The Golden Horde has long and reliably been associated with the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the invasion of nomads and the black streak in the history of the country. But what exactly was this public entity?

Start

It is worth noting that the name familiar to us today arose much later than the very existence of the state. And what we call the Golden Horde, in its heyday was called Ulu Ulus (Great Ulus, Great State) or (the state of Jochi, the people of Jochi) after Khan Jochi, the eldest son of Khan Temujin, known in history as Genghis Khan.

Both names quite clearly outline both the scale and the origin of the Golden Horde. These were very vast lands that belonged to the descendants of Jochi, including Batu, known in Russia as Batu Khan. Jochi and Genghis Khan died in 1227 (possibly Jochi a year earlier), the Mongol Empire by that time included a significant part of the Caucasus, Central Asia, South Siberia, Russia and Volga Bulgaria.

The lands captured by the troops of Genghis Khan, his sons and commanders, after the death of the great conqueror, were divided into four uluses (states), and it turned out to be the largest and most powerful, stretching from the lands of modern Bashkiria to the Caspian Gates - Derbent. The western campaign, led by Batu Khan, expanded the lands subject to him to the west by 1242, and the Lower Volga region, rich in beautiful pastures, hunting and fishing grounds, attracted Batu as a place for a residence. About 80 km from modern Astrakhan, Sarai-Batu (otherwise - Sarai-Berke) grew up - the capital of the Ulus of Jochi.

His brother Berke, who succeeded Batu, was, as they say, an enlightened ruler, as far as the then realities allowed. Berke, having adopted Islam in his youth, did not plant it among the subject population, but under him diplomatic and cultural ties with a number of eastern states significantly improved. The trade routes running by water and land were actively used, which could not but have a positive effect on the development of the economy, crafts, and arts. With the approval of the khan, theologians, poets, scientists, craftsmen came here, moreover, Berke began to appoint not noble fellow tribesmen, but visiting intellectuals to high government posts.

The era of the reign of the khans Batu and Berke became a very important organizational period in the history of the Golden Horde - it was during these years that the state administrative apparatus was actively formed, which remained relevant for many decades. Under Batu, simultaneously with the establishment of the administrative-territorial division, the possessions of large feudal lords took shape, a bureaucratic system was created and a fairly clear taxation was developed.

Moreover, despite the fact that the khan's headquarters, according to the custom of their ancestors, roamed the steppes for more than half a year together with the khan, his wives-children and a huge retinue, the power of the rulers was unshakable as never before. They set the main policy line, so to speak, and solved the most important, fundamental questions. And the routine and details were entrusted to officials and the bureaucracy.

Berke's successor, Mengu-Timur, concluded an alliance with two other heirs of the empire of Genghis Khan, and all three recognized each other as completely independent, but friendly sovereigns. After his death in 1282, a political crisis ensued in the Ulus of Jochi, since the heir was very young, and Nogai, one of Mengu-Timur's main advisers, actively sought to obtain, if not official, then at least actual power. For some time he succeeded, until the matured Khan Tokhta got rid of his influence, which required resorting to military force.

Rise of the Golden Horde

Ulus Jochi reached its peak in the first half of the 13th century, during the reign of Uzbek Khan and his son Dzhanibek. Uzbek built a new capital - Sarai-al-Jedid, promoted the development of trade and quite actively propagated Islam, not disdaining reprisals against recalcitrant emirs - governors of regions and military leaders. It is worth noting, however, that the bulk of the population was not obliged to profess Islam, this mainly concerned high officials.

He also very severely controlled the Russian principalities then subject to the Golden Horde - according to the Personal Chronicle, nine Russian princes were killed in the Horde during his reign. So the custom of the princes, summoned to the khan's headquarters for proceedings, to leave a will, found even more solid ground.

Khan Uzbek continued to develop diplomatic ties with the most powerful states at that time, acting, among other things, in the traditional way of monarchs - establishing family ties. He married the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, gave his own daughter to the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich, and his niece to the Egyptian sultan.

On the territory of the Golden Horde then lived not only the descendants of the soldiers of the Mongol Empire, but representatives of the conquered peoples - the Bulgars, Polovtsians, Russians, as well as immigrants from the Caucasus, Greeks, etc.

If the beginning of the formation of the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde in particular proceeded mainly by an aggressive path, then by this period the Ulus of Jochi had turned into an already almost completely settled state, extending its influence to a significant part of the European and Asian parts of the mainland. Peaceful crafts and arts, trade, the development of sciences and theology, a well-functioning bureaucracy were one side of statehood, and the troops of the khans and emirs subject to them were another, no less important. Moreover, the militant Genghisides and the top of the nobility now and then conflicted with each other, making alliances and conspiracies. In addition, holding the conquered lands and maintaining the respect of the neighbors required a constant display of military force.

Khans of the Golden Horde

The ruling elite of the Golden Horde consisted mainly of the Mongols and partly of the Kipchaks, although in some periods educated people from the Arab states and Iran found themselves in administrative positions. As for the supreme rulers - khans - practically all the holders of this title or applicants for it either belonged to the Genghisides family (descendants of Genghis Khan), or were connected with this very extensive clan through marriage. According to custom, only the descendants of Genghis Khan could be khans, however, ambitious and power-hungry emirs and temniks (military leaders close in position to the general) continually sought to advance to the throne in order to seat their protege on it and rule on his behalf. However, after the assassination in 1359 of the last of the direct descendants of Batu Khan - Berdibek - taking advantage of the disputes and strife of rival forces for six months, an impostor named Kulpa, who pretended to be the brother of the late khan, managed to seize power. He was exposed (however, the whistleblowers were also interested in power, for example, the son-in-law and first adviser of the late Berdibek, Temnik Mamai) and killed along with his sons - apparently, to intimidate potential applicants.

The Ulus of Shiban (western Kazakhstan and Siberia), which had separated from the Ulus of Juchi during the reign of Janibek, tried to establish its position in Saray-al-Jedid. The more distant relatives of the Golden Horde khans from among the eastern Jochid (descendants of Jochi) were actively engaged in the same. The result of this was a period of unrest, called in the Russian chronicles the Great Jail. Khans and pretenders succeeded each other one after another until 1380, when Khan Tokhtamysh came to power.

He descended in a straight line from Genghis Khan and therefore had quite legitimate rights to the title of ruler of the Golden Horde, and in order to reinforce the right by force, he entered into an alliance with one of the Central Asian rulers - Tamerlane, famous in the history of conquests. But Tokhtamysh did not take into account that a strong ally could become a most dangerous enemy, and after his accession to the throne and a successful campaign against Moscow, he opposed the former ally. This was a fatal mistake - Tamerlane, in response, defeated the Golden Horde army, captured the largest cities of Ulus-Juchi, including Saray-Berke, walked with an “iron heel” through the Crimean possessions of the Golden Horde and, as a result, inflicted such military and economic damage, which was the beginning the decline of a hitherto strong state.

