Writing and knowledge of the ancient Egyptians
Language
Time of occurrence
Egyptian writing originated at the end of the 4th millennium BC. How a developed system developed by the time of the Middle Kingdom.
What did the Egyptians write on?
The Egyptians did not know paper. They wrote on papyrus, which was made from the stems of marsh reeds (with the same name "papyrus" - cyperus papyrus).
Papyrus has been in use as a writing material in Egypt since the beginning of the third millennium BC.
There was a special technique for making papyrus. Papyrus stems were peeled and cut lengthwise. Then these cuts of papyrus stems were laid out on a wetted table, they had to be tightly adjacent to each other, then a second layer of cuts was applied in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the cuts of the first layer (crosswise). The masonry was made of two layers. It was placed under the press, and then dried in the sun. At the final stage of papyrus production, the sheets were smoothed with ivory tools and shells and beaten with a hammer (see Papyrus Technique). Then the finished sheets of papyrus were glued together, creating long scrolls. The length of the scrolls reached several meters. The sheets were glued together in such a way that the edge of one sheet covered the edge of the next one (the place of gluing was 1-2 cm).
Than they wrote
Scribes usually wrote with a brush, which was made from the stem of the marsh plant kalamus, one end of which the scribe chewed.
Who did research / was the custodian of knowledge
Priests were the most educated people in Ancient Egypt. Each temple had a library where they kept and copied the scrolls.
What was researched / what was known
In ancient Egypt, geography was born - the science of studying the Earth (although the knowledge of the Egyptians was inaccurate: they represented the Earth as a rectangle surrounded by an ocean).
The Egyptians achieved the greatest success in mathematics, astronomy and medicine.
Astronomy: By observing the stars, the Egyptian priests were able to determine the length of the year. They noticed that the star Sirius rises once every 365 days. The Egyptians also knew how to predict solar and lunar eclipses, quite accurate catalogs of stars and maps of the starry sky were compiled.
A scientific and technical achievement was the invention of the water and sundial.
Mathematics: Mathematics appeared and developed in connection with the practical needs of the Egyptians in calculations (measurement of land plots after the Nile floods, accounting and distribution of the harvested crops, complex calculations in the construction of temples, tombs and palaces). The ancient Egyptians knew how to perform addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, had an idea about fractions.
Medicine: The high level of medicine for that time is associated with the custom of mummification of corpses, during which doctors could study the anatomy of the human body.
One of the highest achievements of Egyptian medicine was the doctrine of blood circulation and the importance of the heart in these processes.
Physicians in ancient Egypt had a specialization. Someone treated the stomach, someone treated the eyes, someone treated the teeth, etc.
In ancient Egypt, a rather high level of surgery was noted (surgical instruments found during excavations of tombs testify to this). ().
Where was taught: in schools at temples.
Who taught: priests.
What was taught in schools
First of all, writing, reading and oral counting. After that, they studied history, geography, mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and construction. ().
Abstract
The walls of Egyptian tombs are covered with mysterious signs, here is a cobra snake, and an ibis, and a pyramid. Even in ancient times, the Egyptians called such badges hieroglyphs - “sacred writings” (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Egyptian hieroglyphs ()
For many years no one could read hieroglyphic writing. Many wanted to unravel the mystery of Egyptian writing. The French scientist Jean-Francois Champallion managed to do this (Fig. 2). Champallion examined the famous Rosetta Stone - a plate with a thank-you inscription of the priests to Ptolemy V Epiphanes, dated 196 BC. e (Fig. 3). One part of the inscriptions on the plate was made in hieroglyphs, the other contained the same text in ancient Greek. Both in the Greek and in the hieroglyphic text, the names of the rulers were circled in oval frames, and this became the key to the puzzle. Jean-Francois Champallion proved that the Egyptian script consists of three types of signs: signs that define concepts; signs that represent consonant sounds, and identifying icons that helped to read words that had the same consonants, for example, “house” and “Dima”. September 14, 1822 Champallon made a presentation on his scientific discovery, this date was the official start of the development of science Egyptology.
Rice. 2. Jean-Francois Champallion ()
Rice. 3. Rosetta stone ()
Various materials were used for records in Egypt: stone tiles, shards of broken dishes (ostraks), leather, plaster-covered boards, but the most popular material was papyrus, which was made from papyrus, a reed that grew along the banks of the Nile. The papyrus stem was cut into long narrow strips. Then these strips were laid out on a flat surface one next to the other, other strips were placed on top, but in the transverse direction. The resulting masonry was pressed down with a press, while the fibers released sticky juice. After drying, a paper-like material was obtained. For storage, the papyrus was rolled up into a tube - a scroll. They wrote on papyrus with reed brushes, using black and red paints (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Egyptian papyrus ()
Only representatives of the nobility could study in Ancient Egypt. Girls were educated at home, and boys at the age of 6-7 were sent to school. Strict teachers taught children to write and count. They were also engaged in astronomy, determining the movement of heavenly bodies.
Scientific knowledge in ancient Egypt was owned by priests who carefully guarded their secrets and secrets. We can only guess about the level of scientific knowledge of the ancient Egyptians. The Egyptian priests were able to accurately predict the date of the beginning of the Nile flood according to the location of the heavenly bodies. To measure time, they used a water clock, made complex mathematical calculations for the construction of pyramids, and knew the secrets of embalming.
