A metaphor is an expression or a word in a figurative sense, the basis of which is a phenomenon or an object that has a similarity with it. In simple words, one word is replaced by another that has a similar sign with it.

Metaphor in literature is one of the oldest

What is a metaphor

Metaphor has 4 parts:

1. Context - a complete passage of text that combines the meaning of the individual words or sentences included in it.
2. An object.
3. The process by which the function is executed.
4. Application of this process or its intersection with any situations.

The concept of metaphor was discovered by Aristotle. Thanks to him, now a view has been formed on it as a necessary accessory of the language, which makes it possible to achieve cognitive and other goals.

Ancient philosophers believed that the metaphor was given to us by nature itself and was so established in everyday speech that many concepts do not need to be called literally, and its use replenishes the lack of words. But after them, it was assigned the function of an additional application to the mechanism of the language, and not to its main form. It was believed that for science it is even harmful, because it leads to a dead end in the search for truth. Against all odds, the metaphor continued to exist in literature because it was necessary for its development. It was mostly used in poetry.

Only in the 20th century was metaphor finally recognized as an integral part of speech, and scientific research using it began to be carried out in new dimensions. This was facilitated by such a property as the ability to combine materials of different nature. in literature, it became clear when they saw that the extended use of this artistic technique leads to the appearance of riddles, proverbs, allegories.

Building a Metaphor

Metaphor is created from 4 components: two groups and properties of each of them. Features of one group of objects are offered to another group. If a person is called a lion, then it is assumed that he is endowed with similar characteristics. Thus, a new image is created, where the word "lion" in a figurative sense means "fearless and mighty."

Metaphors are specific to different languages. If the Russians "donkey" symbolizes stupidity and stubbornness, then the Spaniards - diligence. A metaphor in literature is a concept that may differ among different peoples, which should be taken into account when translating from one language to another.

Metaphor Functions

The main function of metaphor is a vivid emotional assessment and figuratively expressive coloring of speech. At the same time, rich and capacious images are created from incomparable objects.

Another function is nominative, which consists in filling the language with phraseological and lexical constructions, for example: bottle neck, pansies.

In addition to the main ones, the metaphor performs many other functions. This concept is much broader and richer than it seems at first glance.

What are metaphors

Since ancient times, metaphors have been divided into the following types:

1. Sharp - connecting concepts that lie in different planes: "I'm walking around the city, shot with my eyes ...".
2. Erased - so commonplace that the figurative character is no longer noticed ("Already in the morning to me people were reaching out"). It has become so familiar that the figurative meaning is difficult to grasp. It is found when translating from one language to another.
3. Metaphor-formula - its transformation into a direct meaning is excluded (the worm of doubt, the wheel of fortune). She has become a stereotype.
4. Expanded - contains a large message in a logical sequence.
5. Implemented - used for its intended purpose (" Came to my senses, and there again a dead end).

It is difficult to imagine modern life without metaphorical images and comparisons. The most common metaphor in literature. This is necessary for a vivid disclosure of images and the essence of phenomena. In poetry, the extended metaphor is especially effective, presented in the following ways:

1. Indirect communication using or history using comparison.
2. A figure of speech using words in a figurative sense, based on analogy, similarity and comparison.

Consistently disclosed in the text fragment: “ A fine rain with dawn washes the dawn», « The moon gives New Year's dreams».

Some classics believed that a metaphor in literature is a separate phenomenon that acquires a new meaning due to its occurrence. In this case, it becomes the goal of the author, where the metaphorical image leads the reader to a new meaning, an unexpected meaning. Such metaphors from fiction can be found in the works of the classics. Take, for example, the Nose, which acquires a metaphorical meaning in Gogol's story. Rich in metaphorical images where they give characters and events a new meaning. Based on this, it can be said that their widespread definition is far from complete. Metaphor in literature is a broader concept and not only decorates speech, but often gives it a new meaning.

Conclusion

What is metaphor in literature? It has a more effective effect on consciousness due to its emotional coloring and imagery. This is especially evident in poetry. The impact of the metaphor is so strong that psychologists use it to solve problems related to the psyche of patients.

Metaphorical images are used when creating advertisements. They spark the imagination and help consumers make the right choice. The same is also carried out by society in the political sphere.

Metaphor is increasingly entering everyday life, manifesting itself in language, thinking and action. Its study is expanding, covering new areas of knowledge. By the images created by metaphors, one can judge the effectiveness of a particular media.

