Russian chemists have discovered the first "real" helium compound. Helium was forced to create a stable chemical compound

Lithium

Helium

Helium occupies the second position in the periodic table after hydrogen. The atomic mass of helium is 4.0026. It is an inert gas without color. Its density is 0.178 grams per liter. Helium is more difficult to liquefy than all known gases only at a temperature of minus 268.93 degrees Celsius and practically does not solidify. Cooled to minus 270.98 degrees Celsius, helium acquires superfluidity. Helium is formed most often as a result of the decay of large atoms. On Earth, it is distributed in small quantities, but on the Sun, where there is an intense decay of atoms, there is a lot of helium. All these data are, as it were, passport data and are well known.

Let's deal with the topologies of helium, and first we will determine its dimensions. Given that the atomic mass of helium is four times that of hydrogen, and the hydrogen atom is 1840 times heavier than an electron, we get the mass of a helium atom equal to 7360 electrons; hence the total number of ethereal globules in a helium atom is approximately 22,000; the length of the cord of the atom and the diameter of the original torus are respectively equal to 7360 and 2300 ethereal balls. In order to visualize the ratio of the thickness of the cord of the original torus of the helium atom and its diameter, let us draw on a sheet of paper with a pen a circle with a diameter of 370 millimeters, and let the trace from the pen have a width of one third of a millimeter; the resulting circle will give us the indicated representation. One electron (built-in ethereal balls) will occupy only 0.15 millimeters on the drawn circle.

The twisting of the original torus into the finished form of the helium atom occurs as follows. First, the circle is flattened into an oval, then into the shape of a dumbbell, then into a figure eight, and then the loops of the figure eight unfold so that an overlap occurs. By the way, the overlap of larger atoms is not formed, and this is explained by the fact that the length of the cord at the helium atom is not yet large, and when the midpoints of the cord tend to get closer, the edges (loops) are forced to unfold. Further, the edges will bend and begin to converge.

Up to this point, the topology of the helium atom, as we see, is similar to the topology of the atom of the hydrogen isotope - tritium, but if tritium did not have enough strength to close the edges (there was not enough length of its cord), then the helium loops move one on top of the other and thus close . In order to verify the reliability of the connection of the loops, it is enough to follow the location of their suction sides: for the inner loop it will be outside, and for the outer loop it will be from the inside.

It is very convenient to represent the topology of atoms in the form of wire models; to do this, it is enough to use a moderately elastic, but sufficiently plastic wire. The hydrogen atom will be depicted as an ordinary ring. Let's increase the length of a piece of wire four times (so many times the helium atom is heavier than the hydrogen atom), roll it into a ring, solder the ends and demonstrate the process of twisting the helium atom. When twisting, we must constantly remember that the bending radii should not be less than the radius of the ring, which is a hydrogen atom; it is, as it were, a condition set by the elasticity of the cord - torus shells. (In nature, we recall, the minimum radius was equal to 285 ethereal balls.) The accepted minimum bending radius determines the topology of all atoms; and one more thing: the consequence of the same bending radii will be the same sizes of suction loops (a kind of standardization of them), and therefore they form a stable valency, expressed in the ability to connect different atoms to each other. If the hinges had different sizes, their connection would be problematic.

Bringing the process of twisting the wire model of the helium atom to the end, we find that the overlapped loops are not pushed one on top of the other until they stop. More precisely, they would prefer to twist even further, but the elasticity of the cord, that is, the condition of the minimum radius, does not allow it. And with every attempt of the loops to move towards even further, the elasticity of the cord will throw them back; rebounding, they will again rush forward, and again the elasticity will throw them back; in this case, the helium atom will then shrink, then bloom, that is, a pulsation occurs. The pulsation, in turn, will create a standing thermal field around the atom and make it fluffy; so we came to the conclusion that helium is a gas.

Other physical and chemical characteristics of helium can also be explained on the basis of topology. Its inertness, for example, is indicated by the fact that its atoms have neither open suction loops nor suction channels: it is not able to combine with other atoms at all, therefore it is always atomic and practically does not harden. Helium has no color because its atoms do not have straight “sounding” sections of cords; and superfluidity arises from any lack of viscosity (sticking together of atoms), rounded shape and small size of the atom.

