Perception- this is a process that forms the image of objects, phenomena from the surrounding world into the structures of the psyche. This display of the qualities and inherent characteristics of the object and phenomenon is integral. This is a kind of twisted thinking. Often it is interpreted not as a process, but as a result, that is, the image of the object itself. Perception is synonymous with perception, therefore the image of an object is formed with the help of perception of primary sensations, certain knowledge, desires, expectations, imagination and mood. The main features of perception are objectivity, constancy, integrity, apperception, structure, meaningfulness, illusion, selectivity.

Perception has many synonyms: apperception, perception, evaluation, understanding, acceptance, contemplation.

Perception in psychology

Perception in psychology is the process of displaying the characteristic properties of objects and phenomena in the psyche, when the sense organs are directly influenced. There was a long discussion about sensations and their importance in perception. Associative psychology interpreted sensations as the basic elements of the psyche. Philosophy criticized the idea that perception is built from sensations. In the 20th century, some changes took place in psychology, perception is no longer considered as a set of atomic sensory sensations, but began to be understood as a structural and holistic phenomenon. Psychologist J. Gibson interprets perception as an active process of appropriating information from the world, which includes a real examination of the information that is perceived. Thus, this process shows a person the properties of the surrounding world, related to his needs, and shows his possible activity in the current real situation.

Another psychologist W. Nesser argued that perception in psychology is the process of extracting information from objects of the external world, which is carried out on the basis of schemes of various objects and the whole world that are in the subject. These schemes are obtained through experience, and there are also initial themes, innate. Supporters of cognitive psychology adhered to a similar idea, believing that perception is the process of categorizing perceived information, that is, classifying perceived objects into a certain category of objects. Some categories are innate - this is information about the surrounding nature and the closest objects that the child is able to correlate with some category, and there are categories that include objects, knowledge of which is obtained in experience.

In the human mind, the display occurs through a direct impact on the analyzers.

Perception methods depend on the system to be affected. Through perception, people can be aware of what is happening to them and how the world is affecting them.

This process was previously described as the summation of certain sensations, or as a consequence of elementary associations of individual properties. Nevertheless, there remains a part of psychologists who consider perception as a set of sensations that appear as a result of direct sensory cognition, which are interpreted as subjective experiences of quality, localization, strength and other properties of the impact of stimuli.

Such a definition is incorrect, therefore contemporaries describe this process as a reflection of integral objects or phenomena. It singles out the most basic stimuli from the complex of influencing stimuli (shape, color, weight, taste, and others), while being distracted from non-essential stimuli. It also combines groups of essential features and compares the perceived complex of signs with previously known knowledge about the subject.

During the perception of familiar objects, their recognition occurs very quickly, a person simply combines two or three properties into a whole and comes to the desired solution. When unfamiliar, new objects are perceived, their recognition is much more difficult and occurs in broader forms. As a result of the analytical-synthetic process, essential features are singled out that do not allow others to open up, non-essential and combining perceived elements are linked into a single whole, and a complete perception of the object arises.

Perception process is complex, active, requires significant analytical and synthetic work. This nature of perception is expressed in many features that require special consideration.

The process of perception has motor components, with the help of which the perception of information is realized (eye movement, palpation of objects). Therefore, this process would be more accurately defined as perceptual activity.

The process of perception is never limited to one modality, but has a well-coordinated relationship of several analyzers, as a result of which ideas appear that have been formed in the personality. It is very important that the perception of objects never occurs at the elementary level, but acts at the highest levels of the psyche.

When a person has a clock in front of his eyes, he mentally names this object, not paying attention to insignificant properties (color, shape, size), but highlights the main property - the indication of time. He also classifies this object in the appropriate category, isolates it from other objects that are similar in appearance, but those that belong to a completely different category, for example, in this case, barometer. This confirms that the process of perceiving a person in terms of psychological structure is close to visual thinking. An active and complex character determines its features, which equally apply to all forms.

Features of perception constitute the main characteristic of perceived objects. They are also the properties of these objects, phenomena and objects.

Features of perception: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, comprehension, apperception.

The objectivity of perception is observed in the attribution of knowledge acquired from the outside world to this world. Performs regulatory and orienting functions in practical activities. It is created on the basis of external motor processes that provide contact with the object. Without movement, perception would not have a relationship with the objects of the world, that is, the property of objectivity. It also plays a role in regulating the behavior of the subject. Usually objects are defined not by their appearance, but according to their practical purpose or main property.

Constancy is defined as the relative constancy of properties in objects, even if their conditions change. With the help of the compensatory property of constancy, the subject is able to perceive objects as relatively stable. For example, constancy in the perception of colors is the relative invariability of the visible color under the influence of lighting. Color constancy is also determined by the action of certain reasons, among them: adaptation to the level of brightness in the visual field, contrast, ideas about natural color and its lighting conditions.

The constancy of size perception is expressed in the relative constancy of the visible dimensions of an object at different distances. If an object is relatively far removed, its perception is determined by the action of additional factors, of particular importance among them is the effort of the eye muscles, which adapt to fixing the object during its removal at different distances.

The perception of the shape of objects, their constancy is expressed in the relative stability of its perception when their positions change relative to the line of sight of the observant subject. During any change in the position of an object in relation to the eyes, its image shape on the retina changes, with the help of eye movements along the contours of objects and the selection of characteristic combinations of contour lines known to the subject from past experience.

Study of the evolution of the origin of the constancy of perception of people leading their way of life in a dense forest, not seeing objects at various distances, only around them. Perceive objects that are far away as small, not remote. For example, builders see objects that are below without distorting their dimensions.

The source of the property of constancy of perception is the actions of the perceptual system of the brain. When a person repeatedly perceives the same objects in different conditions, the stability of the perceptual image of the object is ensured, relative to the changeable conditions and movements of the perceiving receptor apparatus itself. Consequently, the emergence of constancy results from a kind of self-regulating action, which has a feedback mechanism and adapts to the characteristics of the object, the conditions and circumstances of its existence. If a person did not have a constancy of perception, he could not navigate in the constant variability and diversity of the surrounding world.

The integrity of perception gives greater information content, in contrast to sensations, which reflect individual features of the object. Integrity is formed on the basis of general knowledge about its individual properties and characteristics of the object, taken in the form of sensations. The elements of sensation are very strongly interconnected and the only complex image of an object arises when a person is under the direct influence of some properties or parts of the object. Impressions from this arise as a conditioned reflex as a result of the connection between visual and tactile influences, which was formed in life experience.

Perception is not a simple summation of human sensations, and does not respond to them instantly. The subject perceives a generalized structure actually isolated from sensations, which is formed during a certain time. When a person listens to music, the rhythms they heard will continue to sound in their head when a new rhythm arrives. Listening to music, perceives its structure holistically. The last note heard cannot form such an understanding; the whole structure of the melody continues to play in the head with various interrelations of the elements that include it. Integrity and structure lie in the properties of reflected objects.

Human perception has a very close relationship with thinking. Therefore, the feature of meaningfulness of perception will play a very important role. Although the process of perception arises under the influence of direct influence on the sense organs, but perceptual images still always have a semantic meaning.

Conscious perception of objects helps a person mentally name the object, attribute it to the designated category, group. When a person encounters a new object for the first time, he tries to establish some similarity with already familiar objects. Perception is a constant search for the best description of the data available. How an object is perceived by a person depends on the stimulus, its characteristics, and the person himself. Since a living whole person perceives, and not separate organs (eyes, ears), therefore the process of perception is always under the influence of specific personality traits.

The dependence of perception on the influence of the mental characteristics of a person's life, on the properties of the subject's personality itself, is called apperception. If the subjects are presented with unfamiliar objects, then in the first phases of their perception, they will look for standards relative to which the object that is presented can be attributed. During perception, hypotheses are put forward and subject to verification regarding the belonging of an object to a certain category. So, during perception, traces from past experience, knowledge are involved. Therefore, one object can be perceived by different people in different ways.

Types of perception

There are several classifications of types of perception. First, the perception is divided into intentional (arbitrary) or intentional (arbitrary).

Intentional Perception has an orientation, with the help of which it regulates the process of perception - it is to perceive an object or phenomenon and get acquainted with it.

