The French infantry was divided into line infantry and light infantry. Line infantry was the main type of French infantry. The number of line regiments in the Napoleonic army was constantly increasing, reaching a peak of 156 regiments by 1813; however, in fact, at that time there were 135 regiments in the French army - 21 infantry regiments were listed only on paper to mislead the enemy.
The light infantry actually differed very little from the line infantry. The differences were mainly in the shorter stature of the soldiers, the shorter gun, and a few other details of the form. The number of regiments of light infantry in the Napoleonic army in 1804 was 37 regiments, of which 5 existed only on paper to misinform the enemy. Subsequently, the number of regiments of light infantry changed slightly, since the bulk of the recruits were sent to recruit line infantry and guards.
The total number of infantry of Napoleon's Great Army for the summer of 1812 amounted to more than 500 thousand people; about half of them are French, the rest are representatives of enslaved European states who went to Russia, some voluntarily, and some - forcibly ...
The cavalry of the French imperial army was divided into heavy, linear and light. The heavy cavalry included regiments of cuirassiers and carabinieri; the line cavalry consisted of dragoons and lancers; the light cavalry was represented by hussars and mounted chasseurs. The French heavy cavalry had 14 cuirassier and 2 carabinieri regiments. The line cavalry consisted of 30 dragoon and 9 chevolezher (ulan) regiments. The light cavalry was represented by 12 hussars and 31 cavalry regiments. On the eve of the invasion of Russia, the number of French cavalry reached 96 thousand people.
ORGANIZATION OF THE FRENCH INFANTRY CORPS
The French infantry corps usually consisted of 3 infantry divisions (although there were also two-divisional corps, and in some cases the number of infantry divisions even reached 5). In addition to the infantry divisions, the infantry corps included a cavalry brigade and corps artillery.
Each infantry division included 2-3 brigades and a battery (sometimes 2) of foot artillery (4 guns each). The brigade consisted of 2 line infantry regiments. A French infantry regiment consisted of 4 battalions (+ 1 spare for training recruits), although in some cases the number of combat battalions in a regiment could 
vary from 2 to 8. Each battalion was divided into 6 companies. During the battle, 4 companies of Fusiliers were in the center of the formation. To the right of the Fusiliers stood a company of voltigeurs (shooters), to the left - a company of grenadiers. The voltigeurs had to constantly disturb the enemy with well-aimed fire, and the tall grenadiers, during the attack with bayonets, made their way to the Fusiliers. In the period from 1809 to 1812 inclusive, each line regiment had 2 captured Austrian guns of caliber 3 (1.5 kg) or 5 (2.5 kg) livres. The number of one battalion was 840 people, the total number of the regiment was 3970 people (including 108 officers).
The French Corps Cavalry Brigade was engaged in reconnaissance, and in battles carried out infantry support and flanking maneuvers. It included 2 regiments (most often - horse rangers). The regiment consisted of 4 squadrons, and each squadron consisted of 2 companies (102 cavalrymen each). Thus, the cavalry brigade consisted of 8 squadrons (1632 sabers). The actions of the cavalry were supported by fire from a horse-artillery battery (4 small guns).
Corps foot artillery, as a rule, consisted of 2 foot artillery companies of 8 large-caliber guns.
ORGANIZATION OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE OF FRANCE
In addition to the line brigades in the French army, there were light brigades recruited from people of small stature. They also consisted of 2 regiments. The organization of light infantry regiments was similar to the organization of line regiments, however, instead of fusiliers, the light regiment had 4 companies of chasseurs (chasseurs). On the right, they were still supported by a company of voltigeurs, but on the left, a company of carabinieri, not a grenadier.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CAVALRY CORPS OF FRANCE
In addition to the cavalry of the infantry corps in the French army, there were so-called reserve cavalry corps - large mobile mobile formations that made quick raids to cover enemy troops or inflicted terrible mass strikes on enemy positions to break through the defenses.
The French cavalry corps usually consisted of 4 cavalry divisions, and each division consisted of 2 cavalry. brigades and batteries of horse artillery. The French cavalry brigade included 2 regiments of four squadrons, each squadron consisted of 2 companies (102 cavalrymen each). Thus, the cavalry brigade consisted of 8 squadrons (1632 sabers), the division - 16 squadrons (3264 sabers), and the corps - 64 squadrons (13056 sabers). The cavalry battery had 4 small cannons to support the cavalry with fire; thanks to this, each cavalry corps had a total of 16 guns.
The Great Army of Napoleon is a huge military force that appeared as a result of numerous conquests led by a brilliant commander. It was on her that he pinned great hopes on the conquest of Russia, and then England.
Conflict between France and Great Britain
The Patriotic War of 1812 entered Russian history forever as an example of the military courage of the soldiers of our country and the genius of the strategic decisions of military leaders. The story of all this should be preceded by a consideration of the events that preceded it.
In the first decade of the nineteenth century, Bonaparte, who did not dare to launch a military campaign against Great Britain, decided to influence the enemy by imposing an economic blockade on him. That is why the first skirmish between Russian troops and the army of the great commander, although it ended in victory for the enemy, did not bring territorial losses to Russia. This happened in 1805 at Austerlitz.
Russia then fought along with several allies in the anti-French coalition. Those French troops are called the First Grand Army. Napoleon Bonaparte, who met with Emperor Alexander the First in the middle of the river on rafts, put forward a condition: Russia should not conduct any trade with Great Britain. It must be said that economic relations with this country were an important item for replenishing the budget for our fatherland at that time.
Many Russian-made goods were imported to England. Therefore, it was not in the interests of our country to violate such beneficial relations. For this reason, soon Alexander the First ordered the resumption of trade with Great Britain.