Capital of the Golden Horde and trade

As already mentioned, the location of the capital of the Golden Horde was very advantageous in terms of trade. The Crimean possessions of the Golden Horde provided a mutually beneficial shelter for the Genoese trading colonies; sea trade routes from China, India, the Central Asian states and southern Europe also led there. From the Black Sea coast it was possible to get along the Don to the Volgodonsk portage, there by land way - to the Volga coast. Well, the Volga in those days, like many centuries later, remained an excellent waterway for merchant ships to Iran and the continental regions of Central Asia.

A partial list of goods transported through the possessions of the Golden Horde:

• fabrics - silk, canvas, cloth
• wood
• weapons from Europe and Central Asia
• corn
• jewels and gems
• fur and leather
• olive oil
• fish and caviar
• incense
• spices

Decay

Weakened over the years of unrest and after the defeat of Tokhtamysh, the central government could no longer achieve complete subjugation of all previously subject lands. The governors ruling in remote destinies seized the opportunity to almost painlessly get out from under the hands of the government of Ulus-Jochi. Even at the height of the Great Haunting in 1361, the eastern Ulus of Orda-Ezhena, also known as the Blue Horde, separated, in 1380 it was followed by the Ulus of Shiban.

In the twenties of the XV century, the process of disintegration became even more intense - the Siberian Khanate was formed in the east of the former Golden Horde, a few years later in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, ten years later the Kazan Khanate separated. Somewhere between 1440 and 1450 - the Nogai Horde, in 1441 - the Crimean Khanate, and later than all, in 1465 - the Kazakh Khanate.

The last Khan of the Golden Horde was Kichi Mukhamed, who ruled until his death in 1459. His son Akhmat took over the reins of power already in the Great Horde - in fact, only a small part of the vast Chingizid state.

Coins of the Golden Horde

Having become a settled and very large state, the Golden Horde could not do without its own currency. The economy of the state was based on a hundred (according to some sources, one and a half hundred) cities, not counting the many small villages and camps. For external and internal trade relations, copper coins were issued - pula and silver - dirhems.

Today, Horde dirhams are of considerable value to collectors and historians, since almost every reign was accompanied by the release of new coins. By the appearance of the dirham, experts can determine when it was minted. The pools, on the other hand, were valued relatively low, moreover, the so-called forced rate was sometimes set on them, when the coin was cheaper than the metal used for it. Therefore, the number of pools found by archaeologists is large, and their value is relatively small.

During the reign of the khans of the Golden Horde in the occupied territories, the circulation of their own, local money rather quickly disappeared, and Horde money took their place. Moreover, even in Russia, which paid tribute to the Horde, but was not part of it, pools were minted, however, differing in appearance and cost from the Horde. Sums were also used as means of payment - silver ingots, more precisely, pieces cut from a silver rod. By the way, the first Russian rubles were made in exactly the same way.

Army and troops

The main force of the Ulus-Jochi army, as before the creation of the Mongol Empire, was represented by cavalry "light in march, heavy in blow" according to contemporaries. The nobility, having the means for good equipment, made up heavily armed detachments. The lightly armed units used the technique of fighting horse archers - after inflicting significant damage with a volley of arrows, approaching and fighting with spears and blades. However, shock-crushing weapons were also quite common - maces, flails, six-blades, etc.

Unlike their ancestors, who managed with leather armor, at best reinforced with metal plaques, the warriors of Ulus Jochi for the most part wore metal armor, which speaks of the wealth of the Golden Horde - only the army of a strong and financially stable state can arm itself in this way. At the end of the XIV century, the Horde army even began to acquire its own artillery, which at that time very few armies could boast of.

culture

The era of the Golden Horde left no special cultural achievements to mankind. Nevertheless, this state was born as the capture of settled peoples by nomads. The own cultural values ​​of any nomadic people are relatively simple and pragmatic, since there is no way to build schools, create paintings, invent a way to make porcelain, or erect majestic buildings. But having moved to a largely sedentary way of life, the conquerors adopted many inventions of civilization, including architecture, theology, writing (in particular, Uighur writing for documents), and a more subtle development of many crafts.

Russia and the Golden Horde

The first serious clashes between the Russian troops and the Horde belong approximately to the beginning of the existence of the Golden Horde as an independent state. At first, Russian troops tried to support the Polovtsy against a common enemy - the Horde. The battle on the Kalka River in the summer of 1223 brought defeat to the poorly coordinated squads of Russian princes. And in December 1237, the Horde entered the lands of the Ryazan region. Then Ryazan fell, followed by Kolomna and Moscow. Russian frosts did not stop the nomads hardened in campaigns, and at the beginning of 1238 Vladimir, Torzhok and Tver were captured, there was a rout on the Sit River and a seven-day siege of Kozelsk, which ended with its complete destruction - along with the inhabitants. In 1240, a campaign against Kievan Rus began.

The result was that the Russian princes who remained on the throne (and survived) recognized the need to pay tribute to the Horde in return for a relatively peaceful existence. However, it was not really calm - intriguing against each other and, of course, against the invaders, the princes, in the event of any incidents, were forced to appear at the khan's headquarters to report to the khan in their actions or inaction. By order of the khan, the princes had to bring their sons or brothers with them - as additional hostages of loyalty. And not all the princes and their relatives returned to their homeland alive.

It should be noted that the rapid seizure of Russian lands and the impossibility of overthrowing the yoke of the invaders came largely from the disunity of the principalities. Moreover, some princes managed to take advantage of this situation to fight rivals. For example, the Principality of Moscow was strengthened by annexing the lands of two other principalities as a result of the intrigues of Ivan Kalita, Prince of Moscow. But before that, the princes of Tver sought the right to a great reign by all means, including the murder of the previous Moscow prince right at the khan's headquarters.

And when, after the Great Conquest, internal troubles began to increasingly distract the disintegrating Golden Horde from pacifying the recalcitrant principalities, the Russian lands, in particular, the Moscow principality, which had strengthened over the past century, began to increasingly resist the influence of the invaders, refusing to pay tribute. And most importantly, work together.

In the battle on the Kulikovo field in 1380, the united Russian troops won a decisive victory over the army of the Golden Horde led by the temnik Mamai, sometimes mistakenly called the khan. And although two years later Moscow was captured and burned by the Horde, the dominance of the Golden Horde over Russia was coming to an end. And at the beginning of the 15th century, the Great Horde also ceased to exist.

Epilogue

Summing up, we can say that the Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its era, born thanks to the militancy of nomadic tribes, and then disintegrated due to their desire for independence. Its growth and prosperity came during the reign of strong military leaders and wise politicians, but, like most invading states, it did not last long.

According to a number of historians, the Golden Horde not only had a negative impact on the life of the Russian people, but also unwittingly helped the development of Russian statehood. Under the influence of the culture of government brought by the Horde, and then to counteract the Golden Horde, the Russian principalities merged together, forming a strong state, which later turned into the Russian Empire.

At what stage of education do schoolchildren usually get acquainted with the concept of the "Golden Horde"? 6th grade, of course. The history teacher tells the children how the Orthodox people suffered from foreign invaders. One gets the impression that in the thirteenth century Russia experienced the same brutal occupation as in the forties of the last century. But is it worth so blindly drawing parallels between the Third Reich and the medieval semi-nomadic state? And what did the Tatar-Mongol yoke mean for the Slavs? What was the Golden Horde for them? "History" (6th grade, textbook) is not the only source on this topic. There are other, more thorough works of researchers. Let's take an adult look at a rather long time period in the history of our native fatherland.

