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What characterizes society as a dynamic system? Question Basics
June 26, 2014Sociology is becoming an increasingly popular science, as is the section of social science studied at school. What's the secret? Of course, in the fact that society is becoming more modern and developing sciences related to the social sphere. Information technology has gone far ahead, but this does not negate the value of the humanities.
Society
What do we mean when we say the word "society"? There are so many values that you can write a whole dictionary. Most often, we call society the totality of people who surround us. However, there are also narrower meanings of this concept. For example, speaking about the stages of development of all mankind, we call the slave-owning society, emphasizing the type of system that existed at that time. Nationality is also expressed through this concept. Therefore, they talk about English society, noting its sophistication and stiffness. In addition, you can express and class affiliation. So, the noble society in the last century was considered the most prestigious. The goals of a group of people are expressed through this concept very clearly. Society for the Protection of Animals reflects a set of like-minded people.
What characterizes society as a dynamic system? And what is society? In a broader sense, society can be called the whole of humanity. In this case, it should be emphasized that this concept must necessarily combine the aspect of connection with nature and people with each other.
signs of society
What characterizes society as a dynamic system? This question is legitimate. And it arises because it is connected with the next aspect in the study of social science. To begin with, it is worth understanding what the term "system" means. This is something complex, denoting a collection of elements. They are simultaneously united and interact with each other.
Society is a very complex system. Why? It's all about the number of parts and the connections between them. Structural divisions play a primary role here. The system in society is open, as it interacts with what surrounds it, without any visible interference. Society is material because it exists in reality. And finally, society is dynamic. Society as a dynamic system is characterized by the presence of changes. 
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Elements
As mentioned above, society is complex and consists of various elements. The latter can be combined into subsystems. In the life of society, they can be distinguished not one, but four. If society as a dynamic system is distinguished by a sign of variability, then subsystems are equivalent to spheres of life. The economic side primarily reflects the distribution, production and consumption of goods. The political sphere is responsible for the relations between citizens and the state, the organization of parties and their interaction. The spiritual is connected with religious and cultural changes, the creation of new art objects. And the social one is responsible for the relationship between classes, nations and estates, as well as citizens of different ages and professions. 
social institution
Society as a dynamic system is characterized by its development. Besides, important role institutions play in this. Social institutions exist in all spheres of life, characterizing one or another side of it. For example, the very first "point" of a child's socialization is the family, a cell that transforms his inclinations and helps him live in society. Then a school stands out, where the child learns not only to understand the sciences and develop skills, but also learns to interact with other people. The highest step in the hierarchy of institutions will be occupied by the state as the guarantor of the rights of citizens and the largest system.
Factors
What characterizes society as a dynamic system? If it is change, what kind? First of all, quality. If a society becomes more complex in nature, it means that it is developing. It can be in different cases. The factors that influence this are also of two kinds. Natural reflects the changes that have occurred due to a change in climate, geographical location, a catastrophe of a corresponding nature and scale. The social factor emphasizes that the changes have occurred through the fault of people and the society in which they are members. Change is not necessarily positive. 
Ways of development
Answering the question of what characterizes society as a dynamic system, we pointed to its development. How exactly does it happen? There are two ways. The first is called evolutionary. It means that changes do not occur immediately, but over time, sometimes for a very long time. Gradually society is changing. This path is natural, as the process is due to a number of reasons. The other way is revolutionary. It is considered subjective because it happens suddenly. Not always the knowledge used for the action of revolutionary development is correct. But its speed clearly exceeds evolution.
ABOUT SOCIETY AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON, ITS ESSENCE, FEATURES AND STRUCTURE
As noted above, the object and subject of the study of sociology as a science is society and the diverse processes of cooperation, mutual assistance and rivalry of people united in large and small social groups and communities - national, religious, professional, etc.
A summary of this topic should begin with what constitutes a human society; what are its distinguishing features; what group of people can be called a society, and what - not; what are its subsystems; what is the essence of the social system.
With all the external simplicity of the concept of "society", it is unambiguously impossible to answer the question posed. It would be wrong to consider society as a simple collection of people, individuals with some of their original qualities that manifest themselves only in society, or as an abstract, faceless integrity that does not take into account the uniqueness of individuals and their connections.
