Language is a system of socially conditioned sound signs. This system is capable of expressing the totality of a person's knowledge and ideas about the world and functions as a means of communication (communication).
Language is the most complex of all sign systems. A linguistic sign is a unity of the signified (content) and the signifier (form). The signifier of a word is a chain of sounds, the signified is a certain mental content.
Language features:
1) Communicative
2) Cognitive (epistemological, cognitive)
3) Accumulative
4) Emotional (interjection)
Parts of the language - levels
1) Sound, phonetic (sound having a semantic function - Phoneme)
2) Morphemic - significant parts of the word
3) Lexical, word - sign (verbal)
4) Syntactic:
A) The phrase has a nominative function
B) Sentence - a communicative function
The word is the basic unit of language
The language system is dynamic. Principles of language development:
1. saving pronunciation efforts. The desire to achieve the goal with minimal effort leads to the reduction of the signifier to certain limits.
Examples: now - right now, academic leave - academic leave - academician. Saving limit - distortion of information
2. The principle of analogy - the likening of one language form to another (rector-rector, by analogy with a doctor);
3. Influence of extralinguistic factors (borrowing process: killer - killer).
The Russian language is an Indo-European family. The most northern - Icelandic, southern - Sinhalese, west - Portuguese, east - Sakhalin, Russian)
Europeans are not an autochthonous population (referring to the original habitats)
The concept of the modern Russian literary language.
A narrow interpretation is the Russian language of the last fifty years. Wide - from the era of Pushkin's work
The theory of three calms: High (tragedy), Medium, Low (comedy). High calm borrowed from the ancient Russian language
938 - the creation of Cyrillic by Cyril and Methodius in Thessaloniki for the southern Slavs, the eastern ones borrowed it.
Pushkin first mixed East Slavic and southern languages. - The emergence of diglossia (bilingualism)
Literary language is a form of common language that serves all areas of activity of the entire community of speakers. The main feature of the literary language is the presence of a norm, the general obligatory nature of norms and their codification.
More on the topic 1. Language as a system. The concept of the modern Russian literary language.:
- 1. Language as a system. The concept of the modern Russian literary language. Standard of the literary language. Changing language norms. Violation of language norms.
- L.L. Kasatkin, L.P. Krysin, M.R. Lvov, T.G. Terekhov. Russian language. Textbook, for students ped. in-t on spec. No. 2121 “Pedagogy and methods of the beginning. learning". In 2 hours. Part I. Introduction to the science of language. Russian language. General information. Lexicology of the modern Russian literary language. Phonetics. Graphics and spelling / L. L. Kasatkin, L. P. Krysin, M. R. Lvov, T. G. Terekhova; Ed. L. Yu. Maksimova.- M.: Enlightenment, 1989.- 287 p., 1989
- modern Russian language. National language and forms of its existence. Literary language as the highest form of the national language.
Language is a means of expressing people's thoughts and desires. People also use language to express their feelings. The exchange of such information between people is called communication. Language- this is "a system of discrete (articulate) sound signs that spontaneously arose in human society and is developing, designed for the purposes of communication and capable of expressing the totality of knowledge and ideas of a person and the world" 2 . This is a special system of signs that serves as a means of communication between people.
Central to this definition is the combination "special system of signs", which needs a detailed explanation. What is a sign? We encounter the concept of a sign not only in language, but also in everyday life. For example, when we see smoke coming from the chimney of a house, we conclude that a stove is being heated in the house. When we hear the sound of a gunshot in the forest, we conclude that someone is hunting. Smoke is a visual sign, a sign of fire; the sound of a shot is an auditory sign, a sign of a shot. Even these two simplest examples show that a sign has a visible or audible form and some content behind this form (“they heat the stove”, “shoot”).
A linguistic sign is also two-sided: it has a form (or signifier) and a content (or signified). For example, the word table has a written or sound form, consisting of four letters (sounds), and the meaning is “a type of furniture: a slab of wood or other material, fixed on legs”.
Unlike signs that have a natural character ( smoke- sign of fire shot sound- a sign of a shot), there is no causal relationship between the form of a word (signifier) and its meaning (content, signified). The linguistic sign is conditional: in a given society of people, this or that object has such and such a name (for example, table), and in other national groups it may be called differently ( der Tisch- in German, la table - in French a table- in English).