Arbitrary perception can be included in some activity and implemented in the course of its activity.

Unintended Perception does not have such a clear focus, and the subject is not set to perceive a particular object. The direction of perception is influenced by external circumstances.

As an independent phenomenon, perception manifests itself in observation. Observation is a deliberate, planned and long-term perception in some period of time, aimed at tracking the course of some phenomenon or changes occurring in the object of perception.

Observation is an active form of human sensory knowledge of reality. During observation, as an independent purposeful activity, from the very beginning there is a verbal formulation of tasks and goals that orient the observation process towards certain objects. If you practice observation for a long time, you can develop such a property as observational ability - the ability to notice characteristic, subtle features and details of objects that are not immediately evident.

For the development of observation, it is necessary to organize perception, corresponding to the necessary conditions of success, clarity of the task, activity, preliminary preparation, systematic, planned. Observation is necessary in all spheres of human life. Already from childhood, in the process of playing or learning, it is necessary to focus on the development of observation, versatility and accuracy of perception.

There is a classification of perceptions according to: modality (visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile, gustatory) and forms of perception of the existence of matter (spatial, temporal, motor).

visual perception is the process of creating a visual image of the world based on sensory information perceived through the visual system.

auditory perception- This is a process that provides the susceptibility of sounds and orientation to them in the environment, carried out with the help of an auditory analyzer.

tactile perception- based on multimodal information, the leading among which is tactile.

Olfactory perception is the ability to sense and distinguish odorous substances as odors.

Taste perception- the perception of stimuli acting on the receptors of the mouth, characterized by taste sensations (sweet, salty, bitter, sour).

More complex forms of perception are the perception of space, movement and time.

Space is formed by the perception of shape, size, location, and distance.

Visual perception of space is based on the perception of the size and shape of an object, due to the synthesis of visual, muscular, tactile sensations, the perception of volume, the distance of objects, which is carried out by binocular vision.

A person perceives movement because it occurs against a certain background, which allows the retina to display in a certain sequence the resulting changes in positions that are in motion relative to the elements in front of and behind which the object moves. There is an autokinetic effect, when in the dark a luminous fixed point appears to be moving.

Perception of time a little less explored, because there are many difficulties in this process. The difficulty in explaining how a person perceives time is that there is no obvious physical stimulus in the perception. The duration of objective processes, that is, physical time can be measured, but duration itself is not a stimulus in the truest sense of the word. There is no energy in time that would affect a certain time receptor, for example, as is observed in the action of light or sound waves. To date, no mechanism has been discovered that directly or indirectly converts physical time intervals into the corresponding sensory signals.

Perception of information- this is an active, semi-conscious process of the subject's activity in receiving and processing essential knowledge about the world, events and people.

The perception of information is carried out under the influence of certain circumstances. First, the situation in which the information was acquired is important. A favorable situation encourages more favorable perception than the information is worth it, and vice versa, an unfavorable situation will contribute to a negative perception of information than it really is.

Secondly, the depth of understanding of the situation. A person who is well versed in the situation in most cases is calmer about information, related events and people around at that moment. He does not dramatize what is happening, does not exalt and very adequately assesses the situation than a person with a limited outlook.

Thirdly, the perception of information is influenced by the characteristics of the phenomenon, subject or object, which information indicates.

Fourthly, stereotypes (simplified standardized representations of complex phenomena and objects of the surrounding reality) have a great influence. Stereotypes are based on other people's views about those things that a person has not yet met, but can meet and, thus, facilitate his understanding of these things.

Fifthly, perception often becomes more difficult, under the influence of unpredictability or distortion of information, inability to present information correctly.

The perception of man by man

When people meet for the first time, they, perceiving each other, highlight features of appearance that represent their mental and social qualities. Particular attention is paid to posture, gait, gestures, cultural speech, behavioral patterns, habits, manners of behavior. One of the first and most important is professional characteristics, social status, communicative and moral qualities, how angry or cordial a person is, sociable or uncommunicative, and others. Individual facial features are also selectively highlighted.

The characteristics of a person are interpreted by his appearance according to several ways. The emotional way is expressed in the fact that social qualities are attributed to a person, depending on his appearance, aesthetic appeal. If a person is beautiful on the outside, then he is good. Very often people fall for this trick, it is worth remembering that appearances can be deceiving.

The analytical method assumes that each element of appearance is associated with a specific mental property characteristic of this person. For example, furrowed eyebrows, compressed lips, a scowling nose indicate an evil person.

The perceptual-associative method consists in attributing to a person qualities that make him or her seem similar to another person.

The social-associative method assumes that qualities are attributed to a person according to a certain social type in relation to his individual external signs. Such a generalized image of a person has an impact on communication with this person. Often people identify by torn clothes, dirty pants, torn worn shoes, a person without a fixed place of residence and are already trying to keep their distance from him.

The perception of a person by a person lends itself to social stereotypes, standards, standards. The idea of ​​the social status of the individual, the general idea of ​​him, is transferred to other manifestations of this personality, this is the halo effect. The primacy effect suggests that the initial perceived information heard from other people about a person can affect the perception of him when meeting, will be of predominant importance.

The effect of social distance is generated by significant differences in the social status of people who were in communication. The extreme manifestation of this effect can be expressed in a dismissive, hatred attitude towards representatives with a different social status.

Evaluation and feelings of people during their perception of each other are very multifaceted. They can be divided into: conjunctive, that is, unifying and disjunctive, that is, separating feelings. Disjunctive ones are generated by what is condemned in that environment. Conjunctive - favorable.

Development of perception in children

In development, the perception of children has specific features. From birth, he already owns some information. The further development of this process is the result of the child's personal activity. How active he is, how quickly he develops, gets acquainted with various objects and people.

The perception of children in the future can be controlled by parents. The early development of the properties of perception is carried out as the child grows up, it manifests itself in the peculiarity that for the perceiving child the form of the object becomes significant, it gains meaning. In infancy, the development of recognition of people and objects around a person takes place, the number of purposeful conscious body movements grows. Such activity in the development of perception occurs before primary school age.

It is very important that before this time, a study on possible violations of perception takes place. The reason for the anomaly in the development of an understanding of reality may be in the breaks in the connection between the systems of the sense organs and the brain centers into which the signal arrives. This could happen in case of injury or morphological changes in the body.

The perception of children of primary school age is expressed by vagueness and fuzziness. For example, children do not recognize people dressed in costumes at holidays, although their faces may be open. If children see a picture of an unfamiliar object, they single out one element from this image, relying on which they comprehend the object as a whole. Such comprehension is called syncretism, it is inherent in children's perception.

In the middle preschool age, ideas about the ratio of the size of objects appear. The child can judge familiar things as big or small, regardless of their relationship to other objects. This is observed in the child's ability to arrange toys "by height".

Children of older preschool age already have an idea about the dimensions of the size of objects: width, length, height, space. They are able to distinguish the location of objects among themselves (top, bottom, left, right, and so on).

The productive activity of the child lies in his ability to perceive and reproduce the features of objects, their color, size, shape, location. At the same time, the assimilation of sensory standards and also the development of special actions of perception are important.

The perception of works of art by children of senior preschool age expresses the unity of experience and cognition. The child learns to fix the image and perceive the feelings that excite the author.

The peculiarity of the child's perception of the surrounding people is revealed in value judgments. The highest and brightest assessment is attributed to those adults who have a close relationship with the child.

The perception and evaluation of other children depends on the popularity of the child in the group. The higher the position of the child, the higher the rating is attributed to him.

The development of the perception of preschool children is a complex, multifaceted process that helps the child learn to more accurately reflect the world around him, be able to distinguish the features of reality and be able to successfully adapt to it.

Specificity. The process of forming, with the help of active actions, a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects the analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception, the entire object is represented as a unit of interaction, in the aggregate of its invariant properties. The image of perception acts as a result of the synthesis of sensations, the possibility of which, according to A.N. Leontiev, arose in phylogeny in connection with the transition of living beings from a homogeneous, objectively unformed environment to an environment, objectively formalized.