Like hydrogen, helium atoms do not have the same size: some of them are larger, others are smaller, and in general they occupy almost the entire weight space from hydrogen (tritium) to lithium following helium; the less durable isotopes of helium, of course, have already decayed long ago, but it is possible to count more than one hundred that exist at the present time.

In the periodic table, helium is better placed not at the end of the first period - in the same row with hydrogen, but at the beginning of the second period before lithium, because its atom, like the atoms of this entire period, is a single structure (single glomerulus), while how an atom of the next inert gas, neon, already looks like a paired structure, similar in this feature to the atoms of the third period.

Lithium occupies the third number in the periodic table; its atomic mass is 6.94; it belongs to the alkali metals. Lithium is the lightest of all metals: its density is 0.53 grams per cubic centimeter. It is silvery white in color with a bright metallic sheen. Lithium is soft and easily cut with a knife. In air, it quickly dims, combining with oxygen. The melting point of lithium is 180.5 degrees Celsius. Lithium isotopes with atomic weights 6 and 7 are known. The first isotope is used to produce the heavy isotope of hydrogen, tritium; another isotope of lithium is used as a coolant in the boilers of nuclear reactors. These are the general physical and chemical data of lithium.

Let's start the topology of lithium atoms again with an understanding of the dimensions of the original torus. Now we know that each chemical element, including lithium, has a large number of isotopes, measured in hundreds and thousands; therefore, the sizes of atoms will be indicated from ... to .... But what do these limits mean? Can they be determined exactly? Or are they approximate? And what is the ratio of isotopes? Let's say right away: there are no unambiguous answers to the questions posed; each time it is necessary to intrude into a specific topology of atoms. Let's look at these issues using the example of lithium.

As we have noticed, the transition from protium to helium, from the point of view of topology, occurs systematically: with an increase in the size of the initial torus, the final configuration of atoms gradually changes. But the physical and, especially, chemical properties of atoms in the transition from protium to helium change more than significantly, rather radically: from the universal attraction of protium to the complete inertness of helium. Where, on what isotope did this happen?

Such jumps in properties are associated with size jumps of isotopes. A large hydrogen atom (tritium), which takes on the shape of a helium atom, turns out to be radioactive, that is, fragile. This is due to the fact that its curved edges of the loops do not reach each other, and one can imagine how they flutter, rushing towards. They resemble the hands of two people in divergent boats, powerlessly trying to reach out and grapple. External etheric pressure will press on the consoles of fluttering loops of atoms so strongly that it will not lead to good; having received even a slight additional squeezing from the side, the consoles will break off - they will not withstand the sharp bend of the cord, and the atom will collapse; that's how it happens. Therefore, we can say that dips are observed among isotopes at the boundaries of existing physicochemical transitions: there are simply no isotopes there.

A similar gap exists between helium and lithium: if an atom is no longer helium, but not yet lithium, then it is fragile, and it has long been absent from terrestrial conditions. Therefore, the lithium isotope with an atomic weight of six, that is, with a torus cord length of 11 ethereal balls, is very rare and, as said, is used to obtain tritium: it is easy to break it, shorten it and get an isotope of hydrogen as a result.

Thus, we, it seems, have decided on the smallest size of a lithium atom: these are 11 bound electrons. As for its upper limit, there is some snag here: the fact is that, according to topology, the lithium atom does not differ much from the atom of the next beryllium atom (we will soon see this), and there are no isotopes of either element no failure. Therefore, for the time being, we will not indicate the upper limit of the size of the lithium atom.

Let us follow the formation of the lithium atom. The initial circle of a newly formed microvortex with the dimensions indicated above will tend to turn into an oval; only in lithium, the oval is very long: approximately 8 times longer than the diameter of the end rounding (future loop); it is a very elongated oval. The beginning of the clotting of the lithium atom is similar to the same beginning for large hydrogen atoms and for helium, but then a deviation occurs: the figure eight with an overlap, that is, with a turn of the loops, does not occur; further convergence of the long sides (cords) of the oval until they are in full contact is accompanied by a simultaneous bending of the ends towards each other.

Why is an eight with an overlap not formed? First of all, because the oval is very long, and even its full deflection in the dumbbell until the cords touch in the middle does not cause them to bend strongly; therefore, the potential for reversal of the extreme loops is very weak. And secondly, the beginning of the bending of the ends of the oval counteracts the turn to some extent. In other words: the active moment of forces tending to turn the end loops is very small, and the moment of resistance to the turn is large.