The words of the language really replace other objects in the process of communication. Similar “substitutes” for other objects are usually called signs, but what is indicated with the help of verbal signs is by no means always objects of reality. The words of a language can act as signs not only of objects of reality, but also of actions, signs, as well as various kinds of mental images that arise in the human mind.
In addition to words, an important component of the language is the ways of forming words and constructing sentences from these words. All language units do not exist in isolation and disorderly. They are interconnected and form a single whole - the language system.
System - (from the Greek. systema - "whole, made up of parts; connection") the union of elements that are in relationships and connections, forming integrity, unity. Therefore, each system has some features:
consists of many elements;
its elements are connected with each other;
these elements form a unity, one whole.
When characterizing a language as a system, it is necessary to determine what elements it consists of, how they are related to each other, what relations are established between them, in what way their unity is manifested.
Language consists of units: sounds; morphemes (prefixes, roots, suffixes, endings); words; phraseological units; free phrases; sentences (simple, complex); texts.
Each of the units is determined by other signs, and itself, in turn, determines them. There are three types of relations of language units: syntagmatic, paradigmatic and constitutive.
Syntagmatic (or linear) relations determine the connection of signs in the speech stream: on the basis of these relations, units of the same order are combined with each other precisely in those forms that are determined by the laws of the language. So, when forming a word showerech ka to the stem of a noun showerto a diminutive suffix added - to -, which affects the transformation of the base stem: the final consonant of the stem changes ( to is replaced by h ) and preceded by a vowel. When forming a verb phrase, we put the dependent pronoun or noun in the case form required by the verb control ( to see (what? – vin. p.) a building; to approach (to what? - dat. p.) to the building).
On the basis of paradigmatic relations, units of the same order are combined into classes, and also grouped within classes. So, homogeneous language units are combined and form language levels (Table 1).
Table 1
Within each level, units enter into more complex paradigmatic relationships. For example, combinations soft wagon – rigid wagon, being designations of certain types of passenger cars, are opposed to each other and form a minimal sign system - an antonymic pair. Remove one of the combinations and the system collapses; moreover, the remaining sign will lose its meaning (it is not clear what soft wagon, if not wagon hard).
Other linguistic signs are in multidimensional relations with each other, mutually conditioning each other and, thus, forming private systems within the general system of language. For example, kinship terms make up a harmonious system. The signs in this system are opposed to each other on more than one basis (as in a pair soft wagon – rigid wagon), and for several: semi ( father – mother, son – daughter), generation ( grandmother – mother – granddaughter), direct / indirect lineage ( father – son, uncle – nephew).
Language signs are the most complex. They can consist of one unit (word, phraseological unit) or their combination (sentence), in the latter case, the combination of simple units creates a complex unit. This ability of lower-order linguistic units to be the building material for higher-order units is determined by the constitutive relations of linguistic units. For example, an independent linguistic sign is a word. The morpheme does not function independently in the language. It manifests itself only in the word, therefore it is considered a minimal, non-independent linguistic sign that serves to build words. Words, in turn, build phrases and sentences. A sentence, a statement, a text are composite signs of varying degrees of complexity.
It remains to be seen why language is defined as a particular system of signs. There are several reasons for such a definition. First, language is many times more complex than any other sign system. Secondly, the signs of the language system themselves are of varying complexity, some are simple, others consist of a number of simple ones: for example, window- a simple sign, and the word formed from it windowsill- a compound sign containing a prefix under- and suffix -Nick, which are also simple signs. Thirdly, although the relationship between the signifier and the signified in a linguistic sign is unmotivated, conditional, in each specific case the connection between these two sides of the linguistic sign is stable, fixed by tradition and speech practice, and cannot be changed at the will of an individual person: we cannot table name home or window- each of these words serves as a designation of "its" subject.
And, finally, the main reason why language is called a special sign system is that language serves as a means of communication between people. We can express any content, any thought with the help of language, and this is its universality. No other sign systems capable of serving as means of communication - they will be discussed below (see 1.3) - do not have this property.
Thus, language is a special system of signs and ways of connecting them, which serves as an instrument for expressing thoughts, feelings and wills of people and is the most important means of human communication.