Properties. The main properties of perception are objectivity, integrity, constancy, categoriality, apperception. An important role in all types of perception is played by motor, or kinesthetic sensations, which regulate the real relationship of the subject with the object according to the feedback principle. In particular, in visual perception, along with the actual visual sensations (colors, light), kinesthetic sensations that accompany eye movements (accommodation, convergence and divergence, tracking) are also integrated. Also in the process of auditory perception, weak movements of the articulatory apparatus play an active role. It is typical for a person that the images of his perception integrate the use of speech. Due to the verbal designation, it becomes possible to abstract and generalize the properties of objects.

Microgenesis. The construction of an image of perception includes a number of phases associated with the perceptual tasks to be solved: from undifferentiated perception to the formation of a holistic image of an object, on the basis of which it is possible to build an adequate activity.

Kinds. Depending on the biological significance in the perceived object, either one or the other quality may turn out to be the leading one, which determines the information from which analyzer will be recognized as a priority. In accordance with this, perception is distinguished:

visual,

auditory,

tactile,

taste,

Olfactory.

PERCEPTION

a holistic reflection of objects, phenomena, situations and events in their sensually accessible temporal and spatial connections and relationships; the process of forming - through active actions - a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects the analyzers. It is determined by the objectivity of the world of phenomena. Occurs with the direct action of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces (-> receptor) of the sense organs. Together with the processes of sensation, it provides a direct-sensory orientation in the external world. Being a necessary stage of cognition, it is always connected to some extent with thinking, memory, and attention. It is directed by motivation and has a certain affective-emotional coloring (-> emotion). In contrast to sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception, the entire object is represented as a unit of interaction - in the aggregate of its invariant properties. At the human level, sensory-perceiving activity is very complex and perfect. High selectivity and mobility of perception make it possible to actively select elements of cognitive information that are adequate to the task at hand. In general, the early theories of perception corresponded to the provisions of traditional associationist psychology. The decisive step in overcoming associationism in the interpretation of perception was made thanks to the development by I. M. Sechenov of the reflex concept of the psyche, as well as thanks to the works of representatives of Gestalt psychology, who showed the conditionality of the most important phenomena of perception - such as constancy - by invariable relationships between the components of the perceptual image. The study of the reflex structure of perception led to the creation of theoretical models of perception, where an important role is assigned to efferent (centrifugal), including motor processes that adjust the work of the perceptual system to the characteristics of the object. The image of perception acts as a result of the synthesis of sensations, the possibility of which, according to A. N. Leontiev, arose in phylogeny in connection with the transition of living beings from a homogeneous, objectively unformed environment to an environment, objectively formed. It is necessary to distinguish between perception, adequate to reality, and illusions. In the process of perception, impulses are also displayed, ascending from the inner bodily world of a person. They cause the appearance of sensation and perception of oneself - awareness of one's own Self. The feeling of one's Self accompanies the sensation and perception of external phenomena and contributes to the cognitive distinction of everything that happens outside the body, inside the body and inside consciousness. In everyday life, perceptions seem simple and understandable; meanwhile, they are very complex and difficult to study. The complexity of the mechanisms of their appearance is clearly revealed in pathology - in the symptoms of sensory disorders. Modern studies of the early ontogenesis of perception confirm the existence of a number of its forms, rigidly determined by the characteristics of constant combinations of stimuli. But the developed processes of perception are under the control of the goals facing the personality. The intentional (-> intentionality), directed nature of these processes allows us to consider them as perceptual actions that allow us to highlight the informative content of the situation, by which we can compare perceived objects with images and descriptions stored in memory, and identify these objects - refer them to a certain semantic class ( categories). The dynamics of the recognition process in most cases is adequately described by the law of perception: initially, only a general and diffuse idea of ​​an object is singled out, which is then replaced by a more definite and detailed perception. Occurring on the basis of the selection of generalized, sometimes socially fixed systems of signs, recognition is realized in a much shorter time (of the order of fractions of a second) than the processes of initial perceptual learning, which can take months and years (for example, the formation of reading skills). The categorization of objects, events, and situations carried out during recognition (due to the interaction of perception and memory) is close, and sometimes identical, to conceptual categorization. With the processes of thinking, perception also brings together the possibility of transforming the image to bring it to a form suitable for making a decision. Such transformations, often unconscious, can contribute to the solution of the tasks facing the subject. In social psychology, the content of the concept of perception is not revealed by all authors in the same way. Sometimes this term means only a reflection by the partner of the external appearance and visible picture of the behavior of another person. Sometimes perception and understanding of each other are considered as two inextricably linked processes. In other cases, perception is understood as the totality of the external appearance of the partner and his behavior both in the visible and in the internal - psychological part: the act of perception includes the interpretation of what is perceived at the level of thinking. Perception - knowledge of the quality of the whole, and not its individual properties; not passive copying of an instant impact, but a living, creative process of cognition. Depending on the biological significance in the perceived object, either one or the other quality may turn out to be leading, which determines which analyzer the information will be recognized as a priority. According to the modality that allows to objectively reflect the world, visual, auditory and tactile perceptions are distinguished. If a separate quality of an object becomes the object of attention, we can talk about perceptions of taste, smell, pain, etc. The perceptions of space, time, images, performances and films, the perception of a person by a person (-> human perception) are specialized in terms of volume: subject activity. At the same time, a particularly important role in all types of perception is played by motor sensations, or kinesthetic sensations, which regulate, according to the principle of feedback, the real relationship of the subject with the object. In particular, in visual perception, along with visual sensations proper, kinesthetic sensations accompanying eye movements (accommodation, convergence and divergence, tracking) are also integrated. Similarly, in the process of auditory perception, weak movements of the articulatory apparatus play an active role. It is typical for a person that the images of his perception integrate the use of speech. Due to the verbal designation, it becomes possible to abstract and generalize the properties of objects. The main properties of perception are objectivity, integrity, constancy, categoriality, apperception. Among the important properties of perception, it should be noted: the ratio of the figure and the background (-> figure | background), objectivity, integrity and constancy. The properties of perception that exist at the level of consciousness are meaningfulness, categoriality, selectivity and apperception. The microgenesis of the image of perception contains a number of phases associated with the perceptual tasks to be solved: from undifferentiated perception to the formation of a holistic image of an object, on the basis of which adequate activity can be built. The study of perception is intensively conducted by representatives of psychology, physiology, cybernetics and other scientific disciplines. In these studies, observation and experiment are widely used, methods of empirical analysis and modeling are combined. Data on the function, development and structure of perception are of general scientific and applied significance. They are used in the creation of information display systems, in technical aesthetics and artistic design, in pedagogy, sports, etc.

PERCEPTION

A mental process, one of the stages of cognitive activity, leading to the creation of an image of an object based on the analysis and synthesis of its individual qualities, while highlighting the essential features of an object or phenomenon and distracting from irrelevant and irrelevant ones. Perceptual disturbances include illusions and hallucinations.

PERCEPTION

English perception).

1. Subjective image of an object, phenomenon or process that directly affects the analyzer or system of analyzers (the terms "image of perception", "perceptual image" are also used).

2. A complex psychophysiological process of the formation of a perceptual image (the terms "perception", "perceptual process" are also used). Sometimes the term V. denotes a system of actions aimed at familiarizing oneself with an object that affects the sense organs, that is, the sensory-exploratory activity of observation (see Perceptual action).

As an image, V. is a direct reflection of an object (phenomenon, process) in the totality of its properties, in its objective integrity. This distinguishes V. from sensation, which is also a direct sensory reflection, but only of individual properties of objects and phenomena that affect the analyzers.

When considering epistemological questions (in philosophy), the meanings of the terms "B" and "sensation" coincide. For psychology, this difference is fundamentally important. In some areas of psychology, for example. Gestalt psychology, V. is considered as the initial form of sensory cognition (and knowledge in general), and sensation - as an abstraction, as a result of "preparation" of V. by consciousness (see Reflection sensual). However, most psychologists consider sensation (for example, warmth, salinity, pain) as the initial form of cognition, and V. as a synthesis of sensations that is formed in the process of actively reflecting an objectively existing integral object. In phylogenesis, the transition from sensation to visualization was due to the transition of living beings from life in a homogeneous, materially (objectively) unformed environment to life in an environment, materially formed (A. N. Leontiev).

Since any object as a stimulus (see Stimulus, Distal stimulus) is complex and has a number of properties, several analyzers usually participate in the formation of its image; thus, V. is formed on the basis of sensations of different modalities.