Beginning of the Golden Horde

For the first time, Europe became acquainted with the Mongol nomadic tribes in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. The troops of Genghis Khan reached the Adriatic and could successfully move further - to Italy and to But the dream of the great conqueror came true - the Mongols were able to scoop up water from the Western Sea with a helmet. That is why the army of many thousands returned to their steppes. For another twenty years, the Mongol Empire and feudal Europe existed without colliding, as if in parallel worlds. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided his kingdom between his sons. This is how the Ulus (province) of Jochi appeared - the westernmost in the empire. If we ask ourselves what the Golden Horde is, then 1236 can be considered the starting point of this state formation. It was then that the ambitious Khan Batu (son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan) began his Western campaign.

What is the Golden Horde

This military operation, which lasted from 1236 to 1242, significantly expanded the territory of the Jochi Ulus to the west. However, it was still too early to talk about the Golden Horde. Ulus is an administrative unit in the great and it was dependent on the central government. However, Batu Khan (in the Russian chronicles Batu) in 1254 moved his capital to the Lower Volga region. There he established a capital. Khan founded the large city of Saray-Batu (now a place near the village of Selitrennoye in the Astrakhan region). In 1251, a kurultai took place, where Mongke was elected emperor. Batu came to the capital Karakorum and supported the heir to the throne. Other pretenders were executed. Their lands were divided between Möngke and Chingizids (including Batu). The term "Golden Horde" itself appeared much later - in 1566, in the book "Kazan History", when this state itself had already ceased to exist. The self-name of this territorial entity was "Ulu Ulus", which means "Grand Duchy" in Turkic.

Years of the Golden Horde

Showing allegiance to Khan Möngke served Bat well. His ulus received greater autonomy. But the state gained full independence only after the death of Batu (1255), already during the reign of Khan Mengu-Timur, in 1266. But even then, nominal dependence on the Mongol Empire remained. This exorbitantly expanded ulus included Volga Bulgaria, Northern Khorezm, Western Siberia, Desht-i-Kipchak (steppes from the Irtysh to the Danube), the North Caucasus and Crimea. In terms of area, public education can be compared with the Roman Empire. Its southern edge was Derbent, and its northeastern limit was Isker and Tyumen in Siberia. In 1257, a brother ascended the throne of the ulus (ruled until 1266). He converted to Islam, but, most likely, for political reasons. Islam did not affect the broad masses of the Mongols, but it made it possible for the khan to attract Arab artisans and merchants from Central Asia and the Volga Bulgars to his side.

The Golden Horde reached its peak in the 14th century, when Uzbek Khan (1313-1342) ascended the throne. Under him, Islam became the state religion. After the death of Uzbek, the state began to experience an era of feudal fragmentation. The campaign of Tamerlane (1395) drove the last nail into the coffin of this great but short-lived power.

End of the Golden Horde

In the 15th century, the state collapsed. Small independent principalities appeared: the Nogai Horde (the first years of the 15th century), Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan, Uzbek, the Central Power remained and continued to be considered supreme. But the days of the Golden Horde are over. The power of the successor became more and more nominal. This state was called the Great Horde. It was located in the Northern Black Sea region and extended to the Lower Volga region. The Great Horde ceased to exist only at the beginning of the sixteenth century, being absorbed

Rus and Ulus Jochi

The Slavic lands were not part of the Mongol Empire. What is the Golden Horde, the Russians could only judge by the extreme western ulus of Jochi. The rest of the empire and its metropolitan splendor remained out of sight of the Slavic princes. Their relations with the ulus of Jochi at certain periods were of a different nature - from partnership to openly slavish. But in most cases it was a typical feudal relationship between feudal lord and vassal. Russian princes came to the capital of the Jochi ulus, the city of Saray, and brought homage to the khan, receiving from him a "label" - the right to rule their state. The first to do this was in 1243. Therefore, the most influential and the first in subordination was the label on the Vladimir-Suzdal reign. From this, during the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the center of all Russian lands shifted. They became the city of Vladimir.

"Terrible" Tatar-Mongol yoke

The history textbook for the sixth grade depicts the misfortunes that the Russian people endured under the occupiers. However, not everything was so sad. The princes first used the Mongols in the fight against their enemies (or pretenders to the throne). Such military support had to be paid for. Then, at the time, the princes had to give part of their income from taxes to the khan of the Jochi ulus - their lord. This was called the "horde exit". If the payment was delayed, bakauls arrived, who collected taxes themselves. But at the same time, the Slavic princes ruled the people, and his life flowed as before.

Peoples of the Mongol Empire

If we ask ourselves the question of what the Golden Horde is from the point of view of the political system, then there is no definite answer. At first it was a semi-military and semi-nomadic union of Mongolian tribes. Very quickly - within one or two generations - the striking force of the conquering troops assimilated among the conquered population. Already at the beginning of the XIV century, the Russians called the Horde "Tatars". The ethnographic composition of this empire was very heterogeneous. Alans, Uzbeks, Kipchaks and other nomadic or sedentary peoples lived here permanently. The khans in every way encouraged the development of trade, crafts and the construction of cities. There was no discrimination based on nationality or religion. In the capital of the ulus - Sarai - in 1261 an Orthodox bishopric was even formed, the Russian diaspora was so numerous here.

There is one extremely interesting settlement in the Astrakhan steppes - the village of Selitrennoye. Its current history began with embarrassment: a few decades ago, the richest deposits of saltpeter were discovered here and they even wanted to build a plant, but it suddenly ended in the most amazing way. Surprised, geologists took a closer look - and realized that their deposit is just a colossal site of ancient nomadic tribes.
Historians and archaeologists laughed at the attempts to put a mine on the site of an ancient stable, then dug themselves - and gasped. For many kilometers around Selitrennoye there are traces of the ancient capital of the Golden Horde - the city of Sarai Batu.

I will start the tour not with a photo, but with a video. This is a trailer for the feature film "Horde" about St. Alexis, which was filmed in Selitrennoye (almost the entire population played in the crowd) and was released in September of this year:

On the basis of the scenery for the film, a museum complex was created, which now operates in Selitrennoye. It stands a little away from the real archaeological excavations of Sarai-Batu and historians visit there only during the annual professional holiday, which takes place on the river bank in the form of a large-scale musical show "Shovel-party".

The entrance to the complex itself is open to tourists, but I’ll note right away: it’s better to plan a trip here in late spring or early autumn, in the summer you will simply die here from the heat and you won’t be able to see all the most interesting things.

Saray-Batu is not only historical excursions around the recreated city, but also a large amount of interactive. Souvenir shops in the "oriental bazaar", security in medieval armor, a cafe in a camp tent - this is the minimum that meets tourists if the complex does not host a themed event.