For clarity, we will use rubber rings, for example, those used in machine seals. If you pinch a ring of small diameter, then it will definitely curl into a figure eight with an overlap; and if you choose a ring of large diameter, then its pinching until the cords are in full contact does not cause a turn of the end loops. By the way: these rubber rings are also very convenient for modeling the topology of atoms; if, of course, there is a wide range of them.

The bending of the ends of the oval is caused, as we already know, by the disturbance of the ether between them: having slightly moved away from the ideally straight position, they will already be forced to come closer to full contact. This means that the ends cannot be bent in different directions. But with the direction of the bend, they have a choice: either so that the suction sides of the end loops are outside, or inside. The first variant is more probable, because the moment from the forces of repulsion of the rotating shells of the cord from the adjacent ether at the outer points of the loops will be greater than at the inner ones.

The approaching sides of the oval will very soon come into contact, the bow of the cords will spread from the center to the ends and stop only when loops with the minimum allowable bending radii are finally formed at the ends. Simultaneously occurring bends and mutual convergence of these loops lead to a collision of their vertices, after which their suction sides come into play: the loops, sucking, dive deep; and the process of formation of the configuration of the lithium atom is completed by the fact that the displaced loops abut their vertices against the paired cords exactly in the center of the structure. Remotely, this configuration of the atom resembles a heart or, more precisely, an apple.

The first conclusion suggests itself: the lithium atom begins when the tops of the paired primary loops that have dived into the structure reach the cords of the middle of the atom. And before that there was still not lithium, but some other element, which is now no longer in nature; its atom was extremely unstable, pulsated very strongly, was therefore fluffy and belonged to gases. But the atom of the very initial lithium isotope (we defined it as consisting of 11,000 bound electrons) also turns out to be not very strong: the bending radii of its loops are limiting, that is, the elastic cords are bent to the limit, and with any external impact they are ready to burst. For larger atoms, this weak point is eliminated.

Representing the image of a lithium atom based on the results of the topology, one can evaluate what happened. The two primary loops closed and neutralized, and the secondary loops on either side of the primary loops were also neutralized. The paired cords created a groove, and this groove runs along the entire contour of the atom - it is, as it were, closed in a ring - and its suction side turned out to be outside. From this it follows that lithium atoms can combine with each other and with other atoms only with the help of their suction grooves; a lithium atom cannot form a loop molecular compound.

Strongly convex suction troughs of lithium atoms can be connected to each other only in short sections (theoretically, at points), and therefore the spatial structure of lithium atoms connected to each other turns out to be very loose and sparse; hence the low density of lithium: it is almost two times lighter than water.

Lithium - metal; its metallic properties result from the peculiarities of the shapes of its atoms. It can be said in another way: those special properties of lithium, which are due to the special forms of its atoms and which make it physically and chemically different from other substances, are called metallic; Let's look at some of them:

electrical conductivity: it arises from the fact that the atoms are ring-shaped from paired cords, creating suction troughs, open outward, embracing the atoms along the contour and closing on themselves; electrons stuck to these grooves can freely move along them (we recall once again that difficulties arise when electrons are separated from atoms); and since the atoms are connected to each other by the same grooves, then the electrons have the ability to jump from atom to atom, that is, to move around the body;

thermal conductivity: elastically curved cords of an atom form an extremely rigid elastic structure, which practically does not absorb low-frequency large-amplitude (thermal) shocks of neighboring atoms, but transmits them further; and if there were no possible disturbances in their contacts (dislocations) in the thickness of the atoms, then the thermal wave would propagate with great speed;
brilliance: high-frequency low-amplitude impacts of light waves of the ether are easily reflected from the tensely bent cords of atoms and go away, obeying the laws of wave reflection; the lithium atom does not have straight sections of cords, therefore it does not have its own “sound”, that is, it does not have its own color - lithium is therefore silvery white with a strong shine on the sections;
plasticity: rounded lithium atoms can be connected to each other in any way; they can, without breaking, roll over each other; and this is expressed in the fact that a body made of lithium can change its shape without losing its integrity, that is, be plastic (soft); as a result, lithium is cut without much difficulty with a knife.