Pretext for war
This event was one of the reasons for the outbreak of the War of 1812.
Sending his Great Army to fight Russia, Napoleon made a reckless and extremely short-sighted step, which became fatal for him. Bonaparte's message to the Russian tsar said that the violation of the agreement on maintaining the economic blockade of England by Russia would sooner or later lead to war. After that, both sides began a hasty mobilization of the military forces of their states.
Napoleon's second great army
The newly assembled military force was not all called great. The French commander planned to send not all the people who served in the Armed Forces of the empire to Russia. For this conflict, he allocated about half of the military personnel. These corps received the name of Napoleon's Great Army. This name is still the subject of controversy in the circles of the scientific community. This chapter will present several points of view on the question of why Napoleon's army was called great.
Some historians say that this adjective is used to refer to the largest part of the personnel of the Armed Forces of the French Empire. Other experts argue that the word "great" the author of the name, and it is obvious that he was Bonaparte himself, wanted to emphasize the military power, brilliant training and invincibility of his subordinates. It is worth noting that the second version is the most popular.
Characteristics of the personality of the French emperor
The choice of such a catchy name can be explained by Napoleon's constant desire to emphasize his military and political successes. His career as a statesman developed extremely rapidly. He climbed into the highest echelons of power, although he came from a poor family, belonging to the middle social class. Therefore, all his life he had to defend his right to a place in the sun.
He was born on the island of Corsica, which at that time was a province of the French Empire. His father had Italian roots, and the name of the future emperor originally sounded like Bonaparte. In Corsica, among representatives of the merchant class, wealthy artisans and other people belonging to the middle class, it was customary to acquire documents indicating that their bearer belongs to an ancient noble family.
Following this tradition, the father of the future emperor of France bought himself a similar paper, which speaks of the noble origin of their family. It is not surprising that Bonaparte, who inherited this highly developed vanity from his parent, called his troops Napoleon's Grand Army.
The ruler comes from childhood
Another important detail of the life of this outstanding person is that he was brought up in a large family. Parents sometimes did not have enough money to provide all their offspring with decent food. It is known that children coming from such families are particularly brisk.
An ardent temperament, combined with a constant desire for his goal - to stand at the head of a powerful empire - allowed him to subjugate many European states in a fairly short time.
multinational army
These conquests of European states made it possible to replenish the French troops at the expense of the male population of the occupied territories. If you look at the so-called "timetable of Napoleon's Grand Army" in 1812, you can see that it consists of only half of the representatives of the indigenous nationality of the state of France. The rest of the fighters were recruited in Poland, Austria-Hungary, Germany and other countries. It is interesting that Napoleon, who had a natural ability for military-theoretical sciences, did not have a particular talent for learning foreign languages.
One of his friends at the military academy recalled that once, after a German class, Bonaparte said: “I don’t understand how you can even learn to speak this most difficult language?” Fate decreed that this man, who was never able to master German perfectly, subsequently conquered a country in which this language is considered the state language.
strategic miss
It would seem that by increasing the size of his army, Bonaparte should have thereby clearly strengthened its combat power. However, this advantage also had a downside. Such replenishment of personnel at the expense of citizens of other states conquered by force can be considered one of the disadvantages of managing Napoleon's Grand Army.
Going to fight not for their Fatherland, but for the sake of the glory of a foreign country, the soldiers could not have that fighting patriotic spirit that was inherent not only in the Russian army, but in the whole people. On the contrary, even being inferior to the enemy in numbers, our troops saw great meaning in their actions - they went to defend their country from intruders.
Guerrilla war
The hot Corsican blood of Napoleon and his numerous military triumphs, with which the emperor was literally intoxicated, did not allow him to soberly assess the geographical features of the country where he sent his troops, as well as certain characteristics of the national mentality inherent in the local population.
All this ultimately contributed to the death of Napoleon's Great Army. But only it did not happen instantly - the army was dying slowly. Moreover, both the commander-in-chief and most of his subordinates for a very long time had the illusion that they were gradually moving towards their goal, approaching Moscow step by step.
Bonoparte failed to foresee that not only the soldiers of the Russian army, but also ordinary people would stand up for their country, forming numerous partisan detachments.
There are cases when even women not only participated in popular resistance, but also took command. Another fact from the history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is indicative. When the French asked a peasant near Smolensk how to get to the nearest settlement, he refused to show them the way under the pretext that at this time of the year it was impossible to get there because of the numerous forest swamps. As a result, the soldiers of the enemy army had to find their own way. And it is not surprising that they chose the most difficult and longest. The peasant deceived them: at that time, all the swamps were just dried up due to the abnormally hot summer.
Also, history has preserved the memory of a simple peasant from the people who fought near Moscow in the detachment of the famous hussar and famous poet Denis Davydov. The commander called this brave man his best friend and warrior of unprecedented courage.
Moral decay
Few of the huge multinational army of Napoleon could boast of such professional and spiritual qualities. On the contrary, Bonaparte, raising the fighting spirit in his subordinates, sought first of all to play on their base desires and aspirations. Leading his army to Moscow, the emperor promised foreign soldiers, who had no motivation for heroism, to give the rich Russian city to their full disposal, that is, he allowed it to be plundered. He used similar techniques in relation to the soldiers, who were demoralized as a result of an exhausting campaign in harsh climatic conditions.
These actions of his did not have the most favorable consequences. When the army of the French emperor was left to the mercy of fate in winter Moscow, burned down from a fire set by Russian sabotage groups, the soldiers began to think not at all about the glory of their Fatherland. They did not even think about how best to retreat and return to France for the remnants of the once great army. They were busy looting. Everyone tried to take with them as many trophies as possible from the conquered enemy city. In this state of affairs, no doubt, there was a share of the fault of Napoleon Bonaparte, who provoked such behavior of the soldiers with his speeches.