In everyday life, this word is used quite often, widely and ambiguously: from a small group of people to the whole of humanity (Anatomical Society, Surgical Society, Belarusian Society of Consumers, Alcoholics Anonymous Society, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Society, Society of Earthlings, etc.).
Society is a rather abstract and multifaceted concept. It is studied by various sciences - history, philosophy, cultural studies, political science, sociology, etc., each of which explores only its inherent aspects and processes occurring in society. Its simplest interpretation is the human community, which is formed by the people living in it.
Sociology provides several approaches to the definition of society.
1. The well-known Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin, for example, believed: in order for a society to exist, at least two people with a certain relationship of interaction (family) are needed. Such a case would be the simplest kind of society or social phenomenon.
Society is not any mechanical aggregate of people, but such an association within which there is a more or less constant, stable and fairly close mutual influence and interaction of these people. “Whatever social group we take - whether it be a family, a class, a party, a religious sect or a state,” wrote
P. Sorokin, - they all represent the interaction of two or one with many or many people with many. The whole endless sea of human communication consists of interaction processes: one-way and two-way, temporary and long-term, organized and unorganized, solidary and antagonistic, conscious and unconscious, sensory-emotional and volitional.
The whole complex world of people's social life is divided into outlined processes of interaction. A group of interacting people represents a kind of collective whole or collective unity. The close causal interdependence of their behavior gives grounds to consider interacting persons as a collective whole, as one being made up of many people. Just as oxygen and hydrogen, interacting with each other, form water, which is sharply different from the simple sum of isolated oxygen and hydrogen, so the totality of interacting people is sharply different from their simple sum.
2. Society is a collection of people united by specific interests, goals, needs or mutual ties and activities. But even this definition of society cannot be complete, since in one society there can be people with different and sometimes opposite interests and needs.
3. A society is an association of people with the following criteria:
- the commonality of the territory of their residence, which usually coincides with state borders and serves as the space within which relationships and interactions of individuals of a given society are formed and developed (Belarusian society, Chinese society
and etc.);
– its integrity and stability, the so-called "collective unity" (according to P. Sorokin);
– a certain level of cultural development, which finds its expression in the development of a system of norms and values that underlie social ties;
– self-reproduction (although it can increase its numbers as a result of migration processes) and self-sufficiency guaranteed by a certain level of economic development (including through imports).
Thus, society is a complex, holistic, self-developing system of social interactions between people.
and their communities - family, professional, religious, ethno-national, territorial, etc.
Society as a complex, dynamic system has certain features, structure, stages of historical development.
1. Sociality, which expresses the social essence of people's lives, the specifics of their relationships and interactions (as opposed to group forms of interaction in the animal world). A person as a person can be formed only among his own kind as a result of his socialization.
2. Ability to maintain and reproduce high intensity socio-psychic interactions between people, inherent only in human society.
3. An important feature of society is the territory and its natural and climatic conditions, where various social interactions take place. If we take for comparison the way of producing material goods, the way of life, culture and traditions of different peoples (for example, the African tribes, small ethnic groups of the Far North or inhabitants of the middle zone), then it will become clear the great importance of territorial and climatic features for the development of a particular society, its civilization.
4. Awareness by people of the changes and processes taking place in society as a result of their activities (as opposed to natural processes that are independent of the will and consciousness of people). Everything that happens in society is carried out only by people, their organized groups. They create special bodies for the implementation of self-regulation of society - social institutions.
5. Society has a complex social structure, consisting of different social strata, groups and communities. They differ from each other in many ways: the level of income and education, the ratio
to power and property, belonging to different religions, political parties, organizations, etc. They are in a complex and diverse relationship of interconnection and constant development.
Nevertheless, all of the above features of society interact with each other, ensuring the integrity and sustainability of its development as a single and complex system.
Society is divided into structural components, or subsystems:
1. Economic subsystem.
2. political subsystem.
3. Sociocultural subsystem.
4. social subsystem.
Consider these structural components in more detail:
1. The economic subsystem of society (often called the economic system) includes the production, distribution, exchange of goods and services, the interaction of people in the labor market, economic
stimulation of various types of activities, banking, credit
and other similar organizations and institutions (studied by students
in course in economics).
2. The political subsystem (or system) is the totality socio-political interactions between individuals and groups, the political structure of society, the regime of power, the activities of government bodies, political parties
and socio-political organizations, political rights
and freedoms of citizens, as well as values, norms and rules governing the political behavior of individuals and social groups. Students get acquainted with this system in the course of political science.