Using the example of the noted physical features of lithium, one can clarify the very concept of metal: metal is a substance composed of atoms with sharply curved cords forming contoured suction troughs open to the outside; atoms of pronounced (alkaline) metals do not have open suction loops and straight or smoothly curved cord sections. Therefore, lithium under normal conditions cannot combine with hydrogen, since the hydrogen atom is a loop. Their connection can only be hypothetical: in deep cold, when hydrogen solidifies, its molecules can combine with lithium atoms; but everything shows that their alloy would be as soft as lithium itself.

At the same time, we clarify the concept of plasticity: the plasticity of metals is determined by the fact that their rounded atoms can roll over each other, changing the relative position, but without losing contacts with each other.

Beryllium occupies the fourth position in the periodic table. Its atomic mass is 9.012. It is a light gray metal with a density of 1.848 grams per cubic centimeter and a melting point of 1284 degrees Celsius; it is hard and at the same time fragile. Structural materials based on beryllium are both light, strong, and resistant to high temperatures. Beryllium alloys, being 1.5 times lighter than aluminum, are nevertheless stronger than many special steels. They retain their strength up to a temperature of 700 ... 800 degrees Celsius. Beryllium is resistant to radiation.

In terms of its physical properties, as can be seen, beryllium is very different from lithium, but in terms of the topology of atoms, they are almost indistinguishable; the only difference is that the beryllium atom is, as it were, “sewn with a margin”: if the lithium atom resembles a tight suit of a schoolboy on an adult, then the beryllium atom, on the contrary, is a spacious suit of an adult on a child’s figure. The excess length of the cord of the beryllium atom, with the same configuration of it with lithium, forms a more gentle outline with bending radii exceeding the minimum critical ones. Such a “reserve” of curvature for beryllium atoms allows them to be deformed up to reaching the limit of filament bending.

The topological similarity of lithium and beryllium atoms indicates that there is no clear boundary between them; and it is impossible to say which is the largest atom of lithium and which is the smallest atom of beryllium. Focusing only on the tabular atomic weight (and it averages all values), we can assume that the cord of a medium-sized beryllium atom consists of approximately 16,500 bound electrons. The upper limit of the size of beryllium isotope atoms rests on the minimum size of an atom of the next element - boron, the configuration of which differs sharply.

The margin of curvature of the cords of beryllium atoms primarily affects their connection to each other at the moment of solidification of the metal: they are adjacent to each other not by short (dotted) sections, like in lithium, but by long boundaries; the contours of the atoms, as it were, adjust to each other, deforming and adhering to each other in the maximum possible way; so these connections are very strong. Beryllium atoms also show their strengthening ability in compounds with atoms of other metals, that is, in alloys in which beryllium is used as an additive to heavy metals: filling voids and sticking with their flexible grooves to the atoms of the base metal, beryllium atoms hold them together like glue, making the alloy is very durable. Hence it follows that the strength of metals is determined by the lengths of the stuck together sections of the suction troughs of atoms: The longer these sections, the stronger the metal. The destruction of metals always occurs along the surface with the shortest sticky sections.

The margin for bending radii of the cords of beryllium atoms allows them to be deformed without changing the connections between them; as a result, the whole body is deformed; this is an elastic deformation. It is elastic because in any initial state the atoms have the least stressed forms, and when deformed they are forced to endure some “inconvenience”; and as soon as the deforming force disappears, the atoms return to their original, less stressed states. Consequently, the elasticity of a metal is determined by the excess length of the cords of its atoms, which allows them to be deformed without changing the areas of interconnection.

The elasticity of beryllium is related to its heat resistance; it is expressed in the fact that the thermal motions of atoms can occur within the limits of elastic deformations that do not cause a change in the compounds of atoms among themselves; so in general the heat resistance of the metal is determined, as well as elasticity, excess lengths of cords of its atoms. The decrease in the strength of the metal at high heating is explained by the fact that the thermal movements of its atoms reduce the areas of their connections to each other; and when these areas completely disappear, the metal melts.