When there was an invasion of Napoleon's Great Army into Russia, and it happened on June 24, 1812, the great commander himself at the head of the corps, which numbered about a quarter of a million people, crossed the Neman River. After him, after some time, other armies invaded our state. They were commanded by such generals who had already become famous by that time, such as Eugene Beauharnais, Macdonald, Girom and others.
grand plan
When was the invasion of Napoleon's Grand Army? It is necessary to repeat this date once again, since such a question is often found in history exams in educational institutions of all levels. This happened in 1812, and this operation began on June 24. The strategy of the Great Army was to limit the concentration of strikes. Bonaparte believed that one should not attack the enemy, surrounding regiments under the command of Russian generals from different sides.
He was a supporter of destroying the enemy in a simpler and at the same time effective scheme. The numerous invasions of his first army immediately had to bring such significant losses to the Russians as to prevent the regiments of Russian generals from joining their efforts by attacking the French army from different flanks. Such was the original plan of the Russian resistance.
Napoleon, not without pride, informed his generals that his brilliant military strategy would prevent Bagration (pictured below) and Barclay from ever meeting.
But the Great Army of Napoleon in 1812 became acquainted with the unexpected tactics of Russian generals. They changed their intention in time to fight a general battle as soon as possible. Instead, the Russian troops retreated farther inland, allowing the enemy to "enjoy" the harsh climate of the local territories and the courageous attacks against them, which were carried out by partisan detachments.
Of course, the Russian army also inflicted significant damage on the combat power of the Napoleonic troops in rare clashes.
Victory of military ingenuity
The result of such actions, planned by the Russian generals, fully justified all expectations.
The great army of Napoleon in the Battle of Borodino consisted, according to approximate estimates, of 250,000 people. This figure speaks of a major tragedy. More than half of Napoleon's Great Army that invaded Russia (date - 1812) was lost.
A new look at history
The book "In the footsteps of Napoleon's Great Army", published several years ago, allows you to look at the events of those distant days from a new position. Its author believes that in the study of this war, one should rely primarily on documentary evidence and the latest finds of archaeologists. He personally visited the sites of all the major battles, participating in excavations.
This book is in many ways similar to an album of photographs of finds that have been made by scientists in recent decades. The photographs are accompanied by scientifically substantiated conclusions, which will be useful and interesting for lovers of historical literature, as well as specialists in this field.
Conclusion
The personality of Napoleon and his art of military strategy still cause a lot of controversy. Some call him a tyrant and a despot who bled many European countries, including Russia. Others consider him a fighter for peace, who made his numerous military campaigns, pursuing humane and noble goals. This point of view is also not without foundation, since Bonaparte himself said that he wanted to unite the countries of Europe under his leadership in order to exclude the possibility of hostility between them in the future.
Therefore, the march of the Great Army of Napoleon and today, many people perceive as a hymn of freedom. But being a great commander, Bonaparte did not have the same talents in politics and diplomacy, which played a fatal role in his fate. He was betrayed by most of the generals of his own army after the Battle of Waterloo, where the final death of Napoleon's Grand Army took place.
Napoleon's army. What was the “Great Army” (that was now its official name) of Napoleon? Between 1802 and 1805 Napoleon destroyed the previous 13 frontline armies and created a single army, with a strength of about 350 thousand people (by 1812, the total number of representatives of different countries put under arms by Napoleon was about 1 million people with all auxiliary and secondary units). Each of the links of this unified military mechanism had clearly defined tasks and functions. Unlike the feudal armies of Austria and Russia, Napoleon did not have corporal punishment, and the soldiers were well trained and armed. Approximately a quarter of them were veterans who had been drafted into the army during the period of the Republic, who had gone through the Italian and Egyptian campaigns with Napoleon and were infinitely devoted to their emperor. The officer corps of the Great Army was also excellent. By 1805, about half of the officer corps came from privates. This ratio was not unusual, since Napoleon's army required not connections and noble ancestors, but courage, diligence and intelligence to advance in the army. In 1805 there was no shortage of good, experienced officers in the Grand Army. A distinctive feature of the composition of the highest military leaders was youth. The average age of the Napoleonic marshals was 44. Among them, for example, 62-year-old J.M.F. Serurier, on the contrary, the 34-year-old J. Lannes was known as a “boy”; the age of the generals ranged from 29 to 58 years, and the average age of the colonels was about 40. For comparison: in the Austrian army, the average age of the commanding Areopagus was well over seventy.
Napoleonic Guard. The elite unit of the Great Army, no doubt, was the guard. This connection developed gradually, over a number of years. In 1805, the number of guards is determined by researchers at 12 thousand people. By the time of the confrontation with the third coalition, the core of the imperial guard was the "grumblers" - the embodiment of the spirit of the Great Army - horse grenadiers, huntsmen, lancers, dragoons, united by the name "old guard". Service in the guards, Napoleon's favorite brainchild, was a great honor and entailed significant advantages, but for enrollment in the guards units, at least five years of service and participation in two campaigns were required. At the same time, access to the guard was open to everyone, suffice it to say that the number of the imperial guard grew continuously and in 1812 amounted to at least 50 thousand people. All units of the Great Army were superbly trained and tactically prepared.
French cavalry under Napoleon I
(left to right): cuirassier, dragoon,
horse ranger, gendarme, mameluke, hussar.