Much knowledge in ancient Egypt was passed down from generation to generation only in a narrow circle of priests, so that the secrets of the gods would not be known to ordinary people.
Bibliography
- Vigasin A. A., Goder G. I., Sventsitskaya I. S. History of the Ancient World. Grade 5 - M .: Education, 2006.
- Nemirovsky A. I. A book for reading on the history of the Ancient World. - M .: Education, 1991.
- Ancient Rome. Book for reading / Ed. D. P. Kallistova, S. L. Utchenko. — M.: Uchpedgiz, 1953.
Additional precommended links to Internet resources
- Chynga-changa.ru ().
- Nnre.ru ().
- Public Historical Library ().
Homework
- Why was it difficult in Egypt to learn to read and write?
- What materials did the Egyptians use to write?
- Who and when solved the mystery of Egyptian hieroglyphs?
- What sciences were developed in ancient Egypt?
Summary of the lesson on the history of the Ancient World "Writing and knowledge of the ancient Egyptians"
The purpose of the lesson:
Introduce students toancient Egyptian writing and scientific knowledge.
To form the conceptual apparatus of students on the topic;
Continue the formation of skills to independently build a story based on different sources of information, summarize individual facts, analyze the text and highlight the main thing
To form the cognitive interest of students through the use of creative tasks.
Cultivate respect for other cultures.
During the classes.
1. Organizational stage.
Checking students' readiness for the lesson.
Self repetition.
Guys, let's remember what the word "civilization" means
What civilization are we going through now?
What have we learned?
What do we want to know?
2. Actualization of students' knowledge.
1. Working with the map "Ancient Egypt ”.Apply all the geographical names that you know.
2. Working with terms: transcribe anograms
Civilization - vilicization
State-dargosustvo
Pharaoh onrafa
Nobles - movelzhi
Priests - priests
Scribes
slave bars
Taxes - login
Religion - ligrea
temple-march
3. What is this deity:
1. The god of the sky and the sun in the guise of a falcon, a man with a falcon's head or a winged sun, the son of the fertility goddess Isis and Osiris, the god of productive forces. His symbol is a solar disk with outstretched wings (Horus)
2. The god of the desert, i.e. "foreign countries", the personification of the evil inclination, the brother and murderer of Osiris, one of the four children of the god of the earth Geb and Nut, the goddess of heaven (Set)
3. The god of water and the flood of the Nile, whose sacred animal was the crocodile. He was depicted as a crocodile or as a man with the head of a crocodile (Sebek)
4. God of the earth, son of the god of air Shu and the goddess of moisture Tefnut (Geb)
5. God is the patron of the dead, the creator of funeral rites. He was depicted as a man with the head of a jackal or a wild dog (Anubis)
6. Goddess - the patroness of women and their beauty (Bastet)
7. God of the moon, wisdom, accounts and letters, patron of sciences, scribes, sacred books, creator of the calendar. His sacred animal was the ibis, and therefore the god was often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis (Thoth)
4. Many ancient states of the East have long disappeared, covered with the ashes of time, only small fragments on the surface. Pyramids, frescoes, obelisks, mind you, they are all generously painted. What this writing reminds us of is hieroglyphs. Somewhere around 3000 BC, the Egyptians began to write. Translated from Greek - sacred writings, and the Egyptians themselves called their writing - divine speech. Why do you think? They were sure that writing was given to them by the god of wisdom - that. But millennia passed and writing was forgotten and we faced a choice - how to find out what the Egyptians wanted to convey to us? At the cost of hard work, scientists have unraveled the writings of many ancient Eastern peoples, but the Egyptian writing could not be deciphered for a long time. But one day ... an officer of Napoleon's army in 1799 in Egypt found a plate - the text engraved on it was in two languages: ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs and ancient Greek. The stone was found in the place - rosette, therefore it was called the rosette stone. Napoleon realized the importance of the find and sent the stone to the Cairo Museum, but the French were defeated in Egypt by the British and retreating, of course, there was no time for historical finds. The ancient Greek language was well known to linguists, so this text in ancient Greek was quickly translated, and the comparison of the texts allowed the French scientist Jean Champollion to decipher the ancient Egyptian records.. Let's read in the textbook about decryption ...
The language of ancient Egypt is quite complicated, so not all Egyptians knew the letter. It was the prerogative of rich and noble people, primarily scribes, since they were in charge of all affairs in the country. Years were spent on training the best scribes. After all, there are more than 700 characters in ancient Egyptian writing.Let's look at the teaching of the scribe - to the students.
Hieroglyphs could be read from right to left. and from left to right. The letters were written in such a way that they would be facing the person. Many words had 2 or more meanings. What did the Egyptians write on - papyrus,let's read what papyrus is.
Let's try to write our names in ancient Egyptian, using hieroglyphs. .
Instead of vowels, use similar sounds ... 24 consonants at the end of the male name, draw a male figure, at the end of the female - a woman. Let's see. Who got what. Exit to the board.
Fizminutka ... One, two, three, four, five - we stomp our feet,
One, two, three, four, five - clap your hands
One, two, three, four, five - doing it again.
And blueberries grow in the forest
And blueberries grow in the forest
strawberries blueberries
To pick a berry
need to squat deeper (squats)
walked in the forest
I carry a basket with berries (at least on the spot)
,
Rest, well done. The need for the development of knowledge, the development of life and economy, therefore, not only writing, but also mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were taught in schools.