Many metaphors live for centuries and millennia. The modeling function of metaphor is manifested not only in language, but, above all, in thinking. Aristotle's metaphor is essentially almost indistinguishable from hyperbole - exaggeration, and from simple comparison.

B. A. Akhmadulina Born in a family of employees, she graduated from the Literary Institute (1960). She began publishing in 1955 in periodicals. Figures of speech - In linguistics, there is no exhaustively accurate and generally accepted definition of F. r. The term itself is used in various senses (most often approximate). The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art (Art is an imitation of life). Futurists did not strive for the plausibility of the metaphor, but for its maximum removal from the original meaning.

“A golden cloud spent the night ...” (about a metaphor)

Example: Ice and fire. In a broad sense, the term "image" means a reflection of some phenomenon of the external world in our minds. In the above lines, honey is compared with tribute and a hive with a cell, with the first terms replaced by the second. Usually a metaphor is some beautiful comparison.

Or here's another metaphor: a bright sunset is like a fire. Metaphor is an unusual, sonorous word. It is Greek (and how the ancient Greeks managed to come up with so many beautiful words!) And in translation it means “transfer”.

Essence, functions and technique of use

This is easy to guess: we look at the sunset, the sky in a bright evening dawn, and it reminds us of a real fire. It can be imagined that the entire horizon is burning in a huge fire. What, you put the diary on your head like a mask? Not at all. It's just a metaphor too. If a person is sloppy, not serious about studying and writing down homework, then this is immediately evident from his diary. And also, they say that the face of a person shows his character.

This is what a metaphor is for: to expressively describe a person, a landscape, or any situation. A good metaphor saves words, allows you to say little, but well. For anyone who wants to learn expressive, vivid speech, you need to be able to invent a metaphor. The figurativeness of metaphor has always attracted attention and people of creative professions have been able to use it. The same goes for other types of art.

great and mighty

But there's a trick: when a good metaphor is invented, it seems to refer only to what it was written about. Now consider the question: why do we need metaphors at all. A metaphor is needed to make some idea or thought more memorable. A metaphor is necessary when it is necessary to reformulate a problem, to destroy a limitation, to see the situation in a new perspective.

Metaphor is even used to change a person's limiting beliefs, bringing the person to new possibilities. Each metaphor has its own structure, its own stages of construction. There are metaphors that are one line long, in which you briefly and clearly put the idea that you want to convey to the interlocutor.

To put it simply, short metaphors serve more as a link in the conversation, allowing you to turn it in the right direction, or get the desired reaction from the interlocutor. And long metaphors use the mechanisms of working with the interlocutor's subconscious, and are aimed at changing his beliefs, his state, or even his habits. And you can even be afraid of their decrepitude. Metaphor has always rescued word creation - without it, word creation would have been doomed to the continuous production of more and more new words and would have burdened human memory with an incredible burden.

It is sad to see when what was once bold and fresh becomes worn and tired over time. Painted carpet of flowers", "bosom of nature", "azure of heaven", "emerald meadow", "streams of tears". All of these once-beautiful metaphors now look battered, spreading the musty smell of an old closet. Only there everything is too abstruse, but yours is simple and intelligible.

Bow to you for your valuable contribution to my cranium, which is not yet filled to the brim with smart things. Having tasted goodies, without trampling, I go to my garden in order to remove the weeds. And you know, Nyusha, "clean gardens" are only in greenhouses. But even there you have to fight weeds. Okay, we're done with the metaphors.

I review my canned food - it seems nothing like that. Some I digest, and some in the trash. And people are all for sale. Each column contains two numbers: the number of views and the number of visitors. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another. An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using comparison. A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

For example, "a cloud in your pants." Researchers note the relatively rare use of metaphor in Soviet fiction, although there is no need to talk about its “exile” (see, for example: “So we parted ways.

In the 1970s, a group of poets appeared who inscribed on their banner "a metaphor in a square" or "meta-metaphor" (the term of Konstantin Kedrov). A sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are far apart. An erased metaphor is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative nature of which is no longer felt.

A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical.

Words words words…

Among other tropes, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows you to create capacious images based on vivid, unexpected associations. However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. George Lakoff in his work "The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor" talks about the ways of creating a metaphor and the composition of this means of artistic expression.

Examples from the literature

Metaphors as linguistic expressions become possible precisely because there are metaphors in the human conceptual system. Metaphor is often considered as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality in artistic terms. However, I. R. Galperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative.

Today, in the modern Russian literary language, there is a huge number of various means designed to enhance the effect. In fiction, expressive phrases are used to dilute dry text.