3. Sociocultural subsystem (or system) includes education, science, philosophy, art, morality, religion, organizations
and cultural institutions, mass media, etc. It is studied in such courses as cultural studies, philosophy, aesthetics, religious studies, and ethics.
4. A social subsystem is a form of people's life activity, which is realized in the development and functioning of social institutions, organizations, social communities, groups and individuals and unites all other structural components of society. It is the subject of sociological research.
The interaction of the main subsystems of society can be represented
in in the form of a diagram (Fig. 3).
Society as an integral system
Rice. 3. The structure of society
The social subsystem of society, in turn, includes the following structural components: social structure, social institutions, social relations, social ties and actions, social norms and values, etc.
There are other approaches to determining the structure of society as a social system. Thus, the American sociologist E. Shils proposed the study of society as a certain macrostructure, the main elements
the cops of which are social communities, social organizations and culture.
In accordance with these components, society must be considered in three aspects:
1) as a relationship of many individuals. As a result of the interconnection of many individuals, social communities are formed. They are the main side of society as a social system. Social communities are real-life aggregates of individuals that form a certain integrity and have independence in social actions. They arise in the process of the historical development of society and are characterized by a variety of types and forms.
The most significant are socio-class, socio-ethnic, socio-territorial, socio-demographic, etc. (for more details, see separate topics of the manual).
Forms of interaction between people in social communities are different: individual - individual; individual - social group; individual - society. They are formed in the process of labor, practical activities of people and represent the behavior of an individual or a social group, significant for the development of the social community as a whole. Such social interaction of subjects determines the social ties between individuals, between individuals and the outside world. The totality of social ties is the basis of all social relations in society: political, economic, spiritual. In turn, they serve as the foundation for the functioning of the political, economic, spiritual and social spheres (subsystems) of the life of society.
At the same time, all spheres of society's life, any social community cannot function successfully, and even more so develop without streamlining, regulating relations between people in the process of their practical activities and behavior. To do this, society has developed a peculiar system of such regulation and organization of public life, its "tools" - social institutions. They represent a certain set of institutions - the state, law, production, education, etc. In the conditions of stable development of society, social institutions play the role of mechanisms for coordinating the common interests of various groups of the population and individuals;
2) the second most important aspect of society as a social system is social organization. It means a number of ways to regulate the actions of individuals and social groups to achieve certain goals of social development. In other words, social organization is a mechanism for integrating the actions of individuals and social communities within a particular social system. Its element is
They are social roles, social statuses of individuals, social norms and social (public) values (in a separate topic).
The joint activity of individuals, the distribution of social statuses and social roles are impossible without a certain governing body within the social organization. For these purposes, organizational and power structures are formed in the form of administration, as well as a managerial link in the form of managers and specialist managers. There is a formal structure of social organization with different social statuses, with an administrative division of labor according to the principle "leaders - subordinates";
3) the third component of society as a social system is culture. In sociology, culture is understood as a system of social norms and values fixed in the practical activities of people,
a as well as this activity. The main link in the social
and cultural systems are values. Their task is to serve to maintain the pattern of functioning of the social system. Norms in sociology are predominantly a social phenomenon. They mainly perform the function of integration, regulate a huge number of processes, and promote the implementation of normative value obligations. In civilized, developed societies, the basis of social norms is the legal system.
AT The focus of sociology is the question of the social role of culture in society - to what extent certain social values contribute to the humanization of social relations, the formation of a comprehensively developed personality.
MAIN STAGES OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIETY, ITS TYPES AND CONCEPTS
As noted above, society is a constantly evolving, dynamic system. In the course of this development, it goes through a series of historical stages and types, characterized by special distinctive features. Sociologists have identified several basic types of society.
1. The Marxist concept of the development of society, proposed in the middle of the XIX century. Marx and Engels, proceeds from the dominant role of the mode of production of material goods in determining the type of society. According to this, Marx substantiated the existence of five modes of production
and their corresponding five socio-economic formations successively replacing one another as a result of the class struggle
and social revolution. These are primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, bourgeois and communist formations. Although it is known that a number of societies have not gone through certain stages in their development.