There are two states on earth where writing appeared earlier than in other countries. One is Mesopotamia, the other is Egypt.
Writing arose more than 5,000 years ago. years ago. Think about what year? The knowledge of the Egyptians accumulated more than people could keep in memory. This led to the invention of writing. The first signs for writing were hieroglyphs (slide + handout). The children look at the hieroglyphs. Question for the class:
Do you think it was easy to master the hieroglyphs?
There were over 750 hieroglyphs in total. And they were deciphered only in the 19th century in 1822. The name of the person to whom this merit belongs is Champollion. And before we read the document on the decoding of hieroglyphs, answer the questions:
Why was it so important to decipher the hieroglyphs?
What do written sources give us?
Would it be possible to learn about the life of the Egyptians only from the drawings?
Working with the document on p.62 of the textbook. How did you manage to decipher the hieroglyphs?
Working with handouts. On each desk - sheets with the image of hieroglyphs.
One hieroglyph could denote one sound, others - a combination of sounds, and still others - a word. Vowels were not written (the guys study the handout). The Egyptians came up with determinants, they were not read, but only suggested what was being discussed.
Let's try to be with you in the role of scientists. The children are invited to decipher the sentences marked with a check mark using a hint sheet.
Checking the job.
Numbers in Ancient Egypt. Slide. It was very difficult to perform mathematical operations (it is suggested to try to do it at home).
Conclusion: studying in Egypt was very difficult. The one who could read and write was considered a real sage.
The writing material is papyrus. Slideshow on the production of writing material.
Education in schools. Students independently get acquainted with paragraph 3.s.61 of the textbook. Questions:
What was taught in schools?
Who was trained?
How was discipline maintained?
Thanks to the decoding of hieroglyphs, we learned about scientific knowledge in ancient Egypt.
What sciences have been developed?
The conclusion is made about the high development of science. What new did you learn today
And at the end of our lesson, you need to solve a crossword puzzle. (Workbook. No. 1. p. 34)
Homework: P.12 (question 3.4 orally).
Section: Ancient Orient
Chapter 4
Paragraph 12. Writing and knowledge of the ancient Egyptians
Plan:
Mysterious letters.
Egyptian papyri.
The school trained scribes and priests.
1. Mysterious letters. In ancient Egypt, writing arose earlier than in the rest of the world, more than 5,000 years ago. What do you think, what is it connected with? ( exemplary answers of children: - a lot of knowledge has accumulated, they had to be passed on from generation to generation; to transfer information)
During excavations, archaeologists discovered that the walls of Egyptian temples, tombs and sarcophagi were covered with mysterious signs. Here you can see a cobra snake, an ibis bird, and a pyramid. Such icons of the Egyptians in ancient times were called hieroglyphs- "sacred writings". For a long time, the question of what constitutes an ancient Egyptian letter remained open, and only at the beginning of the 19th century, after long research, the secret of Egyptian writing was revealed by the French scientist Champollion.
In 1799, French soldiers under the command of Napoleon landed in Egypt and near the city of Rosetta found a huge black stone slab with an inscription in 2 languages: Greek and Egyptian. By order of Napoleon, this plate was brought to France, and many tried to unravel these inscriptions, but Champollion managed to do this 23 years after it was found.The French scholar Champollion, who knew Greek, noticed that some hieroglyphs were surrounded by an oval frame. Moreover, as many times as the name of Pharaoh Ptolemy appeared in the Greek inscription. The scientist suggested that this is how the Egyptians singled out royal names. On another stone, also containing the same text in two languages, he found the name of Queen Cleopatra in an oval frame. In the words "Ptolemy" and "Cleopatra" there are common sounds p, t, l - and the hieroglyphs in each frame coincided. So Champollion proved that hieroglyphs are signs of writing that can convey the sounds of speech.In 1828, he led an archaeological expedition to Egypt, where a huge number of texts, images, and monuments were collected. Champollion was recognized as the greatest learned Egyptologist.
Text to the archivist for the message
Champollion Jean-Francois lived in a formidable time filled with formidable events: the Great French Revolution, the execution of the king, intrigues, conspiracies, executions.
When other children from his street played war and revolution, he sat over books. From morning to night he hung around in his father's bookshop and taught himself to read at the age of 5. At the age of 11, he already knew Greek and Latin. He was interested in ancient history. The Bible was the most reliable book on the subject, and he began to study Hebrew in order to read it in the original.
Joseph Fourier - the famous French mathematician met Francois and showed him Egyptian papyri that no one could read. Almost 2000 years have passed since the last people lived who spoke ancient Egyptian and owned this script.
- I'll read it! Francois said. And he gave it his whole life and, in the end, kept his promise.
But before undertaking this, he graduated from the Lyceum in Grenoble, then entered the School of Oriental Languages in Paris, attended lectures at the University, and worked with the books of the National Library.