Napoleon's plan. The new war strategy, thought out in the shortest possible time by Bonaparte, was possible with the well-coordinated, painstaking and fast work of the General Staff. According to the plan of the French emperor, the Grand Army, with a force of about 200 thousand fighters, was supposed to move to the Danube by the shortest route, replenish 25 thousand Bavarians along the way, bypass and defeat the army of Field Marshal K. Mack, and then fall on the Russians. This offensive was supported by three more armies. A. Massena was supposed to tie up the troops of Archduke Charles in Italy, General L. Givion Saint-Cyr - to forestall a possible British landing in the Naples region, and General J. Brun, remaining with a 30,000-strong corps in the Boulogne camp, insured Napoleon's rear from a possible enemy landing in the English Channel area.
Pedants in the Austrian General Staff calculated that the movement of the Great Army to the theater of operations would take 64 days, but at the same time they forgot (!), Calculating the schedule for the movement of the Russian army, take into account the difference of 12 days between the European Gregorian calendar and the Julian calendar adopted in Russia. As a result, Napoleon covered the whole path in 35 days, and the Russian army was in a hurry, exhausted, but obviously late.
Read also other topics Part V "The Struggle for Leadership in Europe at the Turn of the 18th-19th Centuries" section "West, Russia, East at the end of the 18th-beginning of the 19th century":
- 22. "Long Live the Nation!": Cannonade at Valmy, 1792
- 24. Italian victories of Bonaparte 1796-1797: the birth of a commander
- Napoleon's Italian campaign. The beginning of the commander's career
- Arkol bridge. Battle of Rivoli. Bonaparte and the Directory
- 25. Egyptian campaign of General Bonaparte (May 1798-October 1799)
- 26. "Battle of a lion and a whale"
Pankratov P.A. Army of Europe against Russia // Military History Journal. 1997. No. 3. pp.70–81.
Army of Europe against Russia
There is no doubt that Bonaparte's aggression against Russia was of an international, all-European character. Prussian, Austrian, Bavarian, Saxon, Polish, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Swiss, Portuguese, Lithuanian, Westphalian, Württemberg, Baden, Berg, Hesse-Darmstadt formations, units and subunits accounted for more than half of the total strength of the Great Army, which exceeded 610 thousand people. human. Both powerful monarchies and dwarf principalities placed their soldiers under the banner of an adventurer from Corsica, who hoped to crush Russia by military force and bring her to her knees. The published article, prepared mainly on foreign sources unknown to the domestic reader, examines in detail the issues of the number and organizational structure of these formations, as well as the qualitative characteristics of these military contingents that emerged during the ingloriously ended campaign.
During the Russian campaign of 1812, the Great Army of Napoleon I included a large number of servicemen - non-French by nationality. When, after the catastrophe that had befallen the aggressor, the question arose of the reasons for the quick and crushing defeat he had suffered, the multinationality of the Great Army was named one of the main ones. This is largely true, but not to the extent that it is considered the most important reason.
The national diversity of the Napoleonic army is presented as the main circumstance that caused its defeat, usually with the aim of belittling the greatness of the military feat accomplished by the glorious sons of Russia. At the same time, the question of the extent to which the large number of foreign contingents really weakened Bonaparte's army has not yet been studied in detail. Let's try to fill this gap.
According to the most rough estimates, out of more than 600 thousand enemy soldiers who crossed the Russian border, at least 50 percent. were non-French. Obviously, the army of Napoleon in 1812 was more accurately called not the French, but the army of Europe, or, as it was later called in scientific literature, the Great Army. Napoleon himself claimed that in his troops in the campaign against Russia there were hardly 140 thousand people who spoke French.
It should be noted that at the beginning of the 19th century, the armed forces of the great European powers, as a rule, were not mono-national already due to the fact that many peoples lived on the territories of empires and large kingdoms, often belonging to different ethnic groups. In addition, the wars were coalition in nature.
Let us consider in detail the number, organization, level of combat capability of each foreign military contingent of the Great Army in order to determine the role of the factor of national composition in its defeat.
It is advisable to classify foreign formations in the troops of Napoleon in the campaign of 1812 as follows. 1st class - foreigners in French service. Two subclasses should be distinguished in it: 1a - non-French as part of French units and subunits; 1b - national units and subunits in the French army. 2nd class - foreign servicemen who took part in the campaign against Russia, being not in the French service. It is also divided into two subclasses: 2a - the armed forces of state entities - Napoleon's vassals, who provided him with soldiers as their overlord; 2b - the armed forces of the sovereign states - allies of France, involved in the campaign against Russia on the basis of treaties and agreements concluded with Napoleon.
Subclass 1a (non-French in French units and divisions) represents the usual category of soldiers for a large army of a multinational state of that time. After the left bank of the Rhine, Savoy, the Illyrian provinces and other territories were annexed to France, many Belgians, Dutch, Germans, Italians, Croats, who became subjects of the French emperor, turned out to be in the French regiments. In addition, during numerous wars in foreign territories, the French (as well as other troops) were joined by a significant number of local residents who were declassed elements, teenagers who lost their parents, who fled from their father's house in search of adventure or a better life. Prisoners of war were also a source of replenishment of manpower, who were initially used in non-combatant positions, and then often put into service. Regardless of nationality, in the process of accumulating combat experience and rallying with the personnel of their unit, these soldiers most often became good fighters.
From the inhabitants of the lands annexed to France, the so-called provincial regiments were formed, some of which were included in the reserve divisions of the Great Army. In combat, they were used only at the final stage of the 1812 campaign of the year, when Napoleon urgently needed strength to plug numerous gaps.
The number of subclass 1a is difficult to establish, since even in the provincial regiments non-French were mixed with the French. Representatives of this subclass can be considered a foreign contingent only conditionally, because in terms of language, uniform, weapons, military organization and military traditions, they, in fact, were one hundred percent French. In the same way, for example, Ukrainians in the Russian regiments were considered Russians (and in fact they were, because then no one drew the line between Little Russians and Great Russians).