2. Western sociologists of the second half of the 19th - mid-20th centuries. (O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, A. Toynbee and others) believed that there are only two types of societies in the world:
a) traditional (so-called military democracy) is an agrarian society
with primitive production, a sedentary hierarchical social structure, the power of landowners, an assembly of armed warriors; undeveloped science and technology, insignificant savings;
b) an industrial society, which takes shape gradually, replaces the traditional one as a result of great geographical and scientific and technical discoveries. A slow growth of technical progress begins, an increase in the productivity of agricultural labor, the emergence of a layer of merchants, merchants, and the formation of centralized states. The first bourgeois revolutions in Europe lead to the emergence of new social strata, as well as to the birth of the ideology of liberalism and nationalism, the democratization of society. The historical framework of this type of society - from the Neolithic era to the industrial revolution, carried out in different countries and regions at different times.
Industrial society is characterized by:
– urbanization, an increase in the proportion of the urban population to 60–80 %;
– the accelerated growth of industry and the reduction of agriculture;
– introduction of achievements of science and technology into production processes and increase in labor productivity;
– the emergence of new industries as a result of scientific and technological progress;
– increasing the share of capital accumulation in GDP and investing them in the development of production(15–20% of GDP);
– change in the structure of employment of the population (increase in the share of workers engaged in mental labor due to the reduction of unskilled, physical);
– growth in consumption.
3. Since the second half of the XX century. in Western sociology, the concepts of a three-stage typology of society appeared. R. Aron, Z. Brzezinski, D. Bell, J. Galbraith, O. Toffler and others proceeded from the fact that humanity in its historical development goes through three main stages and types of societies (civilizations):
a) pre-industrial (agricultural-handicraft) society, the main wealth of which is land. It is dominated by a simple division of labor, manufacturing. The main goal of such a society is power, a rigid authoritarian system. Its main institutions are the army, the church
cow, agriculture. The dominant social strata - the nobility, the clergy, warriors, slave owners, later - the feudal lords;
b) an industrial society, the main wealth of which is capital, money. It is characterized by large-scale machine production, scientific and technological progress, a developed system of division of labor, mass production of goods for the market, the development of the media, etc. The dominant layer is industrialists and businessmen.
c) post-industrial (information) society is replacing the industrial one. Its main value is knowledge, science, producing information. The main social stratum is scientists. Post-industrial society is characterized by the emergence of new means of production: information and electronic systems with billions of operations per second, computer technology, new technologies (genetic engineering, cloning, etc.); the use of microprocessors in industry, services, trade and exchange; a sharp reduction in the share of the rural population and an increase in employment in the service sector, etc. The correlation of various types of society is presented in Table. one.
Table 1 |
|||
Differences between traditional, industrial |
|||
and post-industrial types of society |
|||
signs | Type of society | ||
Traditional | Industrial | post-industrial |
|
(agrarian) |
|||
Natural | commodity economy | Development of the sphere |
|
management | economy | services, consumption |
|
Dominant | Agricultural | Industrial | Production |
economic sphere | production | production | information |
Manual labor | Mechanization and auto- | Computerization |
|
way of working | matizationproduction | production |
|
management | and management |
||
The main social | Church, army | Industrial | Education, |
institutions | corporations | universities |
|
priests, | businessmen, | Scientists, managers |
|
social strata | feudal lords | entrepreneurs | consultants |
The method of political | Military Democracy | Democracy | civil |
management | tia, despotic | society, |
|
control | self management |
||
The main factor | physical power, | capital, money | |
management | divine power | ||
Main | between higher | between labor | between knowledge |
contradictions | and lower | and capital | and ignorance |
estates | incompetence |
||
Alvin Toffler and other Western sociologists argue that developed countries from the 70s and 80s. 20th century experiencing a new technological
a revolution leading to the continuous renewal of social relations and the creation of super-industrial civilizations.
The theory of industrial and post-industrial society combines five trends in social development: technization, informatization, societal complexity, social differentiation and social integration. They will be discussed below in separate chapters of this publication.
However, it must be borne in mind that all of the above applies to developed countries. All the rest, including Belarus, are at the industrial stage (or in a pre-industrial society).
Despite the attractiveness of many ideas of a post-industrial society, the problem of its formation in all regions of the world remains open due to the exhaustibility of many biosphere resources, the presence of social conflicts, etc.