He learned Arabic, Persian, Chaldean, and several other ancient languages. He overcame Chinese writing ... Compiled a dictionary and grammar of the half-forgotten Coptic language, which was spoken by the first Egyptian Christians. In this language, as it turned out, the roots of ancient Egyptian words were preserved ... The accumulated knowledge helped him understand that: In Egyptian inscriptions, hieroglyphs could be written even from left to right, even from right to left, and, if necessary, in various cases, they could denote both the whole word and its part-syllable, and even just one sound-letter ... royal names, as a sign of special respect, were surrounded by an oval frame (shows picture and explains):
In the first frame, the name of the king is “PTOLOMEY”, in the second frame, the name of the queen is “CLEOPATRA” (as Champollion did in comparison with the Greek text).
The main reason why it took so long to decipher it was the lack of vowels in the Egyptian script. Ancient Egyptian writing was very complex. There were about 750 hieroglyphs.
Hieroglyphs are the ancient symbols of Egyptian writing. The complexity of the ancient Egyptian writing was that some signs meant a single word, others - one or a combination of several consonants.
At the beginning, the ancient Egyptians used a simple form of pictorial or, as it is called, pictographic writing, similar to those used by all the primitive peoples of the world. The hieroglyphs were simply drawings, each of which was a real physical object. The sun was depicted as a disk, the moon as a crescent, water as a wavy line, a person as a figurine, and so on. (See the drawing of the hieroglyph in the textbook) . Hieroglyphic writing improved. Signs could designate words and even phenomena and concepts, later - sounds.
The Egyptians came up with the following. In the Egyptian language, the word "mouth" sounded like "er", and they became a hieroglyph to denote not only the word "mouth", but also the consonant sound "r". In the same way, the hieroglyph "bread" meant not only the word "bread", but was also used to convey the sound "t", because in Egyptian "bread" is "te", and so on. One icon could also denote several sounds: the hieroglyph “hoe”, in Egyptian “mer”, could record a combination of two consonants “m” and “r” in a word. Vowel sounds were not transmitted by hieroglyphs. If you and I wrote like this - without vowels, then the “house” icon could mean both the word “house” and any other word where there are only two consonants: “d” and “m”. This means that this icon could be understood and read in different ways: “lady”, “let's go”, “eat” or as the name of the boy Dima. How to determine what is meant? The Egyptians came up with a trick. They put a defining icon next to the word, which is not readable, but only tells what it is about. In this way, we would write the word “let's go” using the hieroglyphs “house” and “go”, and Dima would write it differently: with the hieroglyphs “house” and “person”.
At that distant time, it was very difficult to learn such a letter. A literate person who can read and write seemed to the ancient Egyptians a real sage.
2. Egyptian papyri. The material used by the Egyptians for writing is called papyrus. It was made in the following way.
The Egyptians chose reed plants with a long stem, removing the hard shell, and cut the loose core into long strips up to 8 cm wide. The strips were placed on a table moistened with water. In this case, one strip adjoined the other. A second layer of the same stripes was applied on top, but already across the first layer. The masonry was made up of two layers. It was placed under a weight (stone): an adhesive liquid stood out from the plant, firmly fastening all the strips together. The surface of the sheet was covered with a thin layer of flour glue so that the ink would not spread on it. Then the sheet was dried in the sun, smoothed with ivory tools, beaten with a hammer, eliminating all irregularities. The result was a yellowish writing material, similar to paper - it was also called papyrus. Papyrus - brittle material, it cannot be folded, as sheets of paper are folded in a modern book. Therefore, sheets of papyrus were glued into long strips, which were folded into tubes - scrolls.
When a leaf of papyrus was written to the end, another one was glued to it. The book got longer and longer. Nowadays, a papyrus scroll more than forty meters long is kept in one museum.
in many In all languages, the words for paper sound similar. For example, in German paper is "papier" (papier), in English - "peype" (paper), in French - "papier" (papier), in Spanish - "papel" (papel). Apparently, this similarity is not accidental: all these words have the same root and come from the same ancient word. What's this word? Papyrus is a material used by the Egyptians for writing.
3. The school prepared scribes and priests. In ancient Egypt, there were schools for the education of boys. With the advent of scientific knowledge and writing, the state needed literate people. Therefore, the pharaohs gave orders to establish more and more schools. The main purpose of the training was: to prepare officials who knew writing and mathematical calculations. Education was paid, and only wealthy Egyptians could afford the education of their children. The term of study was long (from 5 to 17 years). In schools, they mainly taught writing and counting. Due to the high cost of papyrus, only older students wrote on it, the younger ones used clay shards for writing.
Indeed, the children of not all Egyptians went to school. The children of ordinary farmers and artisans rarely became educated people. They learned from their fathers to sow grain, herd cattle, weave or work with stone. The school trained scribes and priests. The parents of the students were usually wealthy and literate.
Schools in ancient Egypt were located at temples, and the priests-servants of the gods were teachers there.
On the tables, at which the students were sitting, there were figurines of the sun god RA. Before starting the training sessions, they expressed their respect to him, because all the Egyptians worshiped the god RA, whether they were children or adults, simple farmers or nobles, the pharaoh or his servants.
In high school, students were entrusted with papyrus. They wrote on it with a sharp reed, dipping it in black paint. Nearby in the pencil case was red paint, which marked the beginning of a new thought. Hence the expression - "red line"
Which way of writing numbers is more convenient: ancient Egyptian or the one that we use? Why is this way more convenient?