It is fundamentally important that they do not exist on their own, but are closely related to each other. Thus, a single and integral system is formed. Each of its components has a certain significance.
Structure
It is impossible to imagine a language system without units of signs, etc. All these elements are combined into a common structure with a strict hierarchy. Less significant together form components related to higher levels. The language system includes a dictionary. It is considered an inventory, which includes ready-made ones. The mechanism for their combination is grammar.
In any language there are several sections that differ greatly from each other in their properties. For example, their systematization may also differ. Thus, changes in even one element of phonology can change the entire language as a whole, while this will not happen in the case of vocabulary. Among other things, the system includes the periphery and the center.
The concept of structure
In addition to the term "language system", the concept of language structure is also accepted. Some linguists consider them synonyms, some do not. Interpretations differ, but there are among them the most popular. According to one of them, the structure of a language is expressed in the relations between its elements. The comparison with the frame is also popular. The structure of a language can be considered a set of regular relations and links between language units. They are due to nature and characterize the functions and originality of the system.
Story
The attitude to language as a system has developed over many centuries. This idea was laid down by ancient grammarians. However, in the modern sense, the term "language system" was formed only in modern times thanks to the work of such prominent scientists as Wilhelm von Humboldt, August Schleicher, and Ivan Baudouin de Courtenay.
The last of the above linguists singled out the most important linguistic units: phoneme, grapheme, morpheme. Saussure was the founder of the idea that language (as a system) is the opposite of speech. This teaching was developed by his students and followers. Thus, a whole discipline appeared - structural linguistics.
Levels
The main tiers are the levels of the language system (also called subsystems). They include homogeneous linguistic units. Each level has a set of its own rules according to which its classification is built. Within one tier, units enter into relationships (for example, they form sentences and phrases). At the same time, elements of different levels can enter into each other. So, morphemes are made up of phonemes, and words are made up of morphemes.
Key systems are part of any language. Linguists distinguish several such tiers: morphemic, phonemic, syntactic (related to sentences) and lexical (that is, verbal). Among others, there are higher levels of language. Their distinguishing feature lies in "two-sided units", that is, those linguistic units that have a plan of content and expression. Such a higher level, for example, is semantic.
Types of levels
The fundamental phenomenon for building a language system is the segmentation of the speech flow. Its beginning is the selection of phrases or statements. They play the role of communicative units. In the language system, the speech flow corresponds to the syntactic level. The second stage of segmentation is the articulation of statements. As a result, word forms are formed. They combine heterogeneous functions - relative, derivational, nominative. Word forms are identified into words, or lexemes.
As mentioned above, the system of linguistic signs also consists of the lexical level. It is formed by vocabulary. The next stage of segmentation is associated with the selection of the smallest units in the speech stream. They are called morphs. Some of them have identical grammatical and lexical meanings. Such morphs are combined into morphemes.
Segmentation of the speech flow ends with the allocation of tiny segments of speech - sounds. They differ in their physical properties. But their function (sense-distinctive) is the same. Sounds are identified in a common language unit. It is called a phoneme - the smallest segment of a language. It can be thought of as a tiny (but important) brick in a vast linguistic edifice. With the help of the system of sounds, the phonological level of the language is formed.
Language units
Let's look at how the units of the language system differ from its other elements. Because they are indestructible. Thus, this rung is the lowest in the language ladder. Units have several classifications. For example, they are divided by the presence of a sound shell. In this case, units such as morphemes, phonemes and words fall into one group. They are considered material, as they differ in a constant sound shell. In another group there are models of the structure of phrases, words and sentences. These units are called relatively material, since their constructive meaning is generalized.
Another classification is built according to whether a part of the system has its own value. This is an important sign. The material units of the language are divided into one-sided (those that do not have their own meaning) and two-sided (endowed with meaning). They (words and morphemes) have another name. These units are known as the higher units of the language.
The systematic study of the language and its properties does not stand still. Today there is already a tendency, according to which the concepts of "units" and "elements" began to be substantively separated. This phenomenon is relatively new. The theory is gaining popularity that, as a plan of content and a plan of expression, the elements of language are not independent. This is how they differ from units.