What is it? A metaphor is a word or combination of words that is used in a figurative sense. The purpose of using a metaphor is to compare an unnamed name, property or value of an object with another object, property or value, based on similar features.

Example: I lost my temper and got on the bus. All these are linguistic metaphors, i.e., in essence, not metaphors. Because of this, therapeutic metaphors used in psychotherapy are effective. For example, the metaphor “judgment is war”: the similarity in the confrontation of the parties trying to win. The former expression without this "as if" was a metaphor and more risky. Metaphor is based on comparison, analogy. Here comes the metaphor.

Used in a figurative sense, which is based on the comparison of an unnamed object or phenomenon with some other on the basis of their common feature. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor, in essence, is almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.

1. An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using comparison.
2. A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:

1. category or context,
2. An object within a specific category,
3. The process by which this object performs a function,
4. Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

A distinctive feature of metaphor is its constant participation in the development of language, speech and culture in general. This is due to the formation of a metaphor under the influence of modern sources of knowledge and information, the use of a metaphor in determining the objects of technical achievements of mankind.

Kinds

In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish diaphora(a sharp, contrasting metaphor) and epiphora(a familiar, worn out metaphor)

• A sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are far apart. Model: stuffing statements.
• An erased metaphor is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative nature of which is no longer felt. Model: chair leg.
• The metaphor-formula is close to the erased metaphor, but differs from it in even greater stereotype and sometimes the impossibility of converting into a non-figurative construction. Model: Doubt Worm.
• An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: Book hunger continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.
• A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: I lost my temper and got on the bus.

theories

Among other tropes, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows you to create capacious images based on vivid, unexpected associations. Metaphors can be based on the similarity of the most diverse features of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.

According to the classification proposed by N. D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into

1. nominative, consisting in replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;
2. figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of language;
3. cognitive metaphors resulting from a shift in the combination of predicate words (meaning transfer) and creating polysemy;
4. generalizing metaphors (as the end result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing the boundaries between logical orders in the lexical meaning of the word and stimulating the emergence of logical polysemy.

Let's take a closer look at metaphors that contribute to the creation of images, or figurative.

In a broad sense, the term "image" means a reflection in the mind of the external world. In a work of art, images are the embodiment of the author's thinking, his unique vision and vivid image of the picture of the world. The creation of a vivid image is based on the use of the similarity between two objects far from each other, almost on a kind of contrast. In order for the comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be sufficiently dissimilar to each other, and sometimes the similarity may be quite insignificant, imperceptible, giving food for thought, or may be absent altogether.

The boundaries and structure of the image can be practically anything: the image can be conveyed by a word, a phrase, a sentence, a superphrasal unity, it can occupy an entire chapter or cover the composition of an entire novel.

However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson distinguish two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space: ontological, that is, metaphors that allow you to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc. as a kind of substance ( the mind is an entity, the mind is a fragile thing), and oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the entire system of concepts in relation to each other ( happy is up, sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down).

George Lakoff in his work "The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor" talks about the ways of creating a metaphor and the composition of this means of artistic expression. Metaphor, according to Lakoff's theory, is a prose or poetic expression, where a word (or several words) that is a concept is used in an indirect sense to express a concept similar to this one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech, the metaphor lies outside the language, in thought, in the imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work "The Conduit Metaphor", in which Reddy notes that the metaphor lies in the language itself, in everyday speech, and not only in poetry or prose. Reddy also states that "the speaker puts ideas (objects) into words and sends them to the hearer, who extracts the ideas/objects from the words." This idea is also reflected in the study of J. Lakoff and M. Johnson "Metaphors by which we live." Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “metaphor is not limited to the sphere of language alone, that is, the sphere of words: the very processes of human thinking are largely metaphorical. Metaphors as linguistic expressions become possible precisely because there are metaphors in the human conceptual system.

Metaphor is often considered as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality in artistic terms. However, I. R. Galperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative. It is a metaphor that creates a specific image of an abstract concept that makes it possible to interpret real messages in different ways.

As soon as the metaphor was realized, isolated from a number of other linguistic phenomena and described, the question immediately arose about its dual nature: to be a means of language and a poetic figure. The first to oppose poetic metaphor to linguistic metaphor was S. Bally, who showed the universal metaphorical nature of language.

Without metaphors, fiction (both classical and modern) would be difficult to imagine. It is metaphors that can be attributed to the central tropes used in the composition. Such rhetorical constructions make it possible to make any narrative realistic, to convey a certain emotional range to the reader.