Depending on which of the analyzers is leading in a given act of V., visual V., auditory (see Hearing), tactile (see Touch), gustatory (see Taste) and olfactory V. (see Smell) are distinguished. An important role in all types of V. is played by motor (kinesthetic) sensations, although the latter are not always clearly recognized by a person. Thus, visual visualization, in addition to visual sensations proper (color, light, etc.), also includes kinesthetic sensations arising from eye movements (accommodation of the eyes, convergence and divergence of the eyes, etc.). The role of kinesthetic sensations in tactile V. is especially great. The movements of the tongue play an important role in gustatory V., and the movements of the respiratory organs play an important role in olfactory V.. In the process of auditory V., weak movements of the articulatory apparatus can take an active part. The movements included in the act of perception are important in the process of analyzing the acting stimuli, clarifying sensations, and synthesizing them into a holistic image of an object and its spatial and temporal localization.

In a person who owns speech, the latter mediates V., ensuring its meaningfulness, awareness, premeditation (arbitrariness). The participation of speech in V. creates the possibility of abstraction and generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena by their verbal designation (naming) (see Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis).

The main properties of V. are objectivity, integrity, constancy, categoriality, and selectivity.

V. depends on past experience, knowledge, content and tasks of the activity performed, individual psychological differences in people (needs, inclinations, interests, motives, emotional state, etc.). Under the influence of these factors, an apperception characteristic of each person is created, which causes significant differences in the perception of the same objects by different people or by the same person at different times.

The formation of a perceptual image is a process that includes a number of phases (transitions): from undivided V. ("something flashed", "something touched the skin surface", "some sound appeared", "smells of something" and etc.) to the formation of a differentiated holistic image of an object (or phenomenon) adequate to the original (see Microgenesis of Perception). The dynamics of the formation of a perceptual image is determined by the spatio-temporal conditions of the process B. This is clearly revealed when the time of stimuli exposure to the analyzer changes, their distance and position in the sensory field.

V. m. b. intentional and unintentional. The first, in contrast to the second, is associated with the formulation of a certain perceptual task; it is characterized by purposefulness, planning and systematic. In this case, V. acts as a cognitive perceptual activity (observation). Unintentional V. acts as a component to. other activities, or is an uncontrollable and random process, entirely dependent on fluctuations in involuntary attention (cf. "empty gaze"). Intentional V. is more effective than unintentional.

In human behavior and activity, V. is a necessary condition for orientation in the environment. The perceptual image performs the function of a regulator of actions. At the same time, activity is the main condition for the development of B. What and how a person perceives depends on what and how he does. In practical activity, V. becomes an active, purposeful process of cognition of reality. See sense organ, sensual reflection, sensory system. (V.P. Zinchenko.)

Perception (perception)