In autumn, it is especially crowded here, various shows gather several thousand guests. They are brought in by local travel agencies, they come by public transport or personal. Here, for example, how the gathering of guests at the last rock festival looked from the outside:

There are even those who go on foot here, stopping for the night on the banks of the Volga or Akhtuba in a tourist tent. Someone makes fun of them, but it is they who most often come across old coins - the dimensions of the lost city were such that people regularly discover ancient monuments in the bare steppe under their feet.

By those standards, the city of Sarai-Batu was huge - it was located along the Akhtuba River for 10 kilometers, and the population was (according to various sources) up to one hundred thousand inhabitants. Apart from its administrative value, Sarai-Batu was known for its economic and commercial importance. Many artisans, gunsmiths, potters, glassblowers and jewelers lived in the city. There were all the necessary buildings and structures: sewerage, water supply, school, mosques and church, bazaar, cemetery and beautiful gardens and even central heating! Of particular value to Batu Khan was his khan's palace, decorated with gold.

But not so long stood the majestic city of Sarai-Batu on the banks of the Akhtuba. In 1282 the capital of the khanate was moved to Saray-Berke, and this marked the beginning of the end. And everything ended later, during the invasion of an even more cruel conqueror from Central Asia - Timur (Tamerlane). Having defeated the troops of the great khan, he ruined many cities of the Golden Horde, including Saray-Batu, plunging it into oblivion for centuries.

And many years passed before the first excavations began in the village of Selitrennoye, Kharabalinsky district of the Astrakhan region, revealing all the grandeur and luxury of the capital of the Golden Horde - Saray-Batu.

In Sarai-Batu, on the Selitrennoye settlement, many buildings with decorations, various glass, metal and ceramic products of that time, coins of ancient minting were found. It was planned to create an open-air museum complex at the Selitrennoye settlement at the excavation site.

And it’s still hard to believe that in these vast expanses of the steppe, near the village of Selitrennoye, there was a huge Golden Horde city of Sarai-Batu, which amazed travelers with its size and wealth, which is now buried under the ground, under our feet.

The history of nomadic peoples, their tribal associations and states, as well as relationships with settled neighbors, has attracted the attention of researchers since antiquity.

The study of various nomadic communities, based on the comprehensive involvement of sources, has recently made it possible to prepare a number of fundamental works on this complex issue.
Questions of the historical geography of nomadic unions and states allow us to give a clearer idea of ​​them not only in time but also in space. The possessions of nomads are often presented as endless expanses of endless steppes without landmarks familiar to settled residents. This picture changes dramatically in the course of a historical-geographical analysis of the entire complex of known sources.
The state territory and its internal structure gain clarity; boundary lines are emerging, settled settlements appear in the steppes, the movements of nomads acquire a strict pattern associated not only with the natural, but also with the social characteristics of society. The present work is devoted to elucidation of these aspects in relation to the Golden Horde.
The economic geography of the cities of the Golden Horde is an independent problem, the successful disclosure of which requires a more in-depth archaeological study of the numerous settlements of the 13th-14th centuries.
In chronological terms, the abstract covers a period clearly limited by two dates that are of key importance not only for the political history of the Golden Horde, but also for the territorial and geographical assessment of the state. The first date - 1243 - marks the beginning of the formation in the steppes between the Danube and the Irtysh of a new Mongolian state, the supreme power in which belonged to the house of the Jochids. The second date - 1395 - is the milestone that finally convinced contemporaries of the complete collapse of the military-political doctrine of the Genghisides and the inconsistency of the idea of ​​​​creating a world empire.
In the abstract, we will consider only a small part of the cities of the Golden Horde, on the study of which we can conclude what contribution the Golden Horde cities made to the development of civilization.