The elasticity of beryllium is accompanied by its fragility. Fragility can be considered in the general case as the opposite of plasticity: if plasticity is expressed in the ability of atoms to change their mutual positions while maintaining the connecting areas, then fragility is expressed, first of all, in the fact that atoms do not have such a possibility. Any mutual displacement of the atoms of a brittle material can only occur when their bonds are completely broken; these atoms have no other variants of compounds. In elastic materials (in metals), brittleness is also characterized by the fact that it is, as it were, jumping: a crack that has arisen as a result of excessive stresses spreads with lightning speed over the entire cross section of the body. For comparison: a brick under hammer blows can crumble (this is also fragility), but not split. The “jumping” brittleness of beryllium is explained by the fact that its atoms are not interconnected in the best way, and they are all stressed; and as soon as one bond is broken, the boundary atoms rapidly begin to “straighten up” to the detriment of connections with their neighbors; the ties of the latter will also begin to break down; and this process will take a chain character. Consequently, the fragility of elastic metals depends on the degree of deformation of the interconnected atoms and on the inability to change the bonds between them.

The radiation resistance of beryllium is explained by the same reserve in the size of its atoms: the cord of the beryllium atom has the ability to spring under a hard radiation impact, not reaching its critical curvature, and thereby remain intact.

And the light gray color of beryllium and the absence of a bright metallic luster, such as, for example, lithium, can be explained in the same way: light waves of the ether, falling on non-rigid cords of surface atoms of beryllium, are absorbed by them, and only a part of the waves is reflected and creates a scattered light.

The density of beryllium is almost four times greater than that of lithium only because the density of cords of its atoms is higher: they are connected to each other not at points, but in long sections. At the same time, in its continuous mass, beryllium is a rather loose substance: it is only twice as dense as water.

Three-dimensional structure of the Na2He compound

An international team of scientists from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Skoltech, Nanjing University and Stony Brook University, led by Artem Oganov, predicted and was able to obtain in the laboratory a stable compound of sodium and helium - Na 2 He. Similar compounds can occur in the bowels of the Earth and other planets, under conditions of very high pressure and temperature. Research published in the journal Nature Chemistry, a press release from the University of Utah also reports briefly on the article. It should be noted that the preliminary version of the work was posted by the authors in the form of a preprint in 2013.

Helium, like neon, is the most chemically inert element in the periodic table and hardly reacts due to its filled outer electron shell, high ionization potential, and zero electron affinity. For a long time, scientists have been trying to find its stable compounds, for example with fluorine (HHeF and (HeO)(CsF)), chlorine (HeCl) or lithium (LiHe), but such substances exist for a limited time. Stable helium compounds exist (these are NeHe 2 and [email protected] 2 O), however, helium there has practically no effect on the electronic structure and is associated with other atoms by van der Waals forces. However, the situation may change if you try to work at high pressures - under such conditions, noble gases become more active and form compounds, such as oxides with magnesium (Mg-NG, where NG is Xe, Kr or Ar). Therefore, it was decided to search for such compounds with helium.

The researchers conducted a large-scale search for possible stable compounds of helium with various elements (H, O, F, Na, K, Mg, Li, Rb, Cs, and so on) using the USPEX (Universal Structure Predictor: Evolutionary Xtallography) code developed by Oganov and his colleagues in 2004. It turned out that only sodium forms a stable compound with He at pressures available for laboratory experiments. Then it was decided to look for a stable compound of the Na-He system with a minimum enthalpy of formation (i.e., the most stable ones) at different pressures. Calculations show that this will be a Na 2 He compound. The formation reaction of this substance is possible at pressures above 160 GPa, while it will be exothermic, i.e. with heat release. At pressures below 50 GPa, the connection will be unstable.

Thermodynamic characteristics of the Na-He system at different pressures

To test the theoretical calculations, it was decided to try to obtain the predicted compound using diamond anvils heated by laser radiation. Thin plates of sodium were loaded into them, and the rest of the space was filled with gaseous helium. During the experiments, scientists took Raman spectra, in addition, the state of the system was monitored visually and using the method of synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The obtained data were then compared with those predicted on the basis of calculations.

Crystal structure of Na2He at 300 GPa (a,b) and distribution of electron density in it (c) a new relative of graphene, two forms of alumina that exist at high pressures, as well as for the first time "gluing" layers in a superconductor, which, as it turned out, is accompanied by loss of its superconducting properties.

Alexander Voytyuk

Lithium - Helium. The world of the nucleus of a chemical element.

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"History of Chemistry" - Agricola Mining. (The composition changes, because new substances are obtained - corrosion). Purpose: acquaintance with physical and chemical phenomena, the history of the development of chemistry. Periodic law of chemical elements 1869. Consolidation. Reformers. M 6. Formation of fog. Chemical. B 2. Decay of plant residues.