perception) Perception, or perception, is understood as the subjective experience of obtaining sensory information about the world of people, things and events, and those psychol. processes, thanks to which this is done. Classical Theory The notion that all our thoughts and impressions are made up of a finite set of sensory "ideas" has been developed successively by English philosophers (empiricists and associationists) from Hobbes, Locke, and Berkeley to James Mill and John Stuart Mill. The scientific study of perception began within physiological psychology with the attempts of Johannes Müller in 1838 to divide sensory experience into such modalities as sight, touch and smell. With a deeper analysis, it turns out that the seemingly holistic - "without a single seam" - the world, as it is given in V., is assembled from fragments of experience coming through separate channels, each of which is completely dependent on the action of specific, identifiable parts of the sensory department of the NS, and therefore only indirectly reflects the state of the actual physical. peace. Hermann von Helmholtz made an attempt to subdivide these sensory modalities themselves into elementary sensations, each of which reflects the impact that is normally the result of physical stimulation. the energy of a certain type of specific receptor (nerve) cells, adapted in the process of evolution to respond only to "specific energy" (the term of I. Muller). Around the same time, G. T. Fechner developed. psychophysical methods for measuring the effect on sensory experience of subtle differences in stimulation, providing for a harmonious combination of psychol. and physiologist. tools in research. sensors. Research sensory sphere, directed by these and other competing theories, continue in several. scientific fields. However, the main criterion of psychol. the significance of such research. sensory is how well they explain the properties of the perceived world. In everything that has been mentioned so far, the most important properties of things and events have been passed over in silence - form, lightness, remoteness, movement, melodic structure, voice timbre and meaning of statements. According to the classical theory, we learn about these essential properties of the world not from visual and auditory sensations, but from complex perceptual images that develop as a result of learning. This determines the first stage and direction of research. perceptions, among to-rykh the most indicative are issled. visual perception of space. Perception of space. The V. of the third dimension poses a special problem for philosophers, physiologists, and psychologists, since the two-dimensional light flux entering the eye is clearly not enough to unambiguously determine three dimensions. However, different natural environments give rise to characteristic two-dimensional patterns, which tend to be associated with different proximity and remoteness, and therefore offer our attention signs of a third dimension. One old and enduring theory claims that V. depth relies on such features. Since the use of these signs does not require any conscious inference, they are called signs of depth, suggesting rather a direct psychol. reaction than a response based on conscious inference. In early versions of the classical theory of V. it was assumed that V. of depth is achieved due to acquired (with experience) connections between such visual signs and mnemic traces of muscular and tactile sensations. However, Thorndike proved that certain animal species can adequately respond to visual signs of depth without having the corresponding visual experience at all - a conclusion confirmed and developed in the study. E. J. Gibson and R. Walk. Thus, in addition to the basic sensations of color and shades (gray) assumed by the classical theory, it became necessary to establish an innate mechanism of visual response to depth. Apparently, the classical theory requires a radical revision. Constancy and illusions of perception. Our perceptions are usually better aligned with the enduring qualities of an object than with the brief stimulation of sensory input they evoke. For example, under normal conditions, we perceive the size of an object to be completely unchanged, although as we approach it, the size of its image on the retina increases significantly. However, in geometric illusions, the perceived size of an object, while its actual size and the size of the retinal (retinal) image remain unchanged, dramatically changes from adding only a few to it. slanted lines. Illusions of size, shape, color, and other qualities are, as a rule, very stable and are found everywhere in our lives. The classical explanation of the phenomena of constancy is that we learn to take into account signs of depth when estimating the size of objects, signs of illumination when estimating their brightness, etc. Although such learning, which occurs in the process of our acquaintance with the world, looks like a plausible explanation for the constancy of perception , still needs to be explained why such an experience should give us perceptual illusions. Phenomena of perceptual organization. Perceptual organization is the last serious challenge, which the phenomena of V. throw classical theory. The basis of the phenomena of perceptual organization is the selection of the figure from the background. A figure is a region of space or a set of lines forming a contour that has a recognizable shape. Thus, the factors that influence the distinction between figure and ground play a decisive role in determining what will become the object of our perception. These factors have been studied mainly within the framework of the most famous of all the opposition to the classical approach, namely in Gestalt psychology. Gestalt theory In this theory, associated mainly with the names of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka, a certain configuration (Gestalt) of stimulating energies, and not energy as such, is recognized as an essential property of the stimulus to which the NS responds. Between the stimulus pattern and the reaction are such "laws of organization" as the "law of good continuation", according to which we perceive a structure consisting of a figure and a background that interrupts the least smoothly continuing lines. Although such visual demonstrations have not been subjected to either quantitative assessment or objective research, they can hardly be attributed to irregularly observed phenomena in the sphere of B. different from the views of the time. To date, they have been completely abandoned, but attempts to formulate the laws of perceptual organization in an objective form continue to this day. Basically, these attempts are based on the following principle: the observer perceives such a simple structure, which can be brought into line with a specific stimulation pattern. However, none of these attempts has been successful so far, and modern. versions of the classical approach can even better explain many. Gestalt phenomena than Gestalt theory or its followers do. Revised Classical Theory One old point of view, which has been increasingly supported in recent years, is that both the phenomena of constancy and illusions are two sides of the same process, namely: we perceive those objects or events that are in Under normal conditions, they are most often the cause of the sensory stimulation we experience at the moment. According to this, the observer must make something like perceptual inferences or inferences, which, as a rule, are correct, but sometimes turn out to be erroneous. This theory is difficult to test because perceptual inferences are unobservable variables. Brunswick reformulated it: the light entering the eye usually contains groups of features that provide us with information about regular physical phenomena. properties of the environment. Any single feature has some probability of being correct—that is, it has a kind of "environmental validity"—and the observer learns to rely on each feature according to its probability. For this version of the classical theory of V., the "figure / background" phenomenon described by the Gestaltists is simply a perceptual conclusion about which side of the contour (internal or external) refers to the surface of the object, and the laws of organization are simply a set of probabilistic features, on which ryh such conclusions are based. To test this theory, it is necessary to have information about the ecological validity of various features, collected in the course of "ecological surveys" of those environments to which observers are usually exposed. However, in order for the results of such surveys to yield unambiguous interpretation, it is necessary first of all to know what features a particular sensory system is adapted to isolate, a question that is currently of great interest. Modern sensory physiology Contemporaries of Helmholtz, Ewald Hering and Ernst Mach, suggested that the structure of the sensory parts of the NS can serve as a clear and direct explanation for at least some types of perceptual constancy and perception of the relative remoteness of objects from the observer. Over the past several For decades, it has been established that networks of lateral connections that could perform such complex sensory functions exist both between receptors and at higher levels of the NS. Especially important for modern scientific thought was the assumption of Hering about the structural organization of receptors in the form of opponent (functionally opposite) pairs. For example, some cellular structures provide either the sensation of red or the sensation of green, but not both of these sensations, while others provide the sensations of either blue or yellow. Structures that act as opponent pairs and, probably, perform this function, were identified using neurophysiological methods, which significantly influenced the development of modern. theories of color vision and sensory fiziol. generally. Nevertheless, it is still unknown whether such “code-sensitive” networks play any role at all in the V. of illusions and in the phenomena of constancy and perceptual org-tion, but the very fact of proving their existence makes it more plausible to assume that many. visible physical qualities. worlds depend on the direct response of a specific sensory mechanism. Immediate perception Light propagating in the direction of the eye is called an optical array, in contrast to the retinal image actually formed in the eye. As a result of motor parallax, objects of the surrounding world, located at different distances from the observer, during the movement of the latter will be displaced to varying degrees in the optical system that surrounds them. In the most radical of all "direct" theories of V., belonging to J. Gibson, it is argued that the optical system of an observer moving in an ordinary environment contains enough information to accurately determine by his nervous system the characteristic properties, scenes and events in the physical. world, and that our perceptions of these properties are direct responses to this information. We are able to detect aspects of stimulation that reflect the size, shape, and other properties of an object, although its distance and angle - and hence its retinal image - can change. The attractiveness of this theory lies in the fact that it proposes to completely abandon Helmholtz's explanation of W. phenomena by mental processes, thereby bypassing the theories associated with it. difficulties in the form of unconscious inferences. Despite individual attempts at a mathematical analysis of motor parallax, no evidence of the use ("direct" or c.-l. else) of such information has been offered; modern The state of this issue allows only one thing to be said with certainty: there is evidence that motion-induced information is not as effective in human perception as Gibson's theory requires. Checking the classical theory of perception Three lines of ongoing research. from the very beginning looked like the most suitable for testing or correcting the classical theory. Perceptual development in infancy. At nek-ry biological kinds really there are touch structures, to-rye directly react to a number of signs of depth. As far as man is concerned, research perceptual abilities of babies pushed back in time the stage at which, as previously thought, babies become perceptually competent. One of the results of these studies. was the discovery of the constancy of size in the perception of children, the Crimea was only a few weeks old. But doubts are often expressed about the purity of such results, since by the time the experiments were carried out, the infants already had too much experience in B. third dimension to provide strong evidence for the innate mechanisms of V. remoteness and size in humans. Since it is extremely difficult to conduct evidence-based research with very young children, the method of perceptual relearning has often been proposed as a substitute, with Krom using a transformed sensory input (or, more specifically, optical transformation of the retinal image). Adaptation to transformations of the retinal image. Helmholtz argued that if the perceptual reaction to c.-l. the stimulus was innate and could not be changed by training. To date, a vast amount of research has been carried out. adaptation (along with aftereffects) to the altered relationship between sensory input and physical. world, as well as between the action and the sensory display of its result. Although the results of these studies are important in themselves, they cannot serve as proof of the acquisition of c.-l. specific perceptual response, since the assumption that relearnability is a direct refutation of innateness has no basis. B. direction (or the position of a point in the visual field) is indeed innately determined in chickens - prisms cause them to shift the direction of pecking even in the absence of visual experience at the time of the experiment - however, they also show adaptation and aftereffects if they wear prisms long enough. Exploratory studies of the channels of primary processing of complex sensory features. In a person who looks at a waterfall for a long time, the sensitivity to the streams of water falling down decreases (adaptation), and the motionless stones sticking out of it begin to seem to be moving upwards (aftereffect). Such phenomena have long been used as evidence for the existence of motion detection neurons, in this case downward motion detectors, the sensitivity of which was (due to fatigue) reduced relative to upward motion detectors. Now we have reliable - direct and indirect - evidence of the existence of such sensory mechanisms. In recent years, many other types of sensory processing channels have been proposed, each sensitive to one of the complex properties of stimulation, from edge and shadow shape detectors to grid detectors with a specific cell size ("spatio-frequency channels"), through The visual system produces a Fourier analysis of the retinal image. And yet, along the way, no actual evidence of the concrete contribution of such mechanisms to our perception of the world has been found; and the very discovery of sensory detectors did not help simplify V.'s theory by refusing to consider the components of the inference underlying the classical theory, because these components are also directly provable. Evidence of the intellectual organization of perception Three main. experimental lines. data define the upper boundaries of the area in which our perceptions of the world can still be fully explained as direct sensory reactions. Perceptual links and calculations. According to the classical theory, certain perceived properties, such as the size and distance of an object, cannot vary independently; they bind in pairs and change in concert, so that they cannot be explained solely by the operation of sensory mechanisms or only by a specific stimulation pattern. In perception, such a linking of individual properties of the world has been demonstrated many times. And although the extent, nature, and structure of perceptual linkages have not yet been sufficiently studied, the very fact that it is always possible to demonstrate the existence of such processes resembling a logical conclusion or calculation limits our hopes for explaining B. in the form of a direct response to stimulation. Integration of a sequence of fleeting glances. It is well known that we can distinguish the fine details of an object only when its projection falls into the fovea - a small area in the center of the retina. The eyes make rapid aiming movements (called saccades) over various parts of the object being viewed, the scene being observed, or the text being read, providing the observer (or reader) with detailed information. Whenever the eyes make such movements, there is a corresponding shift in the image of any - really stationary - object on the retina. In this regard, two interrelated questions arise: why in our perception the world remains motionless with each such displacement of the retinal image, and how do we collect the contents of these successive fleeting glances into a single image of an object or scene? As for the first question, Helmholtz also suggested that according to Krom we are able to take into account the direction and extent of the movement made by the eye "on our orders", and this explanation, dressed in more or less modern. outfit, still remains viable. The second issue has not been given due attention until recently. Nevertheless, studying how people read, look at pictures, and how they manage to recreate the action space and construct events from a sequence of television and film frames, clearly shows that we use our knowledge of the world to store in memory an input signal in the form of a sequence of fleeting glances and to manage the perceptual examination of those areas that have not yet been examined. These abilities of ours simply cannot be explained as a direct response to stimulation. Response to short-term visual stimuli. Research using short-term visual stimuli presented with a tachistoscope show that the information read by sensory mechanisms, regardless of the complexity of the mechanisms involved, cannot be fully explained by what the subjects, according to their reports, managed to see with such a short exposure. Words or pictures that are more familiar to the observer, more expected by him, or more relevant to his interests and concerns, are found by him with a shorter exposure time. These effects, even if they do not have an unambiguous explanation, are clearly not in favor of understanding V. as a direct response to a stimulus. See also Contextual associations, Illusions, Perceptual organization, Unconscious inferences J. Hochberg