1. Cities of the Golden Horde and the economic geography of the state

For the historical geography of the Golden Horde, the issue of cities is of particular importance, since it is closely connected with a number of other important problems. Their appearance among the Mongols in the XIII-XIV centuries. was dictated by quite definite political and economic aspects of the development of the state.
Determination of the number of cities and clarification of their distribution over the vast territory of the state make it possible to judge the extent of the spread of settlement, shed light on some aspects of the internal administrative and political structure, answer a number of questions related to the economy (identification of trade and craft centers, caravan routes, etc.). ). Undoubtedly, the economic geography of the Golden Horde deserves consideration in a separate chapter, but the information available in the sources about it is very scarce and few, and besides, for the most part, it is closely linked with urban life. All this makes it possible to combine the two aspects of historical geography into a single complex.
The territory of the Golden Horde at the present time is no longer represented as endless steppe spaces, completely populated by nomads, where only occasionally small settlements are found.
Archaeological research carried out in recent years has largely supplemented the information contained in written sources about the Golden Horde cities. Along with this, numismatic data and preserved medieval geographical maps make it possible to concretize the materials obtained during excavations and identify archaeological sites with specific settlements. Since ancient times, the Caspian and Black Sea steppes have been the habitat of nomads, and before the arrival of the Mongols, they did not know a developed urban culture. Several cities that appeared here during the time of the Khazar Khaganate, in their appearance "very much resembled an ordinary nomad camp."
At the beginning of the XIII century. these steppes were a huge nomadic island, surrounded on all sides by the settled civilizations of Russia, Volga Bulgaria, Khorezm, the North Caucasus and Crimea.
The new state that settled here in 1243 changed the existing picture in a short time. True, in the 40s the situation remained the same: at first, the Mongols used for their own purposes the cities that existed before their arrival, which were quite far from the actual steppe spaces. The most striking example in this regard is the Great Bulgar, where the minting of the first Golden Horde coins was started.
Plano Carpini, who traveled in 1246-1247. the entire Golden Horde from west to east and back, did not meet a single city or village on its way in the steppes. Six years after him, Rubruk also visited here, whose travel notes speak of the revived urban planning activities of the Mongols in the steppes themselves. He reports that he found a settlement on the left bank of the Don, inhabited by Russians, "who transport ambassadors and merchants in boats." This settlement was arranged by order of Batu himself. Rubruk goes on to note that he was informed of the existence of another similar settlement downstream, "where ambassadors cross over in the winter."
On the right bank of the Volga, the travelers found another settlement inhabited by Russians and Saracens, who were charged with carrying ambassadors across the river. If the location of two settlements on the Don can only be determined hypothetically, then the settlement seen by Rubruk on the Volga is identified with the Vodyansky settlement near the city of Dubovka, Volgograd Region. The appearance of three settlements at once on the largest rivers marks not only the beginning of urban development in the steppes, but also the laying of a new trade route that provided the necessary conveniences for merchant caravans. Returning from Mongolia in the autumn of 1254, Rubruk visited the capital of the Golden Horde, the city of Saray, founded by Khan Batu. His message is the earliest evidence of the existence of this city. The trade route led to the new capital, for which crossings across the Don and Volga were arranged. The fact that at that time it was already intensively used by foreign merchants is clearly evidenced by the arrival of the Italians of the Polo brothers in the Great Bulgar. Rubruk was also told that Batu's eldest son, Sartak, was building a new settlement with a large church on the right bank of the Volga. It is quite difficult to establish its exact location according to Rubruk, but, based on the context, we can conclude that it was located below modern Volgograd. This settlement, apparently, was supposed to play the role of the administrative center of the ulus that belonged to Sartak.
The information reported by Rubruk depicts the very initial stage of urban development in the Caspian and Black Sea steppes. Extremely characteristic in this regard is the remark of the traveler that building houses among the Mongols is considered a profitable occupation.
Significant changes in the urban planning policy of the Mongols took place during the reign of Berke, the formal impetus for which was the introduction of a new religion in the state - Islam. The cities of the Golden Horde, and primarily the capital, take on an "oriental" appearance, being built up with monumental buildings of mosques, minarets, madrasahs, caravanserais, etc. The artisans gathered in the Golden Horde from all enslaved countries brought with them architectural canons and construction techniques tested over the centuries, tested building materials and the technology of their production. A huge number of prisoners driven into slavery made it possible to carry out construction in a short time and on a large scale.
The khans who ruled after Berke did not pay so much attention to the construction of new cities, being content with the existing ones and their development. However, the general development and demands of the internal economic and political life of the state entered a phase when it was no longer possible to stop these processes. The indifference of the khans Mengu-Timur, Tuda-Mengu, Tulabuga and Tokta, who ruled after Berke (who refused to support Berke’s course of introducing the Muslim religion) to the expansion of existing and laying new cities, could only somewhat slow down their growth, but not stop it.
Urban planning and architecture reached a flourishing under Khan Uzbek and Dzhanibek, who succeeded him. The time of their reign is characterized by the growth of the territory of cities and the emergence of a significant number of new settlements. The largest of them was Sarai al-Jedid (New), founded by Uzbek in the early 30s of the XIV century. and later became the capital. The appearance in this period of large cities and smaller settlements leads to the emergence of vast settled areas in the steppes, stretching for tens of kilometers. The Volga coast is almost entirely built up with cities, towns and villages. Along the left bank of the river Akhtuba (from its very source to Sarai al-Dzhedid and beyond), a continuous strip of settled life appears, consisting of small cities, towns and castles of the aristocracy, surrounded by cultivated fields. An area of ​​the same size, significant in terms of territory, arises in the place where the Volga and Don are closest to each other. In some places, small craft villages grow up, apparently based next to the natural raw materials they need.
In the last years of the reign of Dzhanibek, and especially under his heir Birdibek, there was a gradual decline in urban development and its abrupt cessation with the onset of internal strife in the 60-70s of the XIV century.
With the accession of Tokhtamysh, feudal strife ceased, but even after that, urban life continued to slowly fade. The final blow to the Golden Horde cities was dealt in 1395-1396. Timur. After that, the vast majority of them remained lying among the steppes in ruins: there were no artisans, no means to restore them.
Based on the foregoing and the data of archaeological research, the following stages of urban development in the Golden Horde can be distinguished:
1. The period of restoration and use of old cities that existed before the arrival of the Mongols - the 40s of the XIII century.
2. The beginning of urban development in the steppes during the reign of Batu - the first half of the 50s of the XIII century.
3. The rise of urban planning under Burke - from the mid-50s to the mid-60s of the XIII century.
4. The period of slow growth of cities - from the 70s of the XIII century. until the beginning of the second decade of the 14th century.
5. The flourishing of urban planning under Uzbek and Dzhanibek - from the second decade to the 60s of the XIV century.
6. Attenuation and decline of urban planning - from the 60s of the XIV century. before 1395
Each of these periods reflects the main line of the political and economic development of the Golden Horde at a certain stage in its history. The initial stage of the emergence of cities has a pronounced political specificity of the formation and streamlining of the internal administrative system of the state, without which its existence as an integral organism would be impossible. In the further growth of individual cities and the general expansion of their network, economic factors associated with the development of foreign and domestic trade, handicraft production and the formation of certain economic regions come to the fore. The life of the vast majority of the Golden Horde cities was interrupted in a very short time - almost simultaneously, during Timur's second campaign against the Golden Horde. Suffice it to say that on the territory of the Caspian steppes, only two cities did not undergo destruction - Sarai (on Akhtuba) and Saraichik (in the Urals).
The chronological approach to the issues of the geography of the cities of the Golden Horde is currently rather difficult to apply, since the dates of the emergence of only a small number of them are known more or less accurately. Therefore, when specifically considering cities, it is most convenient to divide the territory of the state into several conditional historical and geographical regions. Each of them, to a certain extent, has its own economic features. A regional description of all known settlements of the Golden Horde will be made from its western border to the east.

2. Crimea

The entire Tauride Peninsula, from the time the Golden Horde was established here, received the name of the Crimean, was under the rule of the Mongols. However, its territory was quite clearly divided into steppe regions inhabited by nomads, and a mountainous part with a southern coast, where an exclusively settled population lived in cities and villages. This part of the peninsula enjoyed a certain political autonomy and had its own administration. Ethnically, most of the population of the southern coastal cities of Crimea were Greeks, followed by Armenians, Alans and Genoese. The economic interest of the Mongols in the development of Genoese trade in the Crimea served as a certain guarantee of maintaining their autonomy, although the Golden Horde khans repeatedly undertook military expeditions against the Italian colonies.
City of Crimea. Its remains are located on the site of the modern city of Stary Krym. The Golden Horde name of the city (Crimea) is known from written sources and coins minted in it. The Genoese called the city Solkhat. Rubruk, who traveled through these places from Sudak in 1253, does not mention anything about him. The first coins issued in the Crimea by Khan Mengu-Timur date back to 1267. By the 60s of the XIII century. The first written mention of the city in Arabic sources also refers, where it is reported that it is inhabited by Kipchaks, Alans and Russians. Thanks to the flourishing of the Genoese trade and the nearby Kafa, the Crimea quickly turns into a major trade and craft center. Ibn-Batuta, who visited it in the 30s of the XIV century, reports that it is a large and beautiful city, from which a road leads into the interior of the state with stations for changing horses located on it at certain intervals. From the time of foundation to the end of the XV century. Crimea was the administrative center of the entire peninsula. Archaeological research has confirmed the development and high culture of the city in the XIII-XIV centuries. Some of the monumental buildings of this period have partially survived to our time. The destruction of the city and its decline are associated with the campaign of Timur in 1395.
City of Kyrk-Er. Its remains are currently known as Chufut-Kale and are located near Bakhchisaray. During the XIII century. the city was an autonomous fief, semi-dependent on the Golden Horde. In 1299, it was destroyed by the troops of Nogai, after which its autonomy was liquidated and it became one of the Golden Horde cities of the peninsula. In the 15th century, after the decline of the city of Crimea, the administrative center of Girey was moved to Kyrk-Er for some time. Khan's labels and Russian diplomatic documents testify to this. Subsequently, after the emergence of Bakhchisaray (XVI century), Kyrk-Er finally lost its significance.
Other cities of the peninsula did not legally belong to the Golden Horde, but their actual dependence on the Mongols, both politically and economically, was very great. On the other hand, the Sarai khans were interested in the activities of the Italian trading colonies, which were an important link in relations between East and Western Europe. Without a description of these settlements, the picture of the urban life of the Crimean peninsula will be clearly incomplete.
Vosporo (Kerch). In the XIII century. this settlement was abandoned and did not play any significant role in the life of the peninsula. Visited it in the 30s of the XIV century. Ibn-Batuta tells about it very briefly, mentioning only the church that existed here. Around the same time, the Venetians established themselves in Vosporo, who were later replaced by the Genoese. The role of this settlement in the economic life of the peninsula was extremely small.
Cafe. The modern city of Feodosia. Until the 60s of the XIII century. was a small village. In 1266, the Mongols allowed the Genoese to establish a trading colony here, which in the XIV century. became the administrative center of all the Genoese possessions in the Northern Black Sea region. In the middle of the XIV century. the city is fortified with powerful stone walls and towers, which replaced the wooden ones. Visited here in the 30s of the XIV century. Ibn Batuta reports that the city was large, emphasizing that there were "up to 200 military and cargo ships, small and large" in the harbor. Furs, leathers, silks, expensive fabrics, oriental spices, and dyes were exported from here to Western Europe. Slaves constituted a special export article. According to Ibn-Batuta, the main population of the city were Christians (Genoese, Greeks, Armenians), but besides them, Muslims also lived here, who had not only mosques, but also their own judge. The Genoese city existed until 1475, when the Ottomans captured it: by this time there were only 300 Genoese here, and the bulk of the population consisted of Greeks and Armenians. Along with trade, various types of handicraft production were widely developed in the Cafe.