Multiple psychological studies have confirmed that it is metaphorical images that are most strongly imprinted in it. It is with the help of such a reader that a reader can recreate in his thoughts a picture of what he has read.

The real "prom queen" is an extended metaphor. It makes it possible to simultaneously convey a whole set of images, and through them - a certain thought or idea. An extended metaphor is consistently carried out throughout a large fragment of text. Often, writers use this technique for word games, for example, using the metaphorical meaning of a word or expression next to a direct one to obtain a comic effect.

Unlike other tropes that make literary speech more expressive, a metaphor can exist as a separate phenomenon when it becomes an aesthetic end in itself for the author. At this moment, the essence of the statement loses its decisive significance, the unexpected meaning, the new meaning that it acquires through the use of a metaphorical image, comes to the fore.

The very meaning of the word "metaphor" is rooted in ancient Greece. This word is translated as “figurative meaning”, which fully explains the very essence of the trail. By the way, ancient literature was richer in epithets than in metaphors. Nevertheless, in the work of Pindar, Aeschylus, Homer and many other prominent figures in the world of literature of that time, these techniques are used very actively. It is noteworthy that some works (in particular, we are talking about the mythology of the ancient Greeks) can be safely called the personification of what a detailed metaphor might look like. Indeed, absolutely every image, regardless of whether it was about any of the deities or their actions, carried a certain subtext, an analogy with the life of mere mortals.

No other technique can so vividly convey to the reader the picture presented to the eyes or imagination of the author as an extended metaphor. Examples of its use can be found both in classical ancient literature and in later ones. This technique was not lost sight of by our compatriots. For example, a detailed metaphor has become one of the main distinguishing features of Sergei Yesenin’s work (“The day will go out, flashing with a golden fifth ...”, “At the wattle fence, overgrown nettles dressed up with bright mother-of-pearl ...”, etc.). The real master of metaphors was the notorious Oscar Wilde.

True masters of the word often combine detailed and individual author's metaphor in their creations. This is what can give any work, poetic or prose, a unique flavor and atmosphere.

Metaphor is a very multifaceted and rich path, which contains an inexhaustible creative potential. By the number of units-carriers of the metaphorical image, V.P. Moskvin distinguishes between simple and extended metaphors. In a simple metaphor, the plane of expression is represented by a single unit, while in an extended metaphor, the image carrier is a group of associatively linked units [Moskvin: 136]. In this article, we will consider the use of simple and detailed metaphors in Russian and English literary texts based on the works of Yu.K. Olesha "Envy" and P. Ackroyd "Trial of Elizabeth Cree".

Olesha in the story "Envy" actively resorts to the use of simple metaphors:

“He turns the switch, the oval lights up from within and becomes a beautiful, opal-colored egg.

In my mind's eye, I see this egg hanging in the darkness of the corridor."

A simple metaphor is based on the similarity of the shape and appearance of the lamp and the egg. It can be characterized as substantive or nominal by part of speech [Petrova: 20].

“He took the vial; the glass stopper chirped."

The sound of opening the bottle resembles the chirping of birds - a simple verbal (verbal) metaphor based on the similarity of synesthesia (sound).

Another metaphor based on the similarity of synesthesia (color): “The pinkest, quietest morning. Spring is in full swing." Morning (“The beginning of the day, the first hours of the day”) [Ushakov] is attributed a typical characteristic of Russian linguistic culture - color. Pink color is traditionally associated with tenderness, romance, but the morning, as the beginning, the dawn of the day, fully corresponds to this description. It is also very symbolic that the indicated time of the year (the height of spring) is also, in the reader's mind, the time of awakening after winter, the beginning of life. This simple metaphor is adjectival in part-of-speech.

In The Trial of Elizabeth Cree, the vast majority of metaphors are simple in structure:

So he had eagerly immersed himself in accounts of computing machines, differential numbers and modern calculus theory. And he zealously plunged into the problems of calculating machines and modern mathematical analysis.

The verb to immerse (immerse) is metaphorically used in the figurative meaning "to be completely carried away by something / to captivate someone". This verbal metaphor is of a usual nature, has a neutral emotional coloring.

Another example of an English-language simple metaphor:

It was a public saloon off Wick Street, and looked to be a den of the vilest sort filled with the refuse of London.

The Shoulder turned out to be the worst sort of tavern just off Wick Street, stuffed with all sorts of London dregs.

With the help of a simple metaphor, expressed by the phrase the refusal of London (the dregs of London), the author gives a colorful image of the visitors of the described institution. The lexeme refuse (garbage) has the meaning "unnecessary, useless remnant of something, garbage", thus, identifying people with garbage, the author endows the metaphor with a pronounced negative emotiveness.