Subclass 1b (national formations within the French army) represents special formations, units, subunits (legions, regiments, battalions), formed on a national basis and uniting soldiers and officers of the same nationality, retaining elements of national military clothing, traditional equipment and the organizational and staffing structure established in their homeland. These formations were completed mainly from volunteers and most often were elite units. Of such units in the French service, the following crossed the Russian border in 1812.
As part of the Imperial Guard:
3rd Grenadier Regiment of the Old Guard (from the Dutch) - 2 battalions;
1st Lancers Regiment of the Horse Guards (from the Poles) - 4 squadrons;
2nd Lancers of the Horse Guards (from the Dutch) - 4 squadrons;
A separate company of Mamluks (Mamluks) as part of the Horse Guards.
Attached to the Young Guard:
Vistula Legion (from Poles-veterans) - 4 regiments (12 battalions);
7th Lancers Regiment (from the Poles) - 4 squadrons;
Spanish sapper battalion;
Neuchâtel battalion for the protection of the General Staff.
As part of the army corps:
Swiss Legion - 4 regiments (11 battalions);
Portuguese Legion - 3 regiments (6 battalions);
Spanish Legion of King Joseph - 4 battalions;
8th Lancers Regiment (from Poles) - 4 squadrons.
A total of 37 battalions and 16.5 squadrons, which amounted to 30 thousand infantry, 3 thousand cavalry, as well as 3 thousand soldiers and officers of regimental and divisional artillery and sapper units.
The fighting qualities of these troops were quite high, if we take into account the rich experience of participation in battles of most soldiers and officers and the voluntary nature of the recruitment of these units. The Poles from the Legion of the Vistula distinguished themselves during the retreat, the Dutch grenadiers showed courage in the battle near Krasny on August 2 (14), the Swiss as part of the 9th Infantry Division showed themselves well in the Polotsk battles of the summer and autumn of 1812. The fighting spirit was demonstrated by the Portuguese and Spaniards, who covered the Borodino field with their bodies.
The national formations were quite well trained, organized and, no doubt, only strengthened the Grand Army.
Subclass 2a (armed forces of states - vassals of Napoleon) representing the armies of the Kingdoms of Italy and Naples, the German states of the Confederation of the Rhine and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Among the troops of Bonaparte's satellite countries, the Polish contingent was the most numerous.
Army of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. The Poles, who hated Russia, called the campaign of 1812 the “Second Polish War” and even boastfully declared that they were not assisting the French, but that they were helping them in their historical dispute with the Russians. Therefore, it is natural that the entire field army of the duchy, consisting of 17 infantry and 16 cavalry regiments (54 battalions and 62 squadrons) with the corresponding artillery, at the behest of the anti-Russian magnates (Yu. Poniatovsky and others), was placed at the disposal of Napoleon. 60 thousand soldiers and officers of the duchy crossed the Russian border, and only reserve troops and fortress garrisons remained on its territory.
Speaking about the fighting qualities of the soldiers of the duchy, it should be noted that the practice of attracting Polish veterans to the French service for a long time led to the almost complete depletion of trained officers and especially non-commissioned officers in the Polish army itself. Mobilized shortly before the start of the 1812 campaign, peasant recruits had no military experience and were not sufficiently trained.
Bonaparte's headquarters believed that these shortcomings were more than compensated for by the high morale of the Poles, who were stubbornly told that they were going to Russian soil in order to restore historical justice. But this calculation, if justified, then to an insignificant extent.
Napoleon placed particular hopes on the use of the traditionally strong Polish light cavalry. He and his marshals believed that, first of all, the Poles would be able to protect the Great Army from the sudden dashing attacks of the Russian irregular cavalry. Of the 16 regular cavalry regiments of the duchy, 10 were lancers, 3 chasseurs (rifle), 2 hussars and one (14th) cuirassier. The latter consisted of two squadrons and was close in size to a division; he was included in the Saxon heavy brigade, commanded by Major General I. Tilman.
However, the Polish cavalrymen did not distinguish themselves with special courage and quickness, did not become an effective defense against the Cossack lavas. Already at the beginning of the war, in the vanguard cavalry battles at Mir on July 9–10 (21–22) and Romanov on July 14 (26), the divisions of the regular Polish cavalry of divisional generals A. Rozhnetsky and Ya. Kaminsky were utterly defeated by the irregular cavalry of the cavalry general M.I. .Platov, who covered the retreat of the 2nd Army of General from the infantry of P.I.Bagration.
As a result of the first unsuccessful clashes with the Russians, the Polish cavalrymen lost confidence in their abilities.
At the same time, it should be noted that the Poles managed to save their horses better than others, and if Napoleon still had some kind of cavalry by the end of the campaign, then by 80 percent. it consisted of Polish horsemen.
The bulk of the troops of the Duchy of Warsaw entered the 5th Army Corps of the Great Army under the command of Prince Yu. Poniatovsky (33 battalions and 20 squadrons) and the 4th reserve light cavalry division of division general A. Rozhnetsky (24 uhlan squadrons). The remaining regiments of the Duchy of Warsaw were distributed as follows: 3 infantry regiments (9 battalions) were part of the 28th Infantry Division of Division General J. Girard; 3 infantry regiments (12 battalions) - to the 7th infantry division of divisional general Ch.-L. Granzhan; 4 cavalry regiments - one each in the corps cavalry of the 1st and 2nd army corps, in the 1st and 2nd reserve light cavalry divisions.
The Polish infantry actively participated in the battle of Smolensk and suffered huge losses. Here, according to A.P. Yermolov, "Napoleon did not spare the Polish troops ...". In the battle of Borodino, almost all Poles, with the exception of several regiments, acted south of the Utitsky Forest and lost up to 40 percent of their troops. of its composition. The Polish infantrymen of the divisions of divisional generals J. Dombrovsky and J. Girard distinguished themselves on the Berezina, covering the crossing of the remnants of the army on both banks of the river.