"World of Chemistry" - N. Analytical Chemistry. The transformation of substances, and those as a result of which new substances appear. Completed by the teacher of Chemistry MOU secondary school No. 24 (st. E. World of compounds. Sulfur. Cross and zero c). Hydrogen. Cross and zero a). We live in a world of substances built from atoms. in the organic world. Suvorosvskaya) Gashchenko Nikolai Grigorievich.

"Nanotechnologies" - Nanomedicine. Fullerenes. Introduction. Creation of "defect-free" high-strength materials, materials with high conductivity; III. At the moment, a y-transistor based on a nanotube and a nanodiode have been obtained. Nanotubes. The high-density memory model was developed by Ch. Diamond memory for computers. Part III. The characteristic size of an atom is a few tenths of a nanometer.

"Analytical Chemistry" - Plan of the report. Shirokova V.I., Kolotov V.P., Alenina M.V. Problems of harmonization of the terminology of analytical chemistry. Iupac, gost, iso. Principles of terminology harmonization. (Federation of European Chemical Societies). Analytical chemistry (definition). V.I.Vernadsky RAS.

"Development of chemistry" - Completed by: Uralbayeva K.A. Astana, 1st group. Eichi Negishi. Akira Suzuki. English chemists A. Todd and D. Brown substantiated the basic principle of the structure of RNA. Van't Hoff Jacob Hendrik (30.8.1852 - 1.3.1911). Richard Heck. Born August 13, 1918 in England. Frederick Sanger. Colloidal chemistry has become an independent discipline that arose at the border of physics and chemistry.

"Subject of chemistry" - Solid. Transformations of substances. The most famous alchemist in Europe was Albert von Bolstat (the Great). Substances formed by atoms of one chemical element are called simple. Chemistry studies. Select attributes for the following substances: COPPER, IRON, CLAY. Can be processed by hand. Formless. Substance - molecule - atom.

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Lithium occupies the third number in the periodic table; its atomic mass is 6.94; it belongs to the alkali metals. Lithium is the lightest of all metals: its density is 0.53 grams per cubic centimeter. It is silvery white in color with a bright metallic sheen. Lithium is soft and easily cut with a knife. In air, it quickly dims, combining with oxygen. The melting point of lithium is 180.5 degrees Celsius. Lithium isotopes with atomic weights 6 and 7 are known. The first isotope is used to produce the heavy isotope of hydrogen, tritium; another isotope of lithium is used as a coolant in the boilers of nuclear reactors. These are the general physical and chemical data of lithium.

As we have noticed, the transition from protium to helium from the point of view of topology occurs systematically: with an increase in the size of the initial torus, the final configuration of atoms gradually changes. But the physical and, especially, chemical properties of atoms in the transition from protium to helium change more than significantly, rather radically: from the universal attraction of protium to the complete inertness of helium. Where, on what isotope did this happen?

Such jumps in properties are associated with size jumps of isotopes. A large hydrogen atom (tritium), which takes on the shape of a helium atom, turns out to be radioactive, that is, fragile. This is due to the fact that its curved edges of the loops do not reach each other, and one can imagine how they flutter, rushing towards. They resemble the hands of two people in divergent boats, powerlessly trying to reach out and grapple. The external ethereal pressure will press on the consoles of the fluttering loops of atoms so strongly that it will not do any good; having received even a slight additional squeezing from the side, the consoles will break off - they will not withstand the sharp bend of the cord, and the atom will collapse; that's how it happens. Therefore, we can say that dips are observed among isotopes at the boundaries of existing physicochemical transitions: there are simply no isotopes there.

Let us follow the formation of the lithium atom. The initial circle of a newly formed microvortex with the dimensions indicated above will tend to turn into an oval; only in lithium, the oval is very long: approximately 8 times longer than the diameter of the end rounding (future loop); it is a very elongated oval. The beginning of the clotting of the lithium atom is similar to the same beginning for large hydrogen atoms and for helium, but then a deviation occurs: the figure eight with an overlap, that is, with a turn of the loops, does not occur; further convergence of the long sides (cords) of the oval until they are completely in contact is accompanied by a simultaneous bending of the ends towards each other.