What other features characterize the language system? Language units differ from each other functionally, qualitatively and quantitatively. Because of this, humanity is familiar with such a deep and ubiquitous linguistic diversity.
Properties of the system
Proponents of structuralism believe that the language system of the Russian language (like any other) is distinguished by several features - rigidity, closeness and unambiguous conditionality. There is also an opposite point of view. It is represented by the comparativists. They believe that language as a language system is dynamic and open to change. Similar ideas are widely supported in new directions of linguistic science.
But even supporters of the theory of the dynamism and variability of language do not deny the fact that any system of linguistic means has some stability. It is caused by the properties of the structure, which acts as a law of connection of a variety of linguistic elements. Variability and stability are dialectical. They are opposing tendencies. Any word in the language system changes depending on which one has the most influence.
Unit Features
Another factor important for the formation of a language system is the properties of language units. Their nature is revealed when interacting with each other. Sometimes linguists refer to properties as functions of the subsystem they form. These features are divided into external and internal. The latter depend on the relationships and connections that develop between the units themselves. External properties are formed under the influence of the relationship of the language with the outside world, reality, human feelings and thoughts.
Units form a system due to their connections. The properties of these relationships are varied. Some correspond to the communicative function of language. Others reflect the connection of language with the mechanisms of the human brain - the source of its own existence. Often these two views are presented as a graph with horizontal and vertical axes.
Relationship between levels and units
A subsystem (or level) of a language is singled out if, on the whole, it possesses all the key properties of the language system. It is also required to comply with the requirements of constructability. In other words, units of the level must participate in the organization of the tier located one step higher. In a language, everything is interconnected, and no part of it can exist separately from the rest of the organism.
The properties of a subsystem differ in their qualities from the properties of the units that construct it at a lower level. This moment is very important. The properties of a level are determined only by the units of the language that are directly part of it. This model has an important feature. The attempts of linguists to present language as a multi-tiered system are attempts to create a scheme that is distinguished by ideal order. Such an idea can be called utopian. Theoretical models differ markedly from real practice. Although any language is highly organized, it does not represent an ideal symmetrical and harmonious system. That is why in linguistics there are so many exceptions to the rules that everyone knows from school.
Language is a material means of human communication, or, more specifically, a secondary material or sign system that is used as a tool or means of communication. Without language there can be no communication, and without communication there can be no society, and thus no person.
Language is the product of a whole series of epochs during which it is shaped, enriched, polished. Language is associated with the production activity of a person, as well as with any other human activity in all areas of his work.
It should be noted that there are many opinions about the definition of the concept of "language", but all these definitions can be reduced to some general idea. Such a general idea is the idea that language is a functional material system of a semiotic or sign character, the functioning of which in the form of speech is its use as a means of communication.
Language as an extremely complex entity can be defined from different points of view, depending on which side or sides of the language are highlighted. Definitions are possible: a) from the point of view of the function of language (or functions of language): language is a means of communication between people and, as such, is a means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts; b) from the point of view of the device (mechanism) of the language: language is a set of certain units and rules for using these units, that is, a combination of units, these units are reproduced by speakers at the moment; c) from the point of view of the existence of language: language is the result of a social, collective skill of “making” units from sound matter by pairing some sounds with some meaning; d) from a semiotic point of view: language is a system of signs, that is, material objects (sounds) endowed with the property of denoting something that exists outside of them; e) from the point of view of information theory: language is a move by which semantic information is encoded.
The above definitions complement each other and partially intersect and duplicate each other. Since it is hardly possible to give a sufficiently complete characterization of the language in a single definition, therefore, it is necessary to rely on the most general definition, concretizing it as necessary with one or another special characteristic that is universal. One of the universal characteristics is the systematic nature of the language.
Ferdinand de Saussure theoretically substantiated the systemic nature of the language through the concept of correlative significance, or value, of language units that he introduced, as well as through the concepts of syntagmatic and paradigmatic (according to Saussure: associative) relations between language units. Language is recognized, for example, as a systemic entity both by those who consider language to be a sign entity and by those who deny the sign character of language. Consistency is the most important characteristic of a language. It can be considered established that language belongs to systemic formations. However, the terms "system" and "systemic" are understood differently in different works.
Each system, understood as some material ideal object, has a certain structure, organization, order. The device, organization, orderliness of the system is the structure of this system.