Let's move on to the consideration of detailed metaphors.

One of the main characters of the story "Envy" talks about fame and how to achieve it, and his thoughts take on imagery as the noun "glory" is transformed into the phrase "glory road" - Please, do something wonderful, and you will be picked up under the arms, they will lead you to the road of glory... Further, the metaphor unfolds due to the introduction of new components: In our country, the roads of glory are blocked by barriers... Barriers on the roads of glory Olesha metaphorically refers to all sorts of obstacles, obstacles on the way to the desired success. A gifted person either has to fade, or decide to raise the barrier with a big scandal - the metaphorical phrase to raise the barrier means to resolve all the difficulties that prevent a person from becoming famous, which is hardly possible, since this is associated with a “big scandal”, otherwise the person dims, i.e. loses his talent. This extended metaphor consists of a number of interconnected and mutually complementary simple metaphors, expressed in separate words or phrases (roads of glory, barriers, fade, etc.). It unfolds in the space of superphrasal unity, and in the future Olesha resorts to it more than once, using the metaphorical meaning of the lexeme "glory" in various phrases.

It's raining. Rain walks along Tsvetnoy Boulevard, roams around the circus, turns right onto the boulevards and, having reached the top of Petrovsky, suddenly goes blind and loses confidence.

An erased metaphor acts as the core here, which the author revives due to the context - the phrase “rain is coming”, which has passed into the category of phraseological units, is complicated by satellite metaphors: walks, roams, turns, turns blind, and also loses confidence with an idiom. The verb roam is stylistically marked as jargon, vernacular, a unit of colloquial vocabulary, which determines the high figurativeness and emotiveness of the metaphor. The properties of an animate object are attributed to an inanimate object, thus, we have before us a detailed metaphor-personification.

In P. Ackroyd's novel The Trial of Elizabeth Cree, a compositional metaphor is clearly traced, which is realized at the level of the composition of the entire text of the novel. The author draws parallels between the underworld and the world of art, identifying the phenomena of one world with the phenomena of another.

"It was the hour to show my hand, as yet, I was a mere tyro, a beginner, an understudy who could not appear on the great stage without rehearsal"

The right time to show off; but I was still a student, an apprentice, a beginner and could not go on the big stage without a rehearsal.

The crime is likened to a theatrical performance - the original metaphor to appear on the great stage / enter the big stage means to kill a famous high-ranking person. The following are the components of the original metaphor: rehearsal (rehearsal) is the deprivation of a small and insignificant person for society of life, and a student, apprentice and beginner (a mere tyro, a beginner, an understudy) is metaphorically called a person who has not yet committed a murder and is preparing to do it . One of the components of an extended metaphor is represented by a phraseological unit: to show my hand / show yourself.

The destroyer of the Marr family was a ‘solitary artist, who rested in the center of London, self-supported by his own conscious grandeur’, an artist who used London as the ‘studio’ to display his works.

The destroyer of the Marr family was "a lone artist nesting in the heart of London and drawing strength from his own perceived grandeur", an artist who made London both a workshop and a gallery to showcase his masterpieces.

The core of the metaphor – artist/artist is used twice, the satellites of the core: the ‘studio’ to display his works/workshop and the gallery for displaying masterpieces – a chain of interconnected simple metaphors that reinforce the motivation of the image. The metaphor has a pronounced negative appraisal.

In the translation of L. Motylev, this metaphor is supplemented by several more simple metaphors (he nestled, the heart of London, drawing strength), but we will not consider them in the context of our article, since they became tropes at the discretion of the translator, not being such in the original.

Thus, after analyzing the structural component of the metaphorical pattern of the two works, we can conclude that in the story by Yu.K. Olesha "Envy" in quantitative terms, expanded metaphors prevail over simple ones with a slight advantage, in P. Ackroyd's novel "The Trial of Elizabeth Cree", as mentioned above, the dominance of a simple metaphor over an expanded one was revealed. The image of an extended metaphor is a complex semantic formation - an extended phrase, sentence, or larger unit of speech. Differences in structure determine differences in semantics and style - detailed metaphors are mostly individual author's, therefore they have greater figurative and expressive power than simple metaphors, which are often ordinary. In the text of P. Ackroyd's novel, a compositional (plot) metaphor can be traced, which can be conditionally called a theatrical or game metaphor.

Bibliography

1. Moskvin V.P. Russian metaphor: Essay on semiotic theory // LENAND, 2006.

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