Writing large numbers took up a lot of space in Egypt, there was even number one million , denoted figurine of a man raising his hands in surprise ; the counting system was complex, it was especially difficult to multiply and divide. Despite this, the Egyptians knew all four arithmetic operations, managed to solve complex problems. The original units of length are very characteristic of the forms of Egyptian mathematics. These units were: finger, palm, foot and elbow, between which the Egyptian mathematician established certain relationships.
The rules in Egyptian schools were very strict. Students were flogged for laziness and disobedience.
After the students mastered reading and writing and counting, they began to study history, geography, mathematics, astronomy, construction and medicine. After graduation, they took exams. Only those who endured them could continue their education further. But now the student could choose, at will, one or two of his favorite subjects, which he would like to make his future profession. Most of the young men at the end of school became scribes. It was one of the most respected and well-paid professions in ancient Egypt.
The Egyptians were engaged and astronomy, determining the movement of heavenly bodies.
Watching the sky, the Egyptian priests made an accurate calendar and predicted on what day the Nile would flood, because this was very important. Astronomical knowledge gave the Egyptians the opportunity to establish a special calendar. The Egyptian calendar year was divided into 12 months of 30 days each, with 5 feast days added at the end of the year, giving a total of 365 days per year. Thus, the Egyptian calendar year lagged behind the tropical year by a quarter of a day. This error for 1460 years became equal to 365 days, that is, one year.
They used water clocks to measure time. In a water clock, water drips from a vessel with a small hole at the bottom: how much water has poured out, so much “time has flown by”.
It was not just the priests who watched the stars - they, as it were, penetrated the secret of the movement of the heavenly gods themselves. In Egypt, the science of studying the Earth was born - geography . But the information of the ancient Egyptians about the Earth was still very inaccurate. They, for example, imagined it as a rectangle with raised edges - mountains, which was surrounded by an endless ocean.
The ancient Egyptians had great knowledge of medicine. They were able to determine the disease by the pulse and many other signs. To treat diseases, doctors made complex medicines made up of herbs and medicinal substances. In Egypt, they even knew how to perform surgical operations using painkillers.
However, so that ordinary people would not learn the secrets, much knowledge in ancient Egypt was passed down from generation to generation only in a narrow circle of priests.
Questions and answers:
one). The very word "hieroglyph" means - "sacred letter". Why do you think? ( since sacred temples and tombs were painted with them, it means that they were performed by priests).
2). What is the peculiarity of Egyptian writing. Why did a man who could read in Egypt seem like a real sage? (vowels were not indicated when writing, there were signs - determinants; it was difficult to learn such a letter)
3). There were many schools in Egypt. "A boy's ear is on his back, and he listens better when he is beaten," teachers used to say.
Question: Consider why no one said, "The girl's ear is on her back?" (the school of scribes trained the officials of the pharaoh, so girls were not taught at school, only not many Egyptians were literate).
4). Think about why with the development of the economy in Egypt, there was a need for scientific knowledge? What do you think, what sciences should have been developed in Egypt? (I had to count a lot - collecting taxes, building pyramids and temples, in craft - mathematics)
5).
- Whom did the school prepare? (Scribes and priests)
-Where were the schools and who were the teachers in them? (At temples, priests)
-What was taught in schools? (Read and count)
- Where were mathematical knowledge needed? (In construction work, tax collection, craft)
6)
. What types of watches do you know?(Sand, water, solar, mechanical, electronic).
7). In ancient Egypt, nobles who held a high position in the court of the pharaoh often demanded that artists and sculptors depict them with writing instruments. They ordered statues for their tombs depicting them in the pose of a scribe. Why do you think they did it? (Noble nobles and even the sons of the pharaoh were proud of their education . They wanted everyone to know they could write.)
8). Remember what population groups were in ancient Egypt(Pharaoh, nobles, warriors, farmers, artisans, slaves).
Imagine what's coming pyramid building. What calculations were needed during its construction?(Number of stone slabs, number of slaves, number of years during which the pyramid will be built). Who did these calculations?(The nobles who supervised the work).
What calculations did the Egyptian commanders make when the army advanced? (Number of warriors, weapons, number of days for military campaigns, supply of food, water)
What calculations did farmers have to make? (How much grain should be taxed, how much should be left for seeds, for food, for bulls).
Summarize: everyone had to count . What science arose from this knowledge?(Arithmetic is one of the branches of mathematics. All received calculations had to be written down, writing developed.
§ 1 Ancient hieroglyphs
A major contribution of the ancient Egyptians to world culture was the creation of a unique writing system - hieroglyphs. The invention of writing contributed to the most accurate accumulation and transmission of information from one person to another. The creation of writing determined the emergence and development of the sciences.
In the 19th century, when the study of Ancient Egypt began, researchers began to come across mysterious signs that adorned the walls of tombs, temples and sarcophagi. These pictures were a simplified representation of a living being or object. For a long time it was not possible to decipher these symbols, to give them any description.
In 1799, at the height of Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, near the city of Rosetta, a French army officer found a stone slab with three mysterious letters. Two inscriptions were made in ancient Egyptian, and the third in ancient Greek, well known at that time. This stone, called Rosetta, proved to be an important find for Egyptologists, as it contained the key to understanding hieroglyphic writing. In 1822, the French historian and linguist Jean-Francois Champollion, by comparing the Greek and hieroglyphic texts, managed to unravel the mystery of the hieroglyphs. From that moment began an active study of the history and culture of ancient Egypt.
