from their peers or from their mothers, just like the females themselves, develop disorders of cellular immunity, similar to those that occur in adults after a bereavement. The state of depression in monkeys can last for years, and most importantly, already in the adult state, the animal turns out to be biologically inferior, and it is extremely difficult to cure it. Separation causes not only depression, but also other disorders, each time associated with the "personal" life history of each individual.

The emotions of monkeys (not necessarily higher, but also lower!) are not just similar to human ones. They often manifest themselves “in a human way”, the heart of an annoyed baboon is ready to jump out of his chest, but he hides his indignation from others, is “calm”, slowed down, and, conversely, the animal unambiguously threatens the enemy, demonstrates formidable fangs and sharply raises his eyebrows, and there are no changes in vegetative functions. (It can be noted that both blood pressure and electrocardiogram, heart rate in monkeys are the same as in humans).

The higher apes are amenable to hypnosis, which can be induced in them by conventional means. Recently, gorillas have been shown to predominantly use their right hand, suggesting a brain asymmetry in monkeys that is similar to that in humans.

A particularly large neurological and behavioral similarity between humans and higher apes has been established in infancy and childhood. Psychomotor development in a baby chimpanzee and a child proceeds in the same way.

The immobility of the ear of monkeys and humans is unique, which is why they have to turn their heads in the same direction in order to hear better in the direction of the sound source. It has been proven that chimpanzees distinguish between 22 colors, up to 7 shades of one tone. There is evidence of similarities in higher primates of smell, taste, touch, and even perception of the weight of the weights lifted. Studying various representatives of vertebrates, physiologists trace the path of development and gradual complication of the higher nervous activity of animals, their ability to store in memory developed conditioned reflexes.

We can say that man, chimpanzee and orangutan are the only creatures on Earth that recognize themselves in the mirror! The authors talk about the presence of self-recognizing monkeys in elementary ideas about their own "I". Many consider self-recognition to be the highest form of associative behavior in the animal kingdom. The chimpanzee makes the most adequate decision in different situations: he perfectly uses a lever, a key, a screwdriver, a stick, a stone and other objects, looks for and finds them if they are not at hand.

3. DIFFERENCES IN THE STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIOR OF HUMANS AND ANIMALS

Along with similarities, humans have certain differences from monkeys.

In monkeys, the spine is arched, while in humans it has four bends, giving it an S-shape. A person has a wider pelvis, an arched foot that softens the concussion of internal organs when walking, a wide chest, the ratio of the length of the limbs and the development of their individual parts, structural features of muscles and internal organs.

A number of structural features of a person are associated with his labor activity and the development of thinking. In humans, the thumb on the hand is opposed to other fingers, so that the hand can perform a variety of actions. The cerebral part of the skull in humans prevails over the facial one due to the large volume of the brain, reaching approximately 1200-1450 cm3 (in monkeys - 600 cm3), the chin is well developed on the lower jaw.

The big differences between monkeys and humans are due to the adaptation of the first to life on trees. This feature, in turn, leads to many others. The essential differences between man and animals lie in the fact that man has acquired qualitatively new features - the ability to walk upright, the release of hands and their use as labor organs for the manufacture of tools, articulate speech as a method of communication, consciousness, i.e. those properties that closely related to the development of human society. Man not only uses the surrounding nature, but subjugates, actively changes it according to his needs, he himself creates the necessary things.

4. SIMILARITIES OF HUMANS AND APES

The same expression of feelings of joy, anger, sadness.

Monkeys gently caress their cubs.

Monkeys take care of children, but also punish them for disobedience.

Monkeys have a well-developed memory.

Monkeys are able to use natural objects as the simplest tools.

Monkeys have concrete thinking.

Monkeys can walk on their hind limbs, leaning on their hands.

On the fingers of monkeys, like humans, nails, not claws.

Monkeys have 4 incisors and 8 molars - like humans.

Humans and monkeys have common diseases (influenza, AIDS, smallpox, cholera, typhoid fever).

In humans and great apes, the structure of all organ systems is similar.

Biochemical evidence for human-monkey affinity :

the degree of hybridization of human and chimpanzee DNA is 90-98%, human and gibbon - 76%, human and macaque - 66%;

Cytological evidence of the proximity of man and monkeys:

humans have 46 chromosomes, chimpanzees and monkeys have 48 each, and gibbons have 44;

in the chromosomes of the 5th pair of chimpanzee and human chromosomes there is an inverted pericentric region

CONCLUSION

All of the above facts indicate that man and great apes descended from a common ancestor and allow us to determine the place of man in the system of the organic world.