Perception

The process by which information about the world around us is translated into sensory experience of events, sounds, objects, etc. Perception is a combination of physiological processes associated with the activity of the sense organs and awareness processes that integrate and interpret sensory data coming from these organs. Two main explanations of the phenomenon of perception recognize the priority role of one of the above processes. The theory of direct perception emphasizes the importance of stimulus features in the performance of perception. For example, in visual perception, it is believed that the visual information entering the retina contains enough unambiguous information about the subject so that effective perception can take place with little or no further processing. For example, if you are standing in the middle of a freeway or on a railroad track (please don't do this!), you will notice that the parallel lines seem to converge in the distance. And the density of details increases. This textural density is key information for the brain to interpret converging lines, or densification of an object's texture, as its distance from the observer. An alternative theory of backward processing considers the final product of our perception as "constructed", that is, built from a combination of information that is contained in the stimulus itself, as well as our expectations and hypotheses (guesses). The perceptual process includes the comprehension of various units of information coming from the senses. A key aspect of this theory of perception is the premise that, due to the essential role of hypotheses and expectations, perception is often subject to error (see Illusions). The theory of direct perception is often criticized for failing to explain the various incidents where perception turns out to be erroneous. However, the fact that perceptions are usually correct presents a problem for a theory that emphasizes the importance of hypotheses and expectations in the perceptual process. The compromise position proposed by Neisser in 1976 is that the relative importance of forward and backward processing is determined by the circumstances under which perception takes place. In most cases, perception is the combined product of both processes.

This is the process of reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena of the real world in their integrity, in the aggregate of their various properties and parts, and with their direct impact on the senses.

In the formation of perception, motor components, the life experience of the individual, memory, volitional efforts and attention, interests, goals and the person take part.

Perception arises based on sensations, but it is not reduced to their simple sum (in such cases, the process is said to be non-additive). This is a qualitatively new, more complex mental process compared to sensation. Perception is aimed at recognizing the identification features of the perceived object and building its copy (model) in the mind. The result of perception is a holistic perceptual image of an object, and not its individual properties, information about which is given to a person by sensations. This, however, does not mean that all its small details are perceived together with the integral image of the object.

There are two models of image formation in the process of perception:
- stimulus, "purely", asserting that the appearance of the image of an object is caused only by its reflection in the mind when stimuli are exposed to sensory channels;
- activity, stating that the image that a person perceives is not so much the result of the reaction of the psyche to stimuli, but rather the result of the subject’s continuous construction of perceptual hypotheses that are “counter” to the reflected environment (a person, using his experience, seems to foresee the main properties of the perceived object).

The complexity of studying perception as lies in the fact that of all the influencing signs in the human mind, only the leading ones are reflected, and the insignificant ones remain outside the perception. This is due not only to the features of the object, but also to the fact that it is in the object that is of interest to the individual, for what purpose the individual is involved in the process of perception, what are his preliminary attitudes towards perception.

Recognition of an object as one of the components of perception depends on a person's life experience, his knowledge about this object. For example, a familiar word can be restored (perceived) literally upon presentation of one or two of its constituent letters, while an unfamiliar one will require much more letters for this.

Perception sometimes requires concentration of attention on an object and certain. This is especially true for cases where the interest in the object of the individual is small or there is no awareness of the need to study the object. Of course, the study and recognition of an object through the process of perception cannot take place without the connection of memory and thinking. Indeed, in this case, complex processes of comparing the features of the object with the standards stored in the long-term person, mental analysis and synthesis of the system of these features and decision-making are carried out.

It is important that information for this comes simultaneously from many senses (sight, hearing, smell, etc.). In particular, a significant contribution to the formation of the image of a perceived object is made by motor components through the eyes, pronunciation of sounds, and palpation. The auditory analyzer helps in perception to navigate in the spatial position of the source of information.

Finally, the perceptual process extends to higher levels of mental activity, such as. After all, a person thinks ... in words. Highlighting the leading features of the perceived object, he discusses, designates them with a word.

Thus, perception is an ordered system of active perceptual actions, formed in the course of the life of an individual.

general characteristics. Perception is a reflection in the human mind of integral complexes of properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at a given moment on the senses. Perception differs from sensations in that it reflects the entire set of properties of an object, and forms its integral image. Perception is based on the relationship of the sensory and the individual, is the result of the functioning of the system of analyzers. Primary analysis, which takes place in the receptors, is supplemented by the complex analytical and sensory activity of the brain sections of the analyzers.

Perception is based on two types of neural connections: 1st - formed within the same analyzer; 2nd - interanalyzer.

Thanks to the connections formed between analyzers, we reflect and perceive such properties of objects or phenomena for which there are no specially adapted analyzers (for example, the size of an object, specific gravity, etc.).

A set of analyzers that provide a given act of perception. In this case, one analyzer can be the leading one, and the rest can complement the perception of the object.

Perception and action. Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating its copy. Any perception includes a motor (motor) component that contributes to the isolation of an object from the surrounding background, in the form of palpation of an object, eye movement, and larynx movement. Therefore, the process of perception is considered as a perceptual activity of the subject.

Basic properties of perception. The main ones as a cognitive mental process include: objectivity, which is expressed in the attribution of information received from the outside world: integrity, reflecting the fact that perception is always a holistic image of an object, and not a reflection of its individual properties; structurality, manifested in the fact that a person perceives a generalized structure that is actually abstracted from sensations: the meaningfulness of perception, determined by understanding the essence of an object; constancy of perception - the relative constancy of images of objects, in particular, their shape, color. Values ​​at change of conditions of perception; selectivity is manifested in the predominant selection of individual objects and depends on the interests and attitudes of the PERSON.

Spaces. The perception of space includes the perception of the size, shape, relative position of objects, their topography, distance and direction.

The perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena or events.

The perception of movements is a reflection of the direction and speed of the spatial existence of objects.

Illusions of perception. appear in an inadequate reflection of the perceived object. The most studied are the illusory effects observed in the visual perception of two-dimensional contour images - the so-called "optical-geometric illusions", which consist in an apparent distortion of the relationship between image fragments (equal lines seem unequal, etc.). The phenomenon of brightness contrast belongs to another class of illusions (for example, a gray stripe on a light background seems darker than on a black one).

Through the senses, a person perceives the world around him in all its diversity. This is not only sensory knowledge of the world, but also an emotional attitude that is formed to what a person perceives. In psychology, there are many types of perception that need to be developed in children.

Perception occurs at various levels. First, at the level of the sense organs:

• The eyes perceive shapes, sizes, colors, etc.
• Ears hear sounds.
• The nose perceives odors.
• Language distinguishes tastes.
• The skin perceives the structure, consistency, hardness of the object, etc.

A person cannot perceive the world around him only at the level of the organism. Often a person shows his attitude to what he sees. It is formed at the level of emotions that he experiences when perceiving this or that object. For example, if a child is in pain, then what hurts him will cause him negative emotions.

A person's perception of the world around has many components, which will be revealed in more detail on the website of psychological assistance.

What is perception?

Perception is the result of the process of knowing a particular subject. What it is? This is a complete picture of what was contemplated by man. Here, specific features and characteristics of the object are highlighted, to which some relation almost always arises.

Perception depends on the intentions, desires, interests, mood of a person. There are many different objects, phenomena and people in the world around us. However, among all the diversity, a person singles out something specific, practically not noticing everything else. This is called selective perception, when a person focuses on what is most important to him at a given second.

On the one hand, this limits its possibilities. On the other hand, it helps to concentrate on important issues without being distracted by other problems. Much depends on the awareness of a person who pays attention to something specific or to the whole world around. However, this process cannot be constantly controlled, so a person often uses selective perception.

The main features of perception are:

• Structurality.
• Constancy.
• Illusion.
• Objectivity.
• Integrity.
• Selectivity.
• Apperception.
• Meaningfulness.

In other words, perception is called cognition, contemplation, evaluation, apperception, acceptance, perception.

Perception in psychology

In a primitive sense, perception in psychology was characterized as what a person receives from the outside world through the senses. However, experts continued to study this issue, focusing on the fact that a person perceives individual characteristics of objects, only with time becoming able to perceive them as a whole.

Mostly a person identifies specific qualities in those phenomena, objects or people that he perceives. Those characteristics that are essential to a person at the moment become significant. Either he is in recent times pays attention to them, or he constantly associates them with some events from the past, or he considers them to be essential.