In total, there were about 6,000 characters in Egyptian writing, of which 700 characters were the most commonly used. Hieroglyphs originated from the pictorial writing of primitive peoples. Gradually, the drawings were simplified and eventually turned into signs. There were no vowel sounds in hieroglyphic writing. In addition, the same symbol could designate several objects, depending on its position in the text.
§ 2 The appearance of papyrus
The Egyptians used a special material for writing - papyrus. It was made from reeds that grew along the banks of the Nile. The stem was cut into long and narrow strips, which were laid out on a flat surface, one next to the other, then another layer of papyrus stems was laid out in the transverse direction. Such a two-layer masonry was pressed from above with a stone and left to dry. The result was a material that could be written on.
For the convenience of storing and transferring papyrus with records, it was rolled up into a tube - a scroll.
It was very difficult to learn the ancient Egyptian script, so literate people were treated with special respect.
§ 3 Education at school
Special schools were created to teach writing. These schools were attended only by children of noble parents. Literacy was not available to the children of ordinary farmers and pastoralists; their main task was to learn from their parents to sow grain and raise livestock.
Schools, as a rule, were opened at temples. Priests were teachers in such schools. Graduates became scribes, officials and priests.
Students were taught to count, they solved problems in arithmetic and geometry. Many symbols and signs invented in ancient Egypt are still used in mathematics. Among the sciences taught in Egyptian schools was astronomy, thanks to which the priests compiled accurate calendars and predicted the days of the beginning and end of the Nile floods. The Egyptians used sun and water clocks to accurately measure time. It was from Egypt that the expression “how much water has flowed under the bridge” came to us.
Another science that developed in Egypt was medicine. Ancient doctors knew how to treat both bodies and souls. They believed that diseases were instilled in a person by evil spirits and various decoctions, as well as magic spells, sought to expel them from the body of the patient. It should be noted that many treatments are still recognized as effective.
List of used literature:
- Mircea Eliade. History of faith and religious ideas. Volume I: From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries, Translation by N.N. Kulakova, V.R. Rokityansky and Yu.N. Stefanov, M .: Criterion, 2002
- Ancient world history. The Ancient East. Egypt, Sumer, Babylon, Western Asia. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 832 p.
- Keram K. "Gods, Tombs and Scholars". Roman archeology
Used images:
Lesson topic: WRITING AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
Lesson objectives.
Personal:
to realize the value and significance of getting an education on the example of Ancient Egypt;
learn to understand that getting an education is a lot of work;
to help students realize the need to study various school subjects;
develop respect for other cultures.
Metasubject:
to form the logical and historical thinking of students;
to form the ability to compare different phenomena;
to teach how to transfer existing experience (knowledge from other subject areas) to new situations; show the ability to use the acquired knowledge to solve practical problems.
Subject:
understand the meaning of the concepts: "hieroglyphs", "papyrus",
on the example of knowledge that was given at school, talk about the development of science;
reveal the features and complexity of Egyptian writing, the history of its decipherment;
introduce the features of the Egyptian account and system of measures.
| Lesson stages | Teacher actions |
| I. Creation of a problem situation. Formulation of the problem. | Over the course of several lessons, we studied the historical events and phenomena of Ancient Egypt. And we did not think about where the information about them came from. Meanwhile, for a long time nothing was known about Ancient Egypt in the world. After all, this civilization perished on the eve of the new era. A little more than 200 years ago, the then little-known French General Napoleon, at the head of an army, set off to conquer Egypt. His military campaign was defeated, but had positive results of a different nature, namely, acquaintance with ancient Egyptian culture. The expedition included not only warriors, but also scientists, artists, architects, who carefully examined the finds, sketched and wrote down everything they found. As a result, the study of the lost ancient Egyptian civilization was initiated. French researchers were especially struck by the abundance of mysterious drawings on the walls of the pyramids, stone steles, and temple walls. (Demonstration of a slide depicting monuments of ancient Egyptian culture). But here's the dilemma: But, at the same time, these sources were silent. By themselves, they did not report either the names of the pharaohs, or information about specific wars, campaigns, events. The actual history of Ancient Egypt remained unknown. Usually such information is provided by written sources. But in this case, they gave nothing, because they could not be read. . (We fix the 2nd fact:history dr. Egypt remained unknown). What contradiction is revealed when comparing the two sides of the situation? What is the question? ^ Summarizing the answers of the students, we fix the educational problem on the board:Why was such a complex writing system created in ancient Egypt? How was it solved and deciphered? What scientific data has become available to mankind? |
| II. Knowledge update. | Write down the topic of the lesson"Writing and Knowledge of the Ancient Egyptians" What do we already know about this issue? ( Records key words on the board.) |
| III. Activity planning. | What do we need to know to solve the problem? Write the plan of action on the board with key words. Need to find out:
|
| IV. Search for a solution to the problem (discovery of new knowledge). | Why Champollion unraveled the mystery of Egyptian writing. What amazed you about this person? Jean-Francois Champollion acquired his talent early. At the age of five, he had already learned to write and read. At the age of 9, he mastered the Greek language and Latin perfectly. At the age of 11, he was already reading the Bible in Hebrew. At the same age, he wrote the book "The History of Famous Dogs". At the age of 13, he began to study Arabic and Coptic. At the age of 15, he began to study the ancient Indian language - Sanskrit. At the same age, he was engaged in the compilation of chronological tables "From Adam to Champollion the Younger." And for fun, I also learned Chinese. At the age of 11, he first saw hieroglyphs, though adults told him that no one could read them. To which Champollion replied: “I will read it. I will definitely read it when I grow up.” Group work (see attachment) - In many languages, the words for paper sound similar. For example, in German paper is “papier” (papier), in English - “paper” (paper), in French - “papier” (papier), in Spanish - “papel” (papel). Apparently, this similarity is not accidental: all these words have the same root and come from the same ancient word. Tasks for group No. 1. Paragraph 12, point 1 Task for group No. 2 Task group number 3 Task for group No. 4 |
| V. Expression of the solution of the problem. | What answer to the main question of the lesson can we give? |
| VII. Application of new knowledge. | Defense - band performance |
| VIII. Homework. | § 12, Come up with and write in a notebook a few sentences in hieroglyphs |
Attachment 1
Tasks for group No. 1.