Considering the armed forces of the Duchy of Warsaw, one cannot fail to note the fact that numerous formations from local Poles and Lithuanians were created on the territory of Lithuania and Belarus occupied by Bonaparte. They were supposed to become an integral part of the army of the duchy - this can already be concluded from the numbering of the newly organized units: the numbers of the new infantry regiments began with the number 18, and the cavalry regiments from the number 17 (i.e. following in order the numbers of the regular units) of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Obviously exaggerating the mobilization capabilities of the allies in the territories he occupied, Napoleon expected to quickly form 6 infantry regiments, as well as several jaeger battalions and 5 cavalry regiments. In addition, wanting to inspire the local gentry, the emperor ordered the formation of the 3rd Lancers of his Horse Guards from Lithuanian nobles.
But Lithuania's military resources turned out to be too modest. Even for the organization of a small militia, literally everything was lacking: commanders, uniforms, equipment, horses, weapons. As a result, Lithuanian both infantry and cavalry regiments had a large shortage. The combat effectiveness of these weak formations was low, and the war soon confirmed this. Formed by Brigadier General Yu. Konopka, the 3rd Guards Lancers Regiment was destroyed without much effort on October 20 in Slonim by the Russian raiding detachment of Major General E.I. Chaplitsa (hussars and Cossacks). The Lithuanian guards lancers were not even killed or captured, but simply dispersed. It seems that there are grounds for considering this action of the Russian military authorities not so much a military one as a police one, i.e. directed against the rebellious separatists.
At the same time, one cannot ignore the fact that the understaffed and poorly trained Lithuanian troops still numbered at least 20 thousand soldiers and officers. They turned out to be quite suitable for protecting communications, and during the retreat of the Great Army they served as a serious marching replenishment for the thinned out Polish regiments.
Summing up, it should be recognized that despite the fact that 80 thousand Poles and Lithuanians, marching on Russia in 1812 under the banner of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, turned out to be perhaps the most inexperienced and poorly trained troops in the Grand Army, they undoubtedly strengthened Napoleon's troops ardent enthusiasm, the fact that they looked at the cause of conquering Russia as their own, and therefore abundantly strewn with their bodies the swamps of Polesye, the banks of the Berezina, the suburbs and streets of Smolensk, the fields near Shevardino and Utitsa, the forests near Tarutino and Medyn.
The French army of the Napoleonic era was considered the foremost military machine in Europe. The foundations of its power were laid before and during the French Revolution. Artillery officer Jean Baptiste Vaquet da Gribeauval reformed the field artillery of the French army. His system was the most efficient in Europe and lasted, with minor changes, until 1830. In the French army, the tactics of columns and loose formation were introduced, while maintaining the basics of linear tactics.Organization, armament of the French army
Infantry. During the revolutionary wars, a special organization was established in the French army, which distinguished it from the royal army. The main infantry unit was still a battalion, but out of 6 battalions it was not regiments, but a brigade, which was divided into two semi-brigades of three battalions. The brigades were divided into divisions, and those into corps. Within the framework of the Great Army, by 1806, 7 army corps were formed, each of which had 2-4 infantry divisions, a brigade or division of light cavalry, 36-40 guns and a formation of sappers and rear wagon trains. Each army corps had the opportunity to conduct combat operations in isolation from the main forces of the army. Thus, the corps was the basic operational unit. The size of the army corps was determined by its tasks, capabilities and human resources of the formation territory. The composition of his forces (infantry, cavalry, artillery, auxiliary units) was balanced. The corps system of the French army made it possible to conduct military operations on a wide front over a large territory.
Napoleon continued to reorganize the infantry, and by February 1808 the new structure was finally established. Instead of semi-brigades, regiments were again introduced. Each regiment had 5 battalions: 4 active and 1 reserve, in which recruits were accumulated and trained. In the line infantry, the battalions were 6-company: 4 fusilier, 1 grenadier and 1 voltiger (light rifle company). In the light infantry, the battalion also had 6 companies: 4 jaegers, 1 carabinieri and 1 voltiger. The number of the battalion was set at 840 people, the regiment - 3970 people. The line infantry was armed with a flintlock gun mod. 1777 (caliber 17.4 mm), with a triangular 47 cm bayonet. This gun was modernized in 1798-1799. The maximum firing range of the gun is 500 steps, the aiming range is 120. The infantryman had 60 rounds of ammunition with him and the same number in the convoy. The voltigeurs had lighter guns. The guns of the 1777 model had a number of drawbacks: a short range of aimed fire, frequent misfires due to a poorly designed flint plate on the trigger. Soldiers often tried to replace it with a trophy one. In addition, there were infantry rifles AN-IX mod. 1801. The gun was almost an exact copy of the old gun of the 1777 model of the year - the French gunsmiths, in the conditions of creating a mass army, which required the production of hundreds of thousands of barrels, were unable to quickly create a new weapon. The gunsmiths simply upgraded the already existing sample somewhat. They slightly reduced the weight of the gun and replaced some of the iron parts that were corroded with copper ones. It is clear that such an "improvement" did not improve the combat qualities of the main infantry weapon. The AN-IX shotgun had all the shortcomings of its predecessor. In addition, there was a deterioration in the quality of the manufacture of trunks in the conditions of hasty mass production. This led the French gunsmiths to reduce the size of the bullet, thereby creating a gap between the bullet and the walls of the barrel. With the help of this gap, which allowed the breakthrough of part of the powder gases and reduced the accuracy of shooting and the lethal force of the bullet, they made the use of the gun safer. Otherwise, the gun barrel could break due to the roughness of the barrel walls, which inevitably arose under conditions of poor metal processing.