In Western sociology and cultural studies, the theory of the cyclic development of society is also distinguished, the authors of which are O. Spengler, A. Toynbee and others. It proceeds from the fact that the evolution of society is considered not as a rectilinear movement towards its more perfect state, but as a kind of , prosperity and decline, repeating again as it ends (the cyclic concept of the development of society can be considered by analogy with the life of an individual - birth, development, prosperity, old age and death).
Of particular interest to our students is the "healthy society theory" created by the German-American psychologist, physician and sociologist Erich Fromm (1900–1980). Having emigrated from Germany to the USA in 1933, he worked as a practicing psychoanalyst for many years, later he took up scientific activity, and since 1951 he became a university professor.
Criticizing capitalism as a sick, irrational society, Fromm developed the concept of creating a harmonious healthy society with the help of social therapy methods.
The main provisions of the theory of a healthy society.
1. Developing a holistic concept of personality, Fromm found out the mechanisms of interaction of psychological and social factors
in the process of its formation.
2. He derives the health of society from the health of its members. Fromm's concept of a healthy society differs from Durkheim's understanding, who allowed for the possibility of anomie in society (i.e., the denial by its members of basic social values and norms leading to social
al disintegration and subsequent deviant behavior). But Durkheim applied this only to the individual, not to society as a whole. And if we assume that deviant behavior may be characteristic
most members of society and lead to the dominance of destructive behavior, then we get a sick society. The stages of the "disease" are as follows: anomie → social disintegration → deviation → destruction
→ the collapse of the system.
AT In contrast to Durkheim, Fromm calls a healthy society
in in which people would develop their reason to such a degree of objectivity that allows them to see themselves, other people and nature in their true reality, to distinguish good from evil, to make their own choice. This would mean a society whose members have developed the ability to love their children, family, other people, themselves, nature, to feel unity with it, and at the same time - to maintain a sense of individuality, integrity and transcend nature in creativity, and not in destruction. .
According to Fromm, the goal set by him has so far been achieved by a minority. The challenge is to make the majority of society
in healthy people. Fromm sees the ideal of a healthy society in the transformation of all spheres of public life:
– in the economic field, there should be self-government of all employees of the enterprise;
– incomes should be equalized to such an extent as to ensure a decent life for various social strata;
– in the political sphere, it is necessary to decentralize power with the creation of thousands of small groups with interpersonal contacts;
– changes must simultaneously cover all other areas, since changes in only one have a destructive effect on changes
generally;
– a person should not be a means used by others or by himself, but feel himself the subject of his own strengths and capabilities.
Quite interesting is the theory of social change in society by T. Parsons. He proceeds from the fact that various systems of society are subject to evolution: the organism, personality, social system and cultural system as steps of a growing degree of complexity. Indeed, only those that occur in the cultural system are profound changes. Economic and political upheavals that do not affect the level of culture in society do not fundamentally change society itself. There are many examples of this.
Summing up the above, it should be noted that all scientific, technical and technological radical changes entail revolutions in other spheres of public life, but they are not accompanied by social revolutions, as Marx, Engels, Lenin argued. Class interests, of course, exist, contradictions also exist, but hired workers force property owners to make concessions, raise wages, increase incomes, which means
and raise living standards and well-being. All this leads to a reduction in social tension, smoothing out class contradictions and denying the inevitability of social revolutions.
Society as a social, dynamically developing system has always been, is and will be the most complex object of study that attracts the attention of sociologists. In terms of complexity, it can only be compared with the human personality, the individual. The society and the individual are inextricably linked and mutually determined one through the other. This is the methodological key to the study of other social systems.
IN SELF-CHECKING SURVEYS
1. What does human society mean?
2. What are the main approaches in defining the concept of "society"?
3. Name the main features of society.
4. Describe the leading subsystems of society.
5. Outline the structural components of the social system of society.
6. What theories of social development can you name?
7. Describe the essence of E. Fromm's "theory of a healthy society".
Literature
1. American sociological thought. M., 1994.
2. Babosov, E. General sociology / E. Babosov. Minsk, 2004.
3. Gorelov, A. Sociology / A. Gorelov. M., 2006.
4. Luman, N. The concept of society / N. Luman // Problems of theoretical sociology. SPb., 1994.
5. Parsons, T. The system of modern societies / T. Parsons. M., 1998.
6. Popper, K. Open society and its enemies / K. Popper. M., 1992. T. 1, 2.
7. Sorokin, P. Man, civilization, society / P. Sorokin. M., 1992.
Social science identifies a number of differences between the system of society and natural systems. Thanks to this, one can understand how the multi-level system of modern society operates and how all spheres of society are interconnected.