If we turn to the perception of children, they often pay attention to those objects and people that are already familiar to them. They single out from the general mass what they are already familiar with in order to reach out precisely to this.

The mechanism of perception is carried out to a greater extent at the level of feelings. A person pays attention to what causes him strong feelings, excitement, sensations. Often, no more than 3 qualities of a particular object are perceived, which stand out against the general background. For a person, they are essential and characterize what he looks at.

If we are talking about the perception of a familiar object, then a person often again pays attention only to those qualities that he is already used to highlighting in it. If the perception occurs of an unfamiliar object, then a person studies it until he identifies 3-4 essential qualities that will stand out against the background of all the others and characterize the object, person, phenomenon. He will look for familiar objects to which he can attribute a new phenomenon.

For easier perception, a person gets used to highlighting the essential features of each object in order to attribute it to one group or another, regardless of the fact that all these objects may have different shapes, colors, smells, etc. This helps to spend less time on it. to analyze again the object the person is looking at.

A person's perception is also influenced by motivation, the tasks that are now set for him, emotions and attitudes.

Types of perception

Perception is divided into several types:

• Intentional perception is an attitude towards the study of a particular subject.
• Arbitrary - inclusion in the activity and implementation in the process of its implementation.
• Unintentional - occurs suddenly without prior setting of the task.
• Visual - perception through the organs of vision.
• Auditory - the perception of sounds and orientation in the surrounding world through the hearing organs.
• Tactile - perception of the world through tactile organs.
• Olfactory - the perception of smells through the respiratory organs.
• Taste - knowledge of the world through receptors located on the tongue.

The topic of considering perception involves observation, which is formed as a result of observing a specific object or phenomenon. The task is set, the activity is carried out purposefully, and the whole process is stretched in time. This helps to study the observed object after the expiration of time in its changes, transformations, development, etc.

• Visual perception of space is carried out through the organs of vision, which pay attention to the shape and size of the object.
• Perception of time.
• Perception of information. The level of susceptibility is affected by:

1. The meaning of the situation. The emotions evoked during perception affect the assessment that a person gives to circumstances.
2. Depth of understanding of the situation. The more a person understands what is happening, the less he dramatizes and worries.
3. Characteristics of an object, person, phenomenon.
4. Stereotypes are statements that are often inspired by other people, but allow a person to develop a certain attitude to what is happening in advance.
5. Unpredictability and misinformation.

The perception of man by man

A person lives among other people with whom he contacts and even creates relationships. Different people develop different communication, different relationships and different emotions arise. A person can be good, but in the eyes of others, he can be kind and evil, sociable and shy, beautiful and ugly, etc. There is only one person, but the perception of him by another individual is completely different. All people will say different things about the same person if they do not know the opinions of others.

The perception of a person by a person is based on such factors:

1. Appearance. Initially, external data are evaluated, as they say, "meet by clothes."
2. Posture.
3. Gait.
4. Gesticulation.
5. A culture of speech.
6. Behavioral patterns.
7. Behavior models.
8. Habits.
9. professional characteristic.
10. Moral and.
11. social status.
12. Significant qualities for a particular person.

Sometimes people evaluate each other by external signs, which should indicate the presence of specific qualities of character in an individual. For example, furrowed eyebrows should indicate the seriousness or fury of a person. However, sometimes appearances can be deceiving. A person can be completely different in character than his appearance suggests.

Also, people attribute to each other the qualities that are observed in their acquaintances, which the new person looks like. The interlocutor may be similar in appearance to your former love, which is why you attribute to him the qualities that were characteristic of your former partner.

Also, people evaluate each other at the level of linking social status with their character traits. A person in torn clothes will not seem successful and businesslike, although this can also be a deceptive opinion. The perception in this matter is influenced by standards, measures and social stereotypes about what certain people should be like.

Also, the quality of perception of a new person is affected by the information that is received before meeting him. So, for example, if you heard something bad about a person you do not know, then most likely you will show a negative attitude towards him at the time of the first meeting with him.

Also, people tend to have a negative attitude towards persons who belong to a different social group. Those who are lower in status are treated with disdain. Those who are higher in status are envied.

You should not divide a person into good and bad sides. A person cannot be good or bad, he is just the way he is. And it would be more correct to call the good and bad sides as “convenient” and “uncomfortable” characteristics that interfere with others, and not with himself. Something people are “comfortable” in a person, and they encourage it, and what is “uncomfortable” is criticized. In fact, a split personality occurs only because a person approves of something in himself, but something is not. Although there is nothing good and bad in it. There is simply it with certain qualities, characteristics and features. And they are neither good nor bad. They are present in a person for some reason that is known only to him.

Good qualities are what other people are “comfortable” with; bad - "uncomfortable". Is it possible to change a person's attitude to what is “uncomfortable” for him? If someone is "uncomfortable" about something in another person, this does not mean that this is a bad quality. Often the negative sides play a protective role, protecting a person from various kinds of stress.

It would be more appropriate to call the positive and negative sides as "helping" and "hindering". However, this issue must be decided by the person himself. He must decide for himself what "helps" him to live the way he wants, and what does not. And make a decision to change the “interfering” qualities in yourself to those that will “help” him.

Don't judge people! Take the person as a whole! Do not divide it into two halves - good and bad. Man is a whole being with certain qualities formed. They are neither good nor bad in and of themselves. They are just there. If something bothers you in another person, then no one forces you to communicate with him and start some kind of relationship. The focus should be shifted from “I want him (she) to become (s) ...” to “Do I want to communicate with a person the way he is now?”.

As long as you want to change the other (which is impossible!), making him more perfect, you rightfully (and deserve it!) Encounter resistance, aggression and insults. You are not a "parent" to teach him, and he is not a "child" to be taught. You are two adults who have the right to be who they are. Shift your focus to yourself and make an adult decision: do you want to be with this person, even if he will never change?

You are a single whole that can change everything in itself at its discretion, while deserving to be accepted by other people if they voluntarily want to communicate with you.

Development of perception in children

The perception of the surrounding world is manifested from birth. It's just that the baby is not yet able to control its own perception processes. Or as they grow older, active and understanding the world around them, children understand how it can be controlled. Although even this is not always controlled, it can be noted in adults, whose development of perception has reached its peak.

The development of perception occurs by itself, depending on the activity and living conditions of the child. Parents can influence this process by those educational norms and joint activities where the world around is discussed. If parents are involved with the child, then his perception is formed faster than in children whose development was not involved.

At primary school age, children do not recognize familiar people who are dressed in unusual outfits. They also perceive one quality of the object, on the basis of which they characterize it.

In middle school age, the child begins to correlate objects by size. At senior school age, the ratio of objects is carried out at the level of width, height, space and length.

The main feature of a child's perception is his ability to then reproduce what he saw with accuracy in size, color, etc. Attitude towards other people is determined by assessments. Children give especially harsh marks to those who are in constant contact with them. The perception of other children lies in the level of their popularity in the group. The more popular a child is in the group, the higher the rating given to him by other children.

Outcome

Each person has a perception, which is based on those senses with which he operates. If a certain sense organ distorts the surrounding reality, then a person forms an erroneous opinion until other people tell him what he should actually perceive. Perception leads to the following result - understanding of the surrounding world in all its diversity.

However, one should take into account the traps of one's own psyche, which can distort the information perceived from the outside:

• The first is public opinion. The majority can also make mistakes, especially if they are guided by stereotypes, and not by logical and sound reasoning. Often a person succumbs to public opinion, paying attention to the world around him with a certain predisposition (negative or positive).
• The second is your own desires. Often a person does not notice much while he is engulfed in his own desires. It is necessary to strive to achieve the goal, however, when the freedoms and rights of other people are not infringed upon, or actions do not contradict the laws of nature. Otherwise, the prognosis may become unfavorable: the lack of an achieved goal.
• The third is stereotypes and habits. The brain allows a person not to overwork, to look at the world in the way that is already habitual. However, in order to fully understand the situation, it is often necessary to go beyond the usual perception and begin to look at the circumstances in a different way.

The theme of perception is vast, which allows a person in many variations to perceive the world, which is the same for everyone, but different in the eyes of those who look at it.