The approaching sides of the oval will very soon come into contact, the bow of the cords will spread from the center to the ends and stop only when loops with the minimum allowable bending radii are finally formed at the ends. Simultaneously occurring bends and mutual convergence of these loops lead to a collision of their peaks, after which their suction sides come into play: the loops, sucking, dive deep; and the process of formation of the configuration of the lithium atom is completed by the fact that the displaced loops abut their vertices against the paired cords exactly in the center of the structure. Remotely, this configuration of the atom resembles a heart or, more precisely, an apple.

The first conclusion suggests itself: the lithium atom begins when the tops of the paired primary loops that have dived into the structure reach the cords of the middle of the atom. And before that there was still not lithium, but some other element, which is now no longer in nature; its atom was extremely unstable, pulsated very strongly, was therefore fluffy and belonged to gases. But the atom of the very initial lithium isotope (we determined it to consist of 11,000 bound electrons) also turns out to be not very strong: the bending radii of its loops are limiting, that is, the elastic cords are bent to the limit, andwith any external impact, they are ready to burst. For larger atoms, this weak point is eliminated.

electrical conductivity: it arises from the fact that the atoms are ring-shaped from paired cords, creating suction troughs, open outward, embracing the atoms along the contour and closing on themselves; electrons stuck to these grooves can freely move along them (we recall once again that difficulties arise when electrons are separated from atoms); and since the atoms are connected to each other by the same grooves, then the electrons have the ability to jump from atom to atom, that is, to move around the body;
thermal conductivity: elastically curved cords of an atom form an extremely rigid elastic structure, which practically does not absorb low-frequency large-amplitude (thermal) shocks of neighboring atoms, but transmits them further; and if there were no possible disturbances in their contacts (dislocations) in the thickness of the atoms, then the thermal wave would propagate with great speed;
brilliance: high-frequency low-amplitude impacts of light waves of the ether are easily reflected from the tensely bent cords of atoms and go away, obeying the laws of wave reflection; the lithium atom does not have straight sections of cords, therefore it does not have its own "sound", that is, it does not have its own color - lithium is therefore silvery white with a strong sheen on the cuts;
plasticity: rounded lithium atoms can be connected to each other in any way; they can, without breaking, roll over each other; and this is expressed in the fact that a body made of lithium can change its shape without losing its integrity, that is, be plastic (soft); as a result, lithium is cut without much difficulty with a knife.

At the same time, we clarify the concept of plasticity: The plasticity of metals is determined by the fact that their rounded atoms can roll over each other, changing their position, but without losing contacts with each other.

I hope everyone has visited the zoo at least once. You walk and admire the animals sitting in cages. Now we will also go on a journey through the amazing "zoo", only in the cells there will be not animals, but various atoms. This "zoo" bears the name of its creator Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev and is called the "Periodic Table of Chemical Elements" or simply "Mendeleev's Table".

In a real zoo, several animals with the same name can live in a cage at once, for example, a family of rabbits is placed in one cage, and a family of foxes in another. And in our "zoo" in the cell "sitting" atoms-relatives, in a scientific way - isotopes. What atoms are considered relatives? Physicists have established that any atom consists of a nucleus and a shell of electrons. In turn, the nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. So, the nuclei of atoms in "relatives" contain the same number of protons and a different number of neutrons.

At the moment, the last in the table is livermorium, inscribed in cell number 116. So many elements, and each has its own story. There are many interesting things in the names. As a rule, the name of the element was given by the scientist who discovered it, and only since the beginning of the 20th century have the names been assigned by the International Association of Fundamental and Applied Chemistry.

Many elements are named after the ancient Greek gods and heroes of myths, great scientists. There are geographical names, including those associated with Russia.

There is a legend that Mendeleev was lucky - he just dreamed of the table. Maybe. But the great French scientist Blaise Pascal once remarked that only prepared minds make random discoveries. And whoever had the mind prepared for a meeting with the periodic table, it was Dmitry Ivanovich, since he had been working on this problem for many years.

Now let's hit the road!

Hydrogen (H)

Hydrogen “lives” in cell number 1 of our zoo. So it was called by the great scientist Antoine Lavoisier. He gave this element a name hydrogene(from the Greek ὕδωρ - “water” and the root -γεν- “to give birth”), which means “giving birth to water”. The Russian physicist and chemist Mikhail Fedorovich Solovyov translated this name into Russian - hydrogen. Hydrogen is denoted by the letter H, it is the only element whose isotopes have their own names: 1 H - protium, 2 H - deuterium, 3 H - tritium, 4 H - quadium, 5 H - pentium, 6 H - hexium and 7 H - septium ( superscript denotes the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom).