Language as a secondary material system has a structure, understood as its internal organization. The structure of the system is determined by the nature of the relationship of elementary objects, or elements of the system. The structure of a system can be defined differently as a set of intrasystem connections. If the concept of a system refers to some object as a holistic formation and includes the elements of the system and their relationships, then the concept of the structure of a given system includes only intra-system relationships in abstraction from the objects that make up the system.
Structure is an attribute of some system. The structure cannot exist outside the substance or elements of the system.
The elements of the language structure differ qualitatively, which is determined by the different functions of these elements.
sounds are material signs of language, not just "audible sounds".
The sound signs of a language have two functions: 1) perceptual - to be an object of perception and 2) significative - to have the ability to distinguish between higher, significant elements of the language - morphemes, words, sentences.
Words can name things and phenomena of reality; this is a nominative function.
Offers serve to communicate; it is a communicative function.
In addition to these functions, the language can express the speaker's emotional states, will, desire, directed as a call to the listener.
The expression of these phenomena is covered by the expressive function.
The elements of this structure form a unity in the language, which is easy to understand if you pay attention to their connection: each lower level is potentially the next higher one, and, conversely, each higher level consists of at least one lower one; thus, a sentence can minimally consist of one word; a word from one morpheme; morpheme from one phoneme.
Elements in some cases can enter into new combinations, forming a new network of relations (new structure), in other cases they cannot, since the elements themselves are structurally conditioned and are what they are, by virtue of their intrasystem connections. So, within the same language, the same words form different types of sentences. Which can be considered as some systems that carry information. Within these sentence-systems, words enter into different connections. Therefore, we can say that such sentences have a different structure. For example, Les ouvriers constructive la Maison workers are building a house La Maison est construite par les ouvriers The house was built by workers.
It is impossible to form a sentence in language B from the words of language A, since the words of language A are structurally determined by the entire system of this language, but at the same time they themselves determine the structure of this language. In any case, the words of a given language, being elements of the system of a given language, are inextricably linked with a given structure.
Two sentences of the same type of the same language can be considered as two specific systems in which there are elements (words) and structures (connections and mutual relations). These two concrete propositions are the realization of some ideal invariant proposition. They share a common invariant structure, which can be seen as the ideal structure of an ideal invariant sentence. An ideal sentence and its structure can be depicted in the form of letter schemes, for example: P-S, P-S-D, and the like. Concrete sentences act as variants of this invariant.
It should be noted that within each circle or tier of the linguistic structure (phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic) there is its own system, since all elements of this circle act as members of the system. A system is a unity of homogeneous interdependent elements.
The members of the system are interconnected and interdependent as a whole, therefore both the number of elements and their ratios are reflected in each member of this system.
The systems of separate tiers of the language structure, interacting with each other, form the general system of a given language.
The concept of functioning is applicable to many types of systems, including language. Functional systems include, for example, living organisms (primary natural organic systems), various kinds of mechanisms: automobiles, machine tools, locomotives (primary inorganic artificial systems).
Such systems are involved in the process of functioning as a whole, although the intensity of functioning of their parts is not the same. An example is the vital activity of the organism, the operation of the engine, the movement of the locomotive.
Language functions quite differently. As already noted, the functioning of the language consists in the formation of various kinds of specific systems from its elements that express, store and carry information. During the functioning of the language, not the entire system of the language comes into “movement”, but only some part of it. So, for the expression and communication of some information, only a part of the rules of a given language and an insignificant part of the words available in this language are required and, accordingly, selected. The remaining rules and words remain out of operation.
Once the information has been expressed and transmitted, the sound waves die out and this particular system ceases to exist unless it is fixed in graphic signs of writing or recorded on magnetic tape. The selection of rules and specific words does not lead to the impoverishment of the language, since the rules are ideal templates or models, according to which the units of the language are "made" and arranged, and the units themselves are either "produced" according to the rule, or "reproduced" in finished form innumerable numbers. once.
So, language is a set of rules by which sentences are made, and a set of units endowed with meaning or meaning, which are used in accordance with the rules. The language system is a kind of “pantry” where rules and elements are folded.