The similarity between man and monkeys is proof of their kinship, common origin, and the differences are the result of different directions in the evolution of monkeys and human ancestors, especially the influence of human labor (tool) activity. Labor is the leading factor in the process of turning a monkey into a man.

F. Engels drew attention to this feature of human evolution in his essay “The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans”, which was written in 1876-1878. and published in 1896. He was the first to analyze the qualitative originality and significance of social factors in the historical development of man.

The decisive step for the transition from ape to man was taken in connection with the transition of our most ancient ancestors from walking on all fours and climbing to a straight gait. Man's articulate speech and social life developed in labor activity, with which, as Engels said, we enter the realm of history. If the psyche of animals is determined only by biological laws, then the human psyche is the result of social development and influence.

Man is a social being who has created a majestic civilization.

REFERENCES

1. Panov E.N. Zykova L.Yu. Behavior of animals and humans: similarities and differences. Pushchino-on-Oka, 1989.

2. Sifard R.M., Chini D.L. Mind and thinking in monkeys // In the world of science. 1993. No. 2-3.

3. Stolyarenko V.E., Stolyarenko L.D. "Anthropology - a systematic science of man", M .: "Phoenix", 2004.

4. Khomutov A. "Anthropology", M.: "Phoenix", 2004.

5. Reader on zoopsychology and comparative psychology: Textbook / Comp. M.N. Sotskaya MGPPU, 2003.

6. Khrisanfova E.N., Perevozchikov I.V. "Anthropology. Textbook. Edition 4, Moscow: MGU, 2005.

7. Yarskaya-Smirnova E.R., Romanov P.V. "Social anthropology", M.: social protection, 2004.

Page 5

I. Choose one correct answer:

1. In humans, as in great apes:

A- 4 blood groups

B- S-shaped spine

B- arched foot

G- volume of the brain 1200-1450 cm

2. The relationship between humans and great apes is evidenced by the presence in humans of:

A-S-shaped spine

B- developed vision

B- live births, feeding offspring with milk

3. A person, unlike the great apes, has:

A- labor activity

B- four-chambered heart

B - care for offspring

G- 4 blood groups

4. Man, unlike monkeys, has:

A- appendix

B- hairline

B- 4 blood groups

5. A person, like apes, has:

B- labor activity

B- consciousness

G- intrauterine development of the embryo

6. In humans, as in great apes:

A - arched foot

B- there is a diaphragm, mammary glands

B- S-shaped spine

G- developed consciousness

7. Social factors of human evolution do NOT include:

A- labor activity

B- natural selection

C- social life

G- developed thinking

8. Bipedalism in human ancestors led to:

A - social lifestyle

B- development of thinking

B- the appearance of an S-shaped spine

G- development of speech

9. Labor activity of human ancestors led to the appearance of:

A-S-shaped spine

B- arched foot

B- upright posture

G- public way of life.

10. Thanks to the social way of life of the ancestors of man:

A- there was a speech

B- appeared S-shaped spine

B- free hand

G- upright posture appeared

11. Biological factor of human evolution:

A- consciousness

B- hereditary variability

12. The evolution of the most ancient apes along the path of adaptation to a terrestrial way of life was determined by:

A- the ability to run fast

B- three-dimensional vision, developed ability to orientate

B - no tail

G- shortened facial part of the skull

13. Anatomical and morphological changes associated with upright posture in human ancestors include:

B- developed thinking

C- social life

G- arched foot

14. The evolution of the most ancient apes along the path of creating tools was determined by:

A - large brain volume

B- great muscle strength

B - the ability to orientate

G- the ability to run fast

II. Choose multiple correct answers:

15. List the features characteristic of the Cro-Magnon:

A. The volume of the brain is about 1600 cm

B. Presence of cannibalism.

B. Purposeful transfer of experience to descendants

D. Domestication of animals

D. Strongly developed superciliary arches

E. Lack of tools.

Answer: A, B, D

16. Which of the following signs relate to atavisms:

A. Multiple nipples

B. Wisdom teeth

B. Parotid muscles

D. Having a tail

D. Thick hair on the face

Answer: A, D, D

III. Using the given elements, use letters to compose the answer to the question:

17. What is the sequence of stages of human evolution:

A. Fossil man of the modern type

B. Ancient man

B. Ancient man

Answer: B, C, A

IV. Fill the table:

18. From the signs listed below, select those characteristic of the Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid races. Enter the corresponding letters in the table.

A. Wide nose

B. Light or swarthy skin color

B. The eyes are narrow, often slanted

D. Wide-open brown eyes

D. Curly black hair

E. Skin with a yellowish tint

G. Strongly growing beard and mustache

Z. The upper eyelid is closed by a skin fold

I. Strongly protruding cheekbones