Almost all of our Universe consists of hydrogen - it accounts for 88.6% of all atoms. When we observe the Sun in the sky, we see a huge ball of hydrogen.

Hydrogen is the lightest gas and, it would seem, it is beneficial for them to fill balloons, but it is explosive, and they prefer not to mess with it, even to the detriment of carrying capacity.

Helium (He)

Cell 2 contains the noble gas helium. Helium got its name from the Greek name for the Sun - Ἥλιος (Helios), because it was first discovered on the Sun. How did it work?

Even Isaac Newton found out that the light we see consists of separate lines of different colors. In the middle of the 19th century, scientists determined that each substance has its own set of such lines, just like each person has his own fingerprints. So, in the rays of the Sun, a bright yellow line was found that does not belong to any of the previously known chemical elements. And only three decades later, helium was found on Earth.

Helium is an inert gas. Another name is noble gases. Such gases do not burn, so they prefer to fill balloons with them, although helium is 2 times heavier than hydrogen, which reduces the carrying capacity.

Helium is the record holder. It passes from a gaseous to a liquid state, when all the elements have long been solid: at a temperature of −268.93 ° C, and does not pass into a solid state at normal pressure at all. Only at a pressure of 25 atmospheres and a temperature of -272.2 ° C does helium become solid.

Lithium (Li)

Cell number 3 is occupied by lithium. Lithium got its name from the Greek word λίθος (stone), as it was originally found in minerals.

There is a so-called iron tree that sinks in water, and there is a particularly light metal lithium - on the contrary, it does not sink in water. And not only in water - in any other liquid either. The density of lithium is almost 2 times less than the density of water. It doesn't look like metal at all - it's too soft. Yes, and he could not swim for a long time - lithium dissolves with a hiss in water.

Small additions of lithium increase the strength and ductility of aluminum, which is very important in aviation and rocket science. When lithium peroxide reacts with carbon dioxide, oxygen is released, which is used to purify the air in isolated rooms, for example, on submarines or spacecraft.

Beryllium (Be)

In cell number 4 is beryllium. The name comes from the mineral beryl - the feedstock for the production of beryllium metal. Beryl itself was named after the Indian city of Belur, in the vicinity of which it has been mined since ancient times. Who needed him then?

Remember the wizard of the Emerald City - the Great and Terrible Goodwin. He forced everyone to wear green glasses to make his city appear "emerald", and therefore very rich. So, emerald is one of the varieties of beryl, some emeralds are valued more than diamond. So in ancient times they knew why to develop deposits of beryl.

In the five-volume encyclopedia "The Universe and Mankind" of 1896, the edition about beryllium says: "It has no practical application." And much more time passed before people saw its amazing properties. For example, beryllium has contributed to the development of nuclear physics. It was after its irradiation with helium nuclei that scientists discovered such an important elementary particle as the neutron.

Truly unique is the alloy of beryllium with copper - beryllium bronze. If most metals “age” over time, lose strength, then beryllium bronze, on the contrary, “get younger” over time, its strength increases. The springs from it practically do not wear out.

Bor (V)

Bohr occupies cell number 5. It is not necessary to think that this element was named after the goalkeeper of the Danish football club "Akademisk" Niels Bohr, later a great physicist. No, the element got its name from the Persian word "burakh" or from the Arabic word "burak" (white), which denoted the compound of boron - borax. But I prefer the version that “beetroot” is not an Arabic, but a purely Ukrainian word, in Russian - “beet”.

Boron is a very strong material, it has the highest tensile strength. If the compound of boron and nitrogen is heated to a temperature of 1350 ° C at a pressure of 65 thousand atmospheres (this is now technically achievable), then crystals can be obtained that can scratch a diamond. Abrasive materials made on the basis of boron compounds are not inferior to diamond ones and, at the same time, are much cheaper.

Boron is usually introduced into alloys of non-ferrous and ferrous metals to improve their properties. Combinations of boron with hydrogen - boranes - are excellent rocket fuel, almost twice as effective as traditional ones. There is work for boron in agriculture: boron is added to fertilizers, because with its lack in the soil, the yields of many crops noticeably decrease.

Artist Anna Gorlach

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