Perception

Perception, perception(from lat. perception) is a cognitive process that forms a subjective picture of the world. This is a mental process, which consists in the reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct impact on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Perception is one of the biological mental functions that determine the complex process of receiving and converting information received with the help of the sense organs that form a subjective holistic image of an object that affects the analyzers through a set of sensations initiated by this object. As a form of sensory reflection of an object, perception includes the detection of the object as a whole, the distinction of individual features in the object, the allocation of informative content in it that is adequate to the purpose of the action, the formation of a sensory image.

Perception is much more than the transmission of neural impulses by the nervous system to certain areas of the brain. Perception also involves the subject's awareness of the very fact of stimulation and certain ideas about it, and for this to happen, it is first necessary to feel the "input" of sensory information, that is, to experience a sensation. In other words, perception is the process of comprehending the stimulation of sensory receptors. There is reason to look at perception as a task, which consists in focusing on sensory input, analysis and interpretation in order to create a meaningful representation of the world around us.

Perceptual Properties

• Objectivity - objects are perceived not as an incoherent set of sensations, but as images that make up specific objects.

• Structurality - the object is perceived by consciousness already as a modeled structure abstracted from sensations.

• Apperceptivity - perception is influenced by the general content of the human psyche.

• Constancy - the constancy of perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes.

• Selectivity - the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others.

• Meaningfulness - the object is consciously perceived, mentally called (associated with a certain category), belongs to a certain class

Reflection consists of the following steps:

1. Selection - selection of the object of perception from the information flow
2. Organization - an object is identified by a set of features
3. Categorizing and attributing to an object the properties of objects of this class

Constancy of perception

Constancy - the constancy of perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes, the ability to recognize the same object based on different sensory information (sensations). Perceived in different circumstances and conditions, the object is considered as one and the same. So, the brightness of an object as a quantity characterizing the reflected light changes if you move it from a dimly lit room to a room with good lighting. Nevertheless, when the proximal stimulus information changes, the object is considered as the same in both cases. You can highlight the constancy of such object properties as size, shape, brightness, color. The shape perception constancy is studied on an apparatus, the main elements of which are a standard square (with a side of 10 cm) and a measuring rectangle (10 cm wide). The standard square is always inclined towards the observer in the experiment, and the plane of the measuring rectangle must be perpendicular to the subject's line of sight. The height of the measuring rectangle can be changed by the subject using a special button. The subject is asked to choose the height of the measuring rectangle so that it has the same apparent shape as the tilted reference square. In the experiment, the slope of the reference square varies (25°, 30°, 35° and 40°). For each value of the inclination of the standard, the subject trims the height of the meter four times. Thus, data are obtained for calculating the constancy coefficient. Perception constancy is measured by the constancy coefficient according to the Brunswick-Thouless formula:

where is the height of the measuring rectangle, which was set by the subject in an effort to trim the visible forms of the measuring device and the standard, is the height of the standard square, where is the angle of inclination of the standard square.

The constancy of shape perception in experiments with inversion of the field of view using an invertoscope drops to zero, and in the process of adaptation it is restored, reaching the pre-experimental level. Experiments with inversion of the human visual field are carried out to study the mechanisms of constancy of visual perception.

One of the explanations for the constancy of perception is based on the distinction between perception and sensitivity (sensation). The perception of the actual properties of objects is a subjective mental process that connects sensations (sensory experience) of the properties of an object with other stimulus information.

An example of the Ponzo illusion. Both horizontal lines are the same size.

So the property of the size of an object is associated with the distance to the object, the brightness of the object is associated with illumination. A subjective mental process of perception that allows a person to recognize an object as the same even if it is located at different distances from it (in this case, the object has a different angular size - if it is at a great distance - a small angular size, if at a small distance - a large angular size) is in some cases accompanied by "regression to actual objects". Optical illusions are an example of regression to real objects as a consequence of the constancy of perception. Thus, the Ponzo illusion shows how the regression carried out by perception to real objects that are located in the three-dimensional world, in the case of a two-dimensional object - a drawing - makes a person perceive a horizontal segment at the converging ends of vertical lines as more longer than the segment located at the diverging ends of the same vertical lines, as if the latter is located "closer" to the observer.

Perception factors

External

• The size
• Intensity (physically or emotionally)
• Contrast (contradiction with the environment)
• Traffic
• Repeatability
• Novelty and recognition

Internal

A perceptual set is the expectation to see what should be seen from past experience. Needs and motivation - a person sees what he needs or what he considers important.

Having received an image, a person (or other subject) produces definition of the situation, that is, evaluates it, after which it makes a decision about its behavior.

Perception in zoopsychology

Perception is inherent mainly in higher living beings; in weak forms, which allow us to speak only of the rudiments of perception, something similar can be found in beings of the middle stages of evolution.

The mechanisms of social perception include: reflection, identification, causal attribution.

Perceptual Effects

Social perception has some special manifestations of perceptual inaccuracies called laws, effects, or perceptual errors.

• Effects of stereotyping:

• Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown features.
• Sequence Effects:

• The effect of primacy (the effect of the first impression, the effect of acquaintance) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the next.
• The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given more importance than all the information received about him earlier.

• Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personality trait.
• The effect of presence - the better a person owns something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.
• Advance effect - the lack of previously attributed non-existent virtues leads to disappointment.
• The effect of condescension - the leader exaggerates the positive features of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a conniving and, to some extent, democratic style).
• The effect of hyper exactingness - the head exaggerates the negative traits of subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for an authoritarian style leader).
• The effect of physiognomic reduction - a conclusion about the presence of a psychological characteristic is made on the basis of appearance features.
• Beauty effect - more positive traits are attributed to a more attractive person.
• The effect of expectation - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
• Intra-group favoritism - "their own" seem better.

• The effect of negative asymmetry of initial self-esteem - over time there is a tendency towards the opposite intra-group favoritism.

• Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the "other" treats him the way he treats the "other".
• The phenomenon of the assumption of similarity - a person believes that "their" relate to other people in the same way as he does.
• Projection effect - a person comes from the fact that others have the same qualities as him.
• The phenomenon of ignoring the informational value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.

Attribution

Attribution - attributing characteristics to oneself or another person.

Impression

Impression formation

Impression formation - the process of creating one's impressions of others.

Impressions are:

• patterns of behavior
• Abstraction

Experience Management

Experience Management - behavior aimed at shaping and controlling the impression of others about oneself.

Impression management tactics:

• Strengthening your own position
• Strengthening the position of the interlocutor

self-presentation - behavior aimed at creating a favorable or corresponding to someone's ideals impression of oneself.

According to Gordon's 1996 study, the success rate of impression management tactics is distributed as follows:

1. Presenting the interlocutor in the best light
2. Agree with the opinion of the interlocutor.
3. self-presentation
4. Combination 1-3
5. Service

Literature

• Organizational behavior / Gromova O.N., Latfullin G.R. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2008. - 432 p. - ISBN 978-5-91180-873-0
• K. Pribram. Brain languages. Experimental paradoxes and principles of neuropsychology / A.R. Luria .. - M .: Progress, 1975. - 464 p.

Notes

see also

Links

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

Synonyms:

• Feeling
• Feeling

See what "Perception" is in other dictionaries:

PERCEPTION- a continuous sequence of internal figurative representations arising in the cognitive system of living beings, reproducing sensory recognizable objects, events, states, etc. Initially, human knowledge has a sensual nature. Philosophical Encyclopedia

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perception- perception, understanding; perception, evaluation, contemplation, perception of the world, clarification, perception, apperception, reception Dictionary of Russian synonyms. perception, see understanding 2 Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical guide. M .: Russian ... ... Synonym dictionary

perception- PERCEPTION is a form of sensory cognition that is subjectively presented as direct and related to objects (physical things, living beings, people) and to objective situations (to the relationship of objects, movements, events). For… … Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

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Perception- PERCEPTION, a holistic reflection of objective reality as a result of the direct impact of objects of the real world on the human senses. Includes detection of an object as a whole, distinguishing between individual features in an object, highlighting in ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

PERCEPTION- a complex process of receiving and converting information that provides a reflection of objective reality and orientation in the surrounding world. As a form of sensory reflection of an object, it includes the detection of an object as a whole, the distinction of individual ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary Read more