Paragraph 12, point 1
Find out how Jean Francois Champollion managed to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs.
What were the hieroglyphs, and why are they so difficult to decipher?
For many years no one could read hieroglyphic writing. Many wanted to unravel the mystery of Egyptian writing. The French scientist Jean-Francois Champollion managed to do this. He examined the famous Rosetta Stone - a plate with a thank-you inscription of the priests to Ptolemy V Epiphanes, dated 196 BC. e. One part of the inscriptions on the plate was made in hieroglyphs, the other contained the same text in ancient Greek. Both in the Greek and in the hieroglyphic text, the names of the rulers were circled in oval frames, and this became the key to the puzzle. Champollion managed to read the hieroglyphs encircled by a cartouche, denoting the names "Ptolemy" and "Cleopatra". 
WhysameWas it that difficult to decipher the Egyptian script?(The same hieroglyph could designate both a sound and a whole word, and be a clue determinant). Initially, hieroglyphs were similar to drawings and denoted whole concepts. Such writing did not convey the sounds of speech, and many words, such as names, simply could not be depicted. In order to solve this problem, the ancient Egyptian scribes invented a syllabic script, in which separate signs denoted syllables and letters. As a result, Jean-Francois Champollion proved that the Egyptian letter consists of three types of signs: signs that define concepts - pictographic writing; signs that represent consonant sounds, and identifying icons that helped to read words that had the same consonants, for example, “house” and “Dima”. September 14, 1822 Champallon made a presentation on his scientific discovery, this date was the official start of the development of science Egyptology.
Task for group No. 2
Find out how numbers and numbers were designated in Egyptian writing.
Try to perform calculations and draw a conclusion about the convenience or inconvenience of these symbols
Compare with modern counting system
Using the table of numbers, write down the year of your birth
Decipher what example is presented here and translate into the modern sign system
Task group number 3
Sources of information: paragraph 12, paragraph 2. Video clip on a laptop
What materials were used for writing in ancient Egypt?
Tell and show how papyrus is made (make an algorithm for creating papyrus)
Try to write on other materials
The Egyptians did not know paper. They wrote on papyrus, which was made from the stems of marsh reeds. Papyrus has been in use as a writing material in Egypt since the beginning of the third millennium BC.
There was a special technique for making papyrus. Papyrus stems were peeled and cut lengthwise. Then these cuts of papyrus stems were laid out on a wetted table, they had to be tightly adjacent to each other, then a second layer of cuts was applied in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the cuts of the first layer (crosswise). The masonry was made of two layers. It was placed under the press, and then dried in the sun. At the final stage of papyrus production, the sheets were smoothed with ivory tools and shells and beaten with a hammer. Then the finished sheets of papyrus were glued together, creating long scrolls. The length of the scrolls reached several meters. The sheets were glued together in such a way that the edge of one sheet covered the edge of the next one (the place of gluing was 1–2 cm).
Task for group No. 4
Sources of information: textbook paragraph 12, page 64
Assess the scientific contribution of the Egyptians in the development of geography, mathematics and astronomy
Describe the discoveries of the Egyptians
Tasks: measure the length and width of your desk (in elbows and palms); your textbook (in the palms).
Compare Egyptian and modern calendar
Originated in ancient Egypt geography- the science of studying the Earth (although the knowledge of the Egyptians was inaccurate: they represented the Earth as a rectangle surrounded by an ocean).
The Egyptians achieved the greatest success in mathematics, astronomy and medicine.
Astronomy: thanks to the observations of the stars, the Egyptian priests were able to determine the length of the year. They noticed that the star Sirius rises once every 365 days. The Egyptians also knew how to predict solar and lunar eclipses, quite accurate catalogs of stars and maps of the starry sky were compiled.
A scientific and technical achievement was the invention of water and sundials.
Maths: mathematics appeared and developed in connection with the practical needs of the Egyptians in calculations (measuring land after the Nile floods, accounting and distribution of the harvest, complex calculations in the construction of temples, tombs and palaces). The ancient Egyptians knew how to perform addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, had an idea about fractions.
How did the Egyptians measure?? The Egyptian system of measurements was based on the proportions of the human body. The main unit of measurement was the cubit - a value equal to the distance from the elbow to the fingertips. Let's find this value in our hands. The next unit of measurement is the palm, it consisted of 4 fingers.
(How many palms are in one cubit? How many fingers are in the palm? How many fingers are in the elbow? Etc.)