Cembalo (Balaklava). Until the middle of the XIV century. this city, with a very convenient harbor, belonged to the Principality of Theodoro. In the 50s of the XIV century. it was captured by the Genoese, who immediately began building fortifications here. The inclusion of Chembalo in the sphere of possessions of Kafa extended its control to the entire Crimean southern coast and significantly undermined trade competition from the rulers of Theodoro. The main role assigned to the new fortress was to limit the commercial and political activities of the princes Theodoro in the western part of the peninsula. This is confirmed by the attacks of the Genoese on another port of the Theodorites - Kalamita.
Theodoro. The capital of the small principality of the same name in the western Crimea; its remains are located on Mangup mountain. The rulers of the principality, in order to maintain their power, had to maneuver between the Mongols and the Genoese, the latter apparently representing a great danger. Despite this, the city and the principality existed until 1475, when the Ottomans invaded the Crimea.
The described settlements of the southern coastal strip of the Crimean peninsula include only large cities. In addition to them, along the coastline there were a significant number of small and medium-sized towns, villages and castles, which in the XIV century. were also in the possession of the Genoese. A.M. Berthier-Delagarde counted 32 such points from Kafa to Cembalo. All of them constituted a rural district of colonial cities, the population of which was engaged in agriculture.
The port cities of the peninsula remained the most important points of transit international trade throughout the 13th-14th centuries. As for the Golden Horde city of Crimea, its role in trade operations somewhat decreased in the 14th century. in connection with the emergence of a more convenient transit center at the mouth of the Don - Azak, where the Italian trading post also settled. Her appearance significantly reduced the path to Kafa, which now passed not through the steppes, but through the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov.