French infantry shotgun with flintlock arr. 1777, with a bayonet.
The rifled carbine (fitting) was atypical for the French army. The French began to produce rifled guns for their infantry in 1793, but due to the lack of experienced craftsmen in this field and the high costs in France, they could not establish mass production. In 1800, production was stopped, since the start of the launch, no more than 10 thousand carbines were produced. In 1806, they tried to restore production, but without much success - until the end of Napoleonic rule, no more than 2 thousand fittings were produced. According to the charter, they were supposed to equip non-commissioned officers and officers of light infantry companies of linear and light infantry. But due to problems in starting production, these plans remained on paper. Almost all non-commissioned officers of the voltigeurs kept the old smoothbore guns. Only a few officers were able to purchase a carbine for themselves.
In addition to firearms, the infantrymen also had cold weapons. Privates and non-commissioned officers were armed with half-sabers (cleavers) with a short blade (about 59 cm). However, this weapon is difficult to attribute to the category of combat, it was often an improvised tool. In combat, infantry most often used bayonets rather than half-sabers. Sappers had a special model of a semi-saber (with a large protective guard and a wide blade). Swords and sabers were armed with officers. Models of edged weapons of the command staff were very diverse, the weapons did not meet the statutory standards. Officers could afford a variety of edged weapons for every taste and budget.
It should be noted that the French metallurgical industry did not have sufficient capabilities and resources to keep up with arming the constantly growing army of the empire with modern small arms and at the same time replenish the losses of weapons in numerous battles. Therefore, in service with the French army, along with new models, there were also old weapons of the second half of the 18th century, issued even before the revolution, under royal power. Yes, and new weapons were created hastily, in a very short time, so often they were only copies of old models with minor improvements and changes. In addition, in the French army, the terminology of types of small arms differed from Russian terminology. The main infantry weapon in both armies was called a gun, but then the conceptual base diverged significantly. Rifled guns in the Russian army were called fittings, and in the French - carbines. Shortened smooth-bore cavalry rifles were called carbines among the Russians, and blunderbusses among the French. "Shotguns" with a bell (a barrel expanding towards the cut) among cavalrymen in Russia were called blunderbusses, and in France - tromblons.
The uniforms of the infantry were light blue overcoats, the same uniforms, white camisoles, leggings and boots. The total number of infantry in the Great Army by 1812 left 492 thousand people.
Cavalry. In 1799, the French cavalry consisted of 2 Carabinieri, 25 Cavalry, 20 Dragoons, 23 Chasseurs (Chasseurs) and 13 Hussars. In total there were 83 regiments (307 squadrons), they numbered 51 thousand people. Then their numbers increased slightly. So, the number of dragoon regiments was increased to 30, chasseurs to 31. Napoleon did not make significant changes to the cavalry. He only created a cavalry reserve of two cuirassier divisions (since 1809 - 14 cuirassier regiments). In addition, in 1811, under the influence of the experience of battles with Cossacks armed with pikes, 6 uhlan regiments were created (then 3 more in the Duchy of Warsaw). The cavalry was divided into heavy (cuirassiers and carabinieri), linear (dragoons and lancers) and light (hussars and horse rangers). Heavy cavalry was considered the reserve of the high command, cuirassiers and carabinieri were intended for direct frontal attacks and breaking through the line of enemy troops at the decisive moment of the battle. The line cavalry supported the actions of the infantry units, and the light cavalry mainly served as reconnaissance and sabotage units, they could make a raid on the rear of the enemy and a surprise attack on the enemy from an ambush. The cavalry regiment of 1808 consisted of 4 squadrons, two squadrons made up a division. There were 961 people in the regiment. The number of cavalry in 1812 was 96 thousand people.
The dragoons were armed with a shortened version of the AN-IX infantry rifle. These guns even had bayonets, as in the infantry. The dragoon gun was in service with the carabinieri, cuirassiers, mounted grenadiers of the guard. The main small arms of the French light cavalry at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries was the cavalry blunderbuss of the 1786 model. They were armed with all the Chasseurs and Hussars. At the very beginning of the 19th century, on its basis, gunsmiths developed a new, somewhat more advanced carbine AN-IX. These weapons began to arrive, first of all, in the newly formed cavalry regiments. The distance of maximum shooting from a short-barreled cavalry blunderbuss was half that of an infantry rifle. Nevertheless, it was widely used in light cavalry, because it was indispensable for service at outposts, in outposts, and also in cases where cavalrymen fought on foot. But due to the weakness of the production base and the lack of new weapons in the huge army of the French emperor, the old blunderbuss of the 1786 model had to be used. The blunderbuss of 1786 was widely used until the fall of the French Empire.
French dragoon gun.
Blunderbuss Cavalry AN-IX
Musketon cavalry arr. 1786
Many officers of the French cavalry (primarily the dragoon formations) were armed with short smooth-bore blunderbusses with a bell at the end of the barrel (the French called them tromblons). It was a traditional cavalry weapon for that time, the extension at the end of the barrel made it possible to form a flying sheaf of buckshot when fired. It is clear that the tromblon could not hit the enemy at a considerable distance, but it was very popular with cavalrymen because it reliably provided hits from a short distance, even from the back of a horse galloping at full speed.
Tromblon.