Task: compare the ancient Egyptian calendar with the modern one
| similarities | Features of difference |
|
| Egyptian calendar | Our calendar |
|
12 months a year | 1 week = 10 days 1 season (season) = 4 months 3 seasons (seasons) | 1 week = 7 days 1 season (season) = 3 months 4 seasons There are 28 and 31 day months |
Task for group No. 5 Source of information - documents presented below and a video clip
Assess the contribution of the Egyptians to the development of medicine
Tell and show how the mummies were made (show how the bandage was applied)
Medicine: The high level of medicine for that time is associated with the custom of mummification of corpses, during which doctors could study the anatomy of the human body.
One of the highest achievements of Egyptian medicine was the doctrine of blood circulation and the importance of the heart in these processes.
Physicians in ancient Egypt had a specialization. Someone treated the stomach, someone treated the eyes, someone treated the teeth, etc. In ancient Egypt, a rather high level of surgery was noted (surgical instruments found during excavations of tombs testify to this).
From a prescription for a skull fracture without damage to the soft tissues of the head
(from the Smith Papyrus)
If you are examining a person with a skull fracture under the skin of his head and there is nothing on it, then you feel his wound. You will find a protruding swelling on the outside of the break, which is in his head, and his eye is slanted because of this on the side that is under the injury, and What goes (he) and drags the sole. You must define it as an injury from outside, with the head of the joint of his shoulder not separated, and with it the nails of his fingers twisted into the middle of the hand, he bleeds from his nostrils and suffers from inflexibility of the neck. We'll cure the disease.
Krushkol Yu. S. Reader on the history of the ancient world. - M., 1987.- S. 52.
Document question:
What conclusions can be drawn from this document?
“... Medicine and veterinary science have received significant development in Egypt. In a number of texts from the Middle Kingdom, a list of recipes for the treatment of various diseases is given. Using a wealth of empirical observations, however, the Egyptian physicians could not yet completely renounce ancient magic. So, for example, one sorcerer's collection of conspiracies, compiled specifically for the "treatment" of sick children, was intended for children's doctors, mothers and nurses. In this collection, along with many purely magical texts, only occasionally are there unique outlandish recipes, in particular, means for preserving and increasing the amount of mother's milk. Thus, drug treatment was usually combined with magic spells and rituals. But the study of the human body, facilitated by the opening of corpses during mummification, made it possible for doctors to more or less correctly approach the questions of the structure and functioning of the human body. So, the first knowledge in the field of anatomy (human structure) gradually appears. There was apparently some medical ethics that required the doctor to openly tell the patient about the possibility of his recovery, using one of three possible formulas: “1) This is a disease that I can cure. 2) This is a disease that I may be able to cure. 3) This is a disease that I cannot cure.” Doctors specialize in certain types of diseases. In one tomb of the Old Kingdom, images of various operations (arms, legs, knees) have been preserved.
How did the ancient Egyptians carry out mummification?
Mummy of Ancient Egypt
Like most services in Ancient Egypt, the quality of mummification directly depended on the financial solvency of the deceased. From the bodies of members of the pharaoh family and the highest dignitaries, the internal organs were removed through small incisions. The holes were filled with an oil mixture. After a few days, the oil drained from the body.
For low-ranking officials in ancient Egypt, such a procedure during mummification was not available.
After removing the internal organs from the body, they were placed in vessels filled with special balms, where they were kept in the same tomb next to mummified. The ancient Egyptians believed that after death the spirit returned to the body of the deceased. And for the subsequent life in another world, he needed all the organs of vital activity. In order to prevent rapid tissue decay and complete mummification, the body was subjected to a drying process. It remained untouched for 40 days. After the removal of all organs, with the exception of the heart, a mixture of sodium compounds was poured into the body to maintain its shape. Its composition was mined on the banks of the Nile. The entire body of the pharaoh, priest or mummified animal was also covered with sodium. Then hairdressers and cosmetologists worked on the body. The embalmers then applied a layer of moisture-resistant resin made from natural substances such as oils, beeswax, and pine resin to the body. Then the mummy was wrapped in bandages. as the final stage, a mask was applied to the mummy and placed in a sarcophagus.
The entire process of mummification in ancient Egypt took 70 days.
Mummification in Ancient Egypt only priests who possessed certain knowledge and had the appropriate rank were engaged. Its implementation required skills in this art form.
The ancient Egyptians hid their method of carrying out mummification, and no record of this has been found in a reliable source. However, scientists figured out what the technology they used looked like. They noted that the sand dries the body and does not allow the tissues to decompose and thus contributes to natural mummification in the arid climate of Egypt. In the Valley of the Kings in Egypt, you can see many simple holes in the sand and rocks. They were found mummies of citizens who could afford such a luxury as their own tomb in times ancient egypt.
Appendix 2
Group work self-assessment sheet ______________________________________________
| Criteria | ||
| I was active in the group | ||
| I immediately understood how to complete the task | ||
| I offered several options for doing the job | ||
| I was not distracted from the main work | ||
| I really wanted to complete the task successfully | ||
| I listened carefully to what ideas the members of the group had to offer. | ||
| I really wanted our group to do the job correctly, in an original way. | ||
| I can rate myself |
Rate the performances of other groups:
| Group | Your mark for the work of the group | your comment |