Language rules are a set of potential relationships between language elements that can be found in a speech chain. In other words, the rules of a language are the totality of all those possible relationships and dependencies that serve as a program for constructing real speech works and which elements of the language can enter into when forming speech works.
Ultimately, the rules are a manifestation of the properties of the elements of the language, since these properties underlie the possible connections and dependencies between the elements. The rules of the language are reduced to the properties of its elements.
In accordance with the definitions of the rules of the language, as a set of potential relations between elements of the language, they are included in the structure of the language (structure is a set of relations between elements). However, the rules of the language do not exhaust all the relationships that exist between the elements: the rules of the language that were discussed are linear, syntagmatic relationships. But the elements of the language form certain classes of similar elements, the relations between which are called paradigmatic.
The definition of language as a system of systems, most fully developed by the Prague School of Functional Linguistics, is undoubtedly justified, but it should not be given the absolute character that we observe in this case. Separate “circles or tiers of the linguistic structure” appear in A. A. Reformatsky as systems that are closed in themselves, which, if they interact with each other (forming a system of systems or a system of language), then only as separate and integral unities. It turns out something like a coalition of allied nations, whose troops are united by the common task of military operations against a common enemy, but stand under the separate command of their national military leaders.
In the life of a language, the situation is, of course, different, and the individual “tiers or systems” of language interact with each other not only frontally, but to a large extent, so to speak, by their individual representatives “one on one”. So, for example, as a result of the fact that a number of English words during the period of the Scandinavian conquest had Scandinavian parallels, there was a splitting of the sound form of some common words in their origin. Thus, doublet forms were created, separated by regular processes in the phonetic system of the Old English language, which ended before the Scandinavian conquest. These doublet forms also provided the basis for differentiating their meanings.
So, there was a difference skirt - "skirt" and shirt (<др.-англ. scirt) — «рубашка», а также такие дублетные пары, как egg — «яйцо» и edge (
Similarly, the German Rappe - "black horse" and Rabe - "raven" (both from the Middle High German form of garre), Knappe - "squire" and Knabe - "boy" and others bifurcated; Russian dust - gunpowder, harm - vered, having a genetically common basis. An even more striking example of the regular interaction of elements of different "tiers" is the phonetic process of reduction of finite elements, well known from the history of the Germanic languages (which in turn is associated with the nature and position of the Germanic stress in the word), which caused extremely important changes in their grammatical system.
It is known that the stimulation of analytic tendencies in the English language and the deviation of this language from the synthetic structure are directly related to the fact that the reduced endings were unable to express the grammatical relations of words with the necessary clarity. Thus, a purely concrete and purely phonetic process brought to life not only new morphological, but also syntactic phenomena.
This kind of mutual influence of elements included in different "tiers" or "homogeneous systems" can be multidirectional and go both along an ascending (i.e., from phonemes to elements of morphology and vocabulary) line, and downward. So, according to J. Vahek, the different fate of paired voiced final consonants in Czech (as well as Slovak, Russian, etc.), on the one hand, and in English, on the other hand, is due to the needs of the higher planes of the respective languages. In the Slavic languages, due to neutralization, they were stunned, and in English the opposition p - b, v - f, etc. was preserved, although the opposition in sonority was replaced by opposition in tension.
In the Slavic languages (Czech, etc.), the emergence of new homonymous pairs of words, due to the stunning of the final voiced consonants, did not introduce any significant difficulties in understanding, since in the sentence they received a clear grammatical characteristic and the sentence model in these languages was not functionally overloaded. . And in English, precisely because of the functional overload of the sentence model, the destruction of the opposition of final consonants and the emergence of a large number of homonyms as a result of this would lead to significant difficulties in the communication process.
In all such cases, we are dealing with the establishment of links on an individual basis between elements of different "tiers" - phonetic and lexical.
Regular relations are thus established not only between homogeneous members of the language system, but also between heterogeneous ones. This means that systemic connections of linguistic elements are formed not only within the same "tier" (for example, only between phonemes), but also separately between representatives of different "tiers" (for example, phonetic and lexical units). In other words, the regular connections of the elements of the language system can be multidirectional, which does not exclude, of course, special forms of systemic relations of the elements of the language within the same "tier".
V.A. Zvegintsev. Essays on General Linguistics - Moscow, 1962