Society as a complex dynamic system: the structure of society
Society is characterized as a complex system, as it includes many elements, separate subsystems and levels. After all, we cannot talk about only one society, it can be a social group in the form of a social class, a society within one country, a human society on a global scale.
The main elements of society are its four spheres: social, spiritual, political and economic (material and production). And individually, each of these spheres has its own structure, its own elements and acts as a separate system.
For example, political sphere society includes parties and the state. And the state itself is also a complex and multi-level system. Therefore, society is usually identified as a complex dynamic system.
Another characteristic of society as a complex system is the diversity of its elements. The system of society in the form of four main subsystems includes ideal and material elements. Traditions, values and ideas play the role of the former, institutions, technical devices, and equipment play the role of material ones.
For example, economic sphere- it is both raw materials, and vehicles, and economic knowledge and rules. Another important element of the system of society is the person himself.
It is his abilities, goals and ways of development, which can change, that make society a mobile and dynamic system. For this reason, society has such properties as progress, change, evolution and revolution, progress and regression.
The relationship of economic, social, political and spiritual spheres
Society is a system of ordered integrity. This is a guarantee of its constant functionality, all components of the system occupy a certain place within it and are connected with other components of society.
And it is important to note that individually, not a single element possesses such a quality of integrity. Society is a peculiar result of interaction and integration of absolutely all components of this complex system.
The state, the country's economy, the social strata of society cannot have such a quality as society in itself. And multi-level links between the economic, political, spiritual and social spheres of life form such a complex and dynamic phenomenon as society.
It is easy to track the relationship, for example, socio-economic relations and legal norms on the example of the laws of Kievan Rus. The code of laws indicated the penalties for murder, and each measure was determined by the place a person occupies in society - by belonging to a particular social group.
Social institutions
Social institutions are considered to be one of the most important components of a society as a system.
A social institution is a set of persons who are engaged in a specific type of activity, in the process of this activity they satisfy a certain need of society. Allocate such types of social institutions.
SOCIETY
Society and nature
Culture and civilization
The most important institutions of society
society- This a certain group of people
Can be defined society and how big
society and nature.
Society and nature
culture
1. “Exactly
the question arose about legal protection of nature .
Legal protection of nature
.
.
Public relations
play an important role in the functioning of society public relations. This concept refers to the diverse connections that arise between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activity.
Material social relations are formed in the sphere of production, in the course of practical activity. Material relations are divided into production, environmental and office relations.
spiritual relationship are formed as a result of the interaction of people in the process of creating and disseminating spiritual and cultural values. They are divided into moral, political, legal, artistic, philosophical and religious social relations.
A special type of social relations are interpersonal(i.e. relationships between separate individuals).
Evolution and revolution
There are two main ways of change - evolution and revolution. Evolution comes from the Latin word for "unfolding" -
they are slow, constant changes in a previous state. The revolution(from the Latin turn, change) is a change in all or most aspects of public life, affecting the foundations of the existing social order.
At first glance, revolution differs from evolution only in the rate of change. However, in philosophy there is a point of view about the relationship between these two phenomena: the growth of quantitative changes in development (evolution) eventually leads to a qualitative change (revolution).
In this regard, the concept of evolution is close to the evolutionary path in social development. reform. Reform- this is a transformation, reorganization, a change in any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure.
Reforms in Marxism were opposed to political revolution, as an active political action of the masses, leading to the transfer of leadership of society into the hands of a new class. At the same time, revolutions were always recognized as a more radical and progressive way of transformation in Marxism, and reforms were viewed as half-hearted, painful for the masses, transformations, which in the majority were allegedly due to the potential threat of revolution. Revolutions are inevitable and natural in a society where timely reforms are not carried out.
However, political revolutions usually lead to great social upheaval and casualties. Some scientists generally denied the possibility of creative activity to revolutions. Thus, one of the historians of the 19th century compared the Great French Revolution with a hammer, which only broke the old clay molds, opening the already cast bell of the new social system to the world. That is, in his opinion, a new social system was born in the course of evolutionary transformations