3. Volga region

This vast region, stretching from north to south from the Kama region to the Caspian coast, has played an important role in its political and economic life throughout the history of the Golden Horde. It was due not only to the appearance here of the administrative center of the entire state, but also to the existence of the most extended trade artery - the Volga, which connected regions of the forest and steppe zones that were very dissimilar in their economic potential. The Volga region with good reason can be considered the center of the city-planning culture of the state. Here the first Golden Horde cities arose, founded by the Mongols themselves; here new architectural forms and decorative design techniques were born and developed, which arose on the basis of the alloy and synthesis of the most diverse cultural and historical traditions. Here, finally, the largest number of settlements of the Golden Horde of various sizes were located. The northern part of the region under consideration included the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria, where urban planning had developed and established traditions that originated long before the Mongols appeared here. The repeated devastation of the Bulgar state by the Mongols led to the natural decline and disappearance of some ancient cities. others during the thirteenth century. survived a period of gradual restoration and development, and in the next century they turned into large trade and craft centers, known far beyond the Volga region. Here, in the Golden Horde period, completely new cities appeared, which testifies not only to the economic and political shifts that took place in this area, but also to the geographical displacements of local centers caused by them.
It is most convenient to describe the Golden Horde cities of the Volga basin from top to bottom downstream, starting from the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria, where in the XIII-XIV centuries. a number of Bulgarian cities that existed before the arrival of the Mongol conquerors were restored. At the same time, it is necessary to make a reservation that the described area was a zone of continuous settlement with numerous settlements of various sizes, the total number of which is close to 35 archaeological objects identified to date.
Bulgar city. Former capital of the Volga Bulgaria. After the Mongol conquest, in the initial period of the history of the Golden Horde, the city was assigned the role of one of the important political and economic centers of the state. This is evidenced by the message of Marco Polo and the beginning of the issuance of the first Golden Horde coins here. Many years of archaeological work on the study of the remains of the Bulgar gave a variety of evidence of the heyday of the city in the XIV century. The erection of various monumental public buildings made of stone and brick (baths, mosques, minarets, etc.) dates back to this period.
An Arabic chronicler testifies that the city was an important center of international trade, which was constantly visited by eastern merchants. The radius of action of local merchants was also not limited to the nearest district - they embarked on distant expeditions to Chulyman. Along with trade, a variety of handicrafts (metallurgical, jewelry, pottery, bone carving, leather, construction) received the widest development. The suburban port of Bulgar Aga Bazaar turned into a busy trading point where merchants from Russia, the Near and Middle East and Western Europe met.
The decline of the city begins in the 60s of the XIV century. and is associated with general internal unrest in the state. During the reign of Tokhtamysh, Bulgar failed to regain its former greatness and significance; The final desolation of the city occurs at the beginning of the 15th century. and is associated with the transfer of the political center of local lands to the north, to the right bank of the Kama.
City of Dzhuketau. It was founded by the Bulgars long before the arrival of the Mongols, who destroyed it. The restoration of the city led to the fact that in the XIV century. in this region, it becomes one of the major political centers along with Bulgar. Dzhuketau (Russian name Zhukotin) was located on the left bank of the river. Kamy, 4 km from the modern city of Chistopol of Tatarstan.
In the economic life of the city, apparently, its trade relations with the Urals were of particular importance. Archaeological research has revealed a layer of the end of the 13th-14th centuries, not very thick, but rich in finds.
City of Bilyar. Its remains are located near the modern village. Bilyarsk of Tatarstan, on the river. Bilyarka. Before the arrival of the Mongols, it was the largest city of the Volga Bulgaria, but in the Golden Horde time it lost its former significance, although coins were minted here for some period. The boundaries of the city XIII-XIV centuries. decreased significantly compared to the previous century.
City of Suvar. It was founded by the Bulgars and before the arrival of the Mongols it was one of the major cities of their state. Its remains are located near the village of Tatarsky Gorodok of Tatarstan. In the Golden Horde era, the city was partially restored, but it no longer played its former economic and political role.
City of Kashan. The remains of the city are located on the right bank of the Kama near the village. Shuran, Laishevsky district, Tatarstan. Based on archaeological research, the existence of the city dates back to the XII-XIV centuries. Kashan was the third largest city in the region (after Bulgar and Bilyar), representing one of the administrative centers of the Kama right bank. The final desolation of the city dates back to the end of the 14th century.
City of Kremenchuk. It was located on the right bank of the river. Kama near the village Russian Kirmen Mamadyshsky district of Tatarstan. Bulgar city, founded before the appearance of the Mongols. The highest flowering of Kremenchuk refers to the Golden Horde time. The city existed throughout the entire XIV century, its desolation refers to the very end of this century.
Settlement Iski-Kazan. It consists of two archaeological sites - the Urmat settlement and the Kamaevsky settlement - representing one settlement, which received the popular name Staraya Kazan (Iski-Kazan). The rest of the city is on the river. Kazanka, near the village Kamaevo Vysokogorsky district of Tatarstan. The settlement arose here before the appearance of the Mongols, but its heyday dates back to the second half of the 13th - mid-14th centuries. Judging by archaeological finds, the city in this period was a developed trade and craft settlement, which played a prominent role in the area of ​​the Kama right bank.
Barskoe-Naruska settlement and ancient settlement. Located near the village of Barskoye Yenaruskino, Aksubaevsky district of Tatarstan. They make up a single urban complex (the area of ​​the ancient settlement is over 30 thousand square meters, the settlement area is over 600 thousand square meters), which reached its greatest development in the 14th century. Judging by the area of ​​the settlement, it was one of the significant urban centers of the region. The ancient name of the city is unknown
Kokryatskoye settlement. It is located on the right bank of the river. Ducks, near the village Kokryat, Staromoynsky district, Ulyanovsk region It represents the remains of one of the significant cities in the region (the area of ​​the settlement exceeds 700 thousand square meters). The ancient name of the city is not exactly known, presumably the chronicle Tukhchin is localized here.
Kazan. One of the late Golden Horde cities, the emergence of which was caused by a number of internal political processes that took place in the state in the second half of the 14th century. Finding out the date of the founding of Kazan is of particular importance for understanding the historical and geographical changes that took place on the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria during the events of the "great memorial".
That is why it is necessary to consider the issue comprehensively, having analyzed all existing versions. According to one of them, the city appeared at the end of the 12th century, according to another - under the Golden Horde Khan Batu (1242-1255); the third relates its occurrence to the second half of the 14th century. To this it should be added that sometimes the foundation of modern Kazan is associated with the time of the emergence of the aforementioned Iski-Kazan. The archaeological monument, which received the name Iski-Kazan in the oral folk tradition, is located 45 km from modern Kazan, i.e. is an independent city, the date of foundation of which is not related to the time of the emergence of Kazan.
It is interesting in connection with the issue under consideration about the emergence of Kazan in the XII century. consider the general political situation in which the Bulgarian state of that time was. According to chronicles, the Russian princes throughout this century undertook a number of major campaigns against Bulgaria, ending with the capture and destruction of the Bulgar settlements and cities. The largest of them belong to 1120, 1172 and 1184. One of the organizers of the active anti-Bulgarian policy was Andrei Bogolyubsky, in connection with which some researchers note the interest of the Bulgars in the elimination of this prince and their support for the conspiracy against him.
Such an active anti-Bulgarian orientation of Russian politics in the XII century. led to the fact that the main territory of the Volga Bulgaria was in Zakamye and its expansion went exclusively to the south. This was noted by A.P. Smirnov and is confirmed by the archaeological research of the Predkamye by N.F. Kalinin, who came to the conclusion about the development of the Pre-Kama region by the Bulgars mainly in the XIII-XIV centuries. The latest data of R.G. Fakhrutdinov do not contradict this, testifying to a very weak population of the Bulgars in the XII century. river basin Kazanka.
One of the characteristic indicators of the tangibility of military strikes from the north for the Bulgars is the transfer in the XII century. the capital of the state from Bulgar to Bilyar,162) located in the depths of the Bulgarian land and away from the Volga, along which Russian troops usually came.
The meager information of the sources makes it possible to judge the tense internecine struggle within the Volga Bulgaria itself. This is evidenced by the involvement of one of the Bulgar princes of the Polovtsy as accomplices in the struggle against another feudal lord. Constant threats of attacks from the north and internal strife in no way contributed to the XII century. the development of significant territories by the Bulgars on the right bank of the Kama and especially along the Volga. During this period, the development of the ancestral Kama lands could be carried out by them only in areas significantly remote from the Volga, the coast of which was very restless militarily.
When considering this issue, the materials of medieval cartography are also of interest. One of the most detailed maps of the area, compiled in the middle of the XIV century. Italian merchants Pitsigani, places the Bulgarian cities exclusively in the Trans-Kama region and along the Kama. To the north of the Kama, on the banks of the Volga, there is only one city - Kostroma. Kazan is missing both on the map of the Catalan atlas of 1375 and on the Fra Mauro map of the early 15th century.
From what has been said above, it follows with certainty that the founding of Kazan in the 12th century. is not confirmed either by sources or by analysis of the political situation of that time. There are no direct reports in written sources about attributing the emergence of Kazan to the time of the reign of the Golden Horde Khan Batu.
During the reign of Batu, a gradual revival of urban life really begins, the development of which was interrupted by the Mongol invasion. Batu founded his capital, Saray, on the Lower Volga; in the steppes, especially at crossings over large rivers, small settlements appeared, populated by Russians and Bulgars driven here. However, the initial period of Batu's rule is characterized not by the laying of new, but by the restoration of old cities in connection with the urgent need to create a settled administrative center of the state as soon as possible. Batu temporarily chose the city of Bulgar as this center, where the minting of the first Golden Horde coins began. Since that time, the city has been rapidly developing, which is confirmed by written and archaeological sources. Bulgar XIII-XIV centuries. was a recognized international trade center on the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria; there was no other center like it in this region of the Volga.
The absence of convincing arguments in favor of the emergence of Kazan in the XII or XIII centuries. reduces the essence of the issue to the most accurate specification of the time of the founding of the city during the XIV century. Its indisputable existence in the XIV century. confirmed by reliable chronicle evidence. The earliest of them is contained in the Rogozhsky chronicler under 1391 when describing the campaign of the Ushkuyns who plundered Dzhuketau and Kazan. This message is repeated in the Simeon Chronicle and the Moscow Code of 1479. The second time Kazan appears in the Novgorod IV Chronicle under 1395 when describing a large campaign of Russian troops, accompanied by the defeat of Bulgar, Dzhuketau, Kazan, Kremenchuk. Thus, in the last decade of the XIV century. Kazan seems to be a fortress or a city, the importance of which could no longer be underestimated by the Russian troops.
For the arrangement of his residence and the administrative center of the possessions, the then ruling Khan Hassan chose a place not far from the mouth of the current Kazanka River, 120 km north of Bulgar. The founding of the city here had two undeniable advantages for that time. First, the city received on the river. Kazanka exit to the Volga and actually was on it. Secondly, it was invisible from the Volga, as it was separated from it at a distance of several kilometers. There is no second place, equally convenient and meeting such requirements, in this region of the Volga left bank.
The new city, founded by Prince Hasan in 1370, received the name of its founder. This custom was widespread among the Volga Bulgars.
Somewhat later, in the process of the formation of the Tatar language, the name of the city of Khasan was transformed into the now familiar Kazan.
We can also mention an extremely interesting stone gravestone found near Kazan and dated presumably to the end of the 13th century. Its text is largely corrupted, the date is erased, but the surviving fragments make it possible to read that "this is the burial place of the great and noble ruler, assistant to the rulers, emir honored ... victorious ... the pride of the family ... and faith, the shadow of the Lord of the worlds Hassan Bek son of Mir-Mahmud. In this epitaph, in addition to the name, the words "assistant of the rulers" attract attention, since Hasan was indeed a vassal of Muhammad Sultan, and through him, Mamaia. The elaboration and splendor of the title of the epitaph, as well as the use of the title "emir" is characteristic of the second half of the 14th century, when official office work and titles necessarily proceeded from Arab-Persian traditions. Some technical features of its execution also testify in favor of this date of the tombstone, for example, clear rectangles of lines separated from each other by blank stripes.
In general, the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria during the XIII-XIV centuries. It was an area of ​​continuous settlement with numerous villages and small towns, a significant part of which has been identified at the present time. The economic importance of this region was also increased by the fact that established trade routes converged here for the delivery of furs from the Urals, the Vyatka basin and the northern Volga. Numerous and diverse Russian goods flocked here, where Eastern merchants were waiting for them.
We have considered far from all the cities of the Golden Horde. There were many cities and settlements on the territory of modern Bashkiria, Chuvashia. It should be noted that their total number was undoubtedly greater than what is now revealed. Separate areas of this vast region have not yet been sufficiently studied in archaeological terms; some of the settlements are known only by mention, without any minimal description.
The special significance of the Volga in the development of the economy of that time was that it was not only an intrastate route that united individual uluses of the Golden Horde. It carried out large and constant international transportation of goods, linking the European north with the south. The traditional export items of the north (furs, linen, honey, wax, Bulgarian skins of special dressing, etc.) were in constant demand not only in the Golden Horde, but also far beyond its borders. Lower Volga region at the end of the XIII-XIV centuries. It was the most important hub of international transit trade, where two streams of a wide variety of goods merged. One of them came from the north, the second - from the east. Russian, Golden Horde, Eastern and Western European merchants constantly met here, developing mutually beneficial relations and in many ways contributing to the prosperity of the Volga cities.