All cavalrymen of the French army of the era of the First Empire had without fail 1-2 pistols in saddle holsters (usually one pistol due to the lack of this type of firearm; only all soldiers of the cuirassier and carabinieri regiments could equip with a pair of pistols). There was no single model. Some used a cavalry pistol mod. 1763/1766, created under King Louis XV, it was intended primarily for dragoons (caliber 17.1 mm, weight 1.23 kg). The pistol was produced in two models: 1st version arr. 1763 was too bulky (length 48 cm), so they created the 2nd, shortened version of arr. 1766, 40.2 cm long. The pistol was produced until 1777, a total of 56 thousand units were made. By the beginning of the Napoleonic wars, these weapons were considered obsolete, but due to the lack of pistols, they were actively used in wars (it is clear that on a somewhat limited scale - a significant part of the samples released in the 18th century had already been lost in constant military conflicts).
French pistol model 1763-1766 model 1. Total length 48 cm.
French pistol model 1763/1766 model 2. Total length 40.2 cm.
Another old model was the French pistol mod. 1777 (the so-called "box"). The 17.1 mm casket pistol was small in size. But, nevertheless, it was quite heavy - 1.4 kg. This was due to the original design of the weapon: the entire mechanism was placed in a copper box ("box"), into which the breech section of the barrel was screwed. Such a non-standard scheme was adopted at the insistence of the talented gunner General de Gribeauval. "Casket" pistols were produced only before the French Revolution, but were used in the army until the very end of the Napoleonic Empire.
French pistol mod. 1777 (the so-called "box").
A more modern model was the AN-IX cavalry pistol mod. 1801. This pistol was issued to cuirassiers, dragoons, hussars, lancers and horse rangers. Only cuirassiers and carabinieri were armed with a pair of pistols, the rest of the cavalrymen received only one pistol each. This was also due to the weakness of the French industry, which was not ready to produce weapons of a new, mass type. The pistol in this model was produced for only 4 years. For another 3 years, a slightly modified version of the “Model AN-XII” was produced (the refinement only affected the method of attaching the barrel to the stock). The most advanced and widespread weapon of the French cavalry was the AN-XIII cavalry pistol mod. 1805 (in total, about 300 thousand units of this weapon were produced). The caliber of this pistol is 17.1 mm, weight - 1.27 kg, total length - 35.2 cm. The pistol was widely used in cavalry units - mainly as a defensive weapon, because in the offensive the French cavalry most of all used melee weapons .
French pistol AN-IX (AN-XII).
French pistol AN-XIII.
In addition, the French had a significant number of captured pistols. The officers did not receive weapons at public expense, but bought them with their own money. Therefore, officer pistols were even more diverse. The poorer officers used army models, the wealthy ordered expensive models from famous gunsmiths. Expensive, luxurious pistols were the pride of their owner.
I must say that the aiming range of a pistol of that time was extremely low, so military practitioners gave recommendations to shoot from it practically at point blank range. They shot from 10, 20 or more steps, but as the distance increased, the accuracy dropped to zero. When shooting from a horse at a trot, the best shooters missed in half the cases, and at a gallop - in three out of four. And hitting the target from the back from a horse at a distance of 30 steps was considered an accident.
The main attacking weapons of the cavalry were sabers (and broadswords). In the French army of the time of Napoleon, the armament of various types of cavalry was traditional for Europe of that period: heavy and linear cavalry (cuirassiers, carabinieri and dragoons) were armed with straight broadswords, and light cavalry (hussars, horse rangers) with curved sabers. Cuirassiers were armed with broadswords of models IX and XI. The model IX broadsword was a good weapon, but had a significant drawback - the scabbard was made of thin metal (0.95 mm thick) and easily deformed from the slightest blow. Deformation could lead to the most negative consequences, up to the point that the broadsword could jam in the scabbard at the most decisive moment. Therefore, the armaments commission improved the weapon. From now on, the scabbard of the cuirassier broadsword began to be made of steel 2.5 mm thick, and a wooden insert with a groove was inserted inside for even greater structural reliability. True, this increased the weight of the weapon - from two kilograms to more than three. The broadsword was a very effective weapon. In total, more than 18 thousand cuirassier broadswords of the IX year model were produced, and more than 54 thousand units of the XI model. The dragoons had their own model IV broadsword, which they carried not in an iron but in a leather scabbard. The dragoon broadsword was somewhat lighter and slightly shorter than the cuirassier and had a flat blade.
French cuirassier broadsword model XI.
French cavalrymen were armed with a lot of old edged weapons. But for the most part, the French horse rangers and hussars were armed with two types of sabers. The saber of the 1776 model belonged to the first, it was made according to the classical Hungarian type. The second type was represented by the saber models IX and XI, created already in the 19th century. The model IX saber was so successful in design that, with minor changes, it survived until the abolition of the cavalry as a branch of service. The saber, similar to that adopted in IX, remained in service with the French cavalry until 1940. A characteristic feature of the saber for the light cavalry model IX of the year was the presence of side arms on the hilt, which protected the cavalryman's hand quite well. The shape of the blade also differed from the Hungarian type saber: it was more straight and weighty so that it was possible to perform not only a chopping blow, but also an injection.
French light cavalry saber model XI.
The weakest point of the French army was its cavalry. Preparing for the war with the Russian Empire, Napoleon tried to replenish the army with horses that are adapted to long and large transitions. The experience of military operations against Russian troops in East Prussia showed that French and Italian horses are inferior in terms of endurance to eastern breeds. Even during the campaigns of 1805-1807. Napoleon took almost the entire cavalry of the Austrian and Prussian armies, and then the Confederation of the Rhine. However, this number of horses was not enough. Therefore, on the orders of Napoleon, they began to purchase significant quantities of horses in the states of Germany and Austria. Prussia, according to an agreement of February 24, 1812, was supposed to supply 15 thousand horses. Horses were also bought in Russia. In total, Napoleon managed to collect about 200 thousand horses, the best were given to the cavalry, others went to the artillery and convoy.
To be continued…