Conclusion

The historical geography of the Golden Horde is a rather multifaceted topic, and an in-depth study of it will require considerable effort. One of the aspects of this development is connected with the most conspicuous question of the Golden Horde expansion, which was of a permanent and vital character for the ruling class.
Clarification of various historical and geographical aspects of the existence and development of the cities of the Golden Horde, of course, is of an auxiliary nature in the study of this state. However, consideration of such issues in many ways allows deepening and detailing the course of political history and economic development. The versatility of geographical realities covers, in fact, all the main components that make up the concrete-formal side of the existence of the state, and not only its internal state at a certain time, but also the nature of relationships with neighbors and the mutual influence exerted in this case. In this regard, the historical geography of the Golden Horde provides quite diverse material.
The cities of the Golden Horde served as trading havens for merchants from many countries. Caravans from Iran, Iraq, Persia, China, etc. passed along the "silk" route of the Golden Horde. These cities also served as a kind of exchange office. Naturally, such a circumstance forced the ruling elite to think about protecting their cities. Therefore, these cities were mostly fortified fortresses.
The culture of urban planning brought to the world beautiful monuments of the construction of mosques, cathedrals, fortresses. The city has become a symbol of prosperity, beauty and wealth.

List of used literature

1. Ballod F.V. Old and New Sarai are the capitals of the Golden Horde. - Kazan, 1993. - 414 p.
2. Cities of the Volga region in the Middle Ages. Medieval monuments of the Volga region. - M., 1996. - 522 p.
3. Grekov B.D., Yakubovsky A.Yu. Golden Horde and its fall. - M., 1990, - 404 p.
4. Nasonov A.N. Mongols and Russia. - M., 2000. - 612 p.
5. Safargaliev M.G. The collapse of the Golden Horde. - Saransk, 2000, - 216 p.

History of the Golden Horde.

Formation of the Golden Horde.

Golden Horde got its start as a separate state in 1224, when Batu Khan came to power, and in 1266 finally withdrew from the Mongol Empire.

It is worth noting that the term "Golden Horde" was coined by the Russians, many years after the khanate collapsed - in the middle of the 16th century. Three centuries earlier, these territories were called differently, and there was no single name for them.

Lands of the Golden Horde.

Genghis Khan, Batu's grandfather, divided his empire equally between his sons - and in general, her lands occupied almost an entire continent. Suffice it to say that in 1279 the Mongol Empire stretched from the Danube to the coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, from the Baltic to the borders of present-day India. And these conquests took only about 50 years - and a large part of them belonged to Batu.

Russia's dependence on the Golden Horde.

In the XIII century, under the onslaught of the Golden Horde, Russia surrendered. True, it was not easy to cope with the conquered country, the princes strove for independence, so from time to time the khans made new campaigns, devastating cities and punishing the recalcitrant. This went on for almost 300 years - until in 1480 the Tatar-Mongol yoke was finally thrown off.

Capital of the Golden Horde.

The internal structure of the Horde did not differ much from the feudal system of other countries. The empire was divided into many principalities, or uluses, ruled by small khans who were subordinate to one great khan.

Capital of the Golden Horde in the days of Batu was in the city Sarai-Batu, and in the XIV century was transferred to Shed-Berke.

Khans of the Golden Horde.

The most famous Khans of the Golden Horde- these are those from which Russia suffered the most damage and ruin, among them:

• Batu, from which the Tatar-Mongolian name began
• Mamai, defeated on the Kulikovo field
• Tokhtamysh, who went on a campaign to Russia after Mamai to punish the rebels.
• Edigei, who made a devastating raid in 1408, shortly before the yoke was finally thrown off.

Golden Horde and Russia: the fall of the Golden Horde.

Like many feudal states, in the end, the Golden Horde collapsed and ceased to exist due to internal unrest.

The process began in the middle of the XIV century, when Astrakhan and Khorezm separated from the Horde. In 1380, Russia began to raise its head, defeating Mamai on the Kulikovo field. But the Horde's biggest mistake was the campaign against the empire of Tamerlane, who dealt the Mongols a mortal blow.

In the XV century, the Golden Horde, once strong, split into the Siberian, Crimean and Kazan khanates. Over time, these territories obeyed the Horde less and less, in 1480 Russia finally got out of the yoke.

In this way, years of existence of the Golden Horde: 1224-1481. Khan Akhmat was killed in 1481. This year is considered to be the end of the existence of the Golden Horde. However, it completely disintegrated under the rule of his children, at the beginning of the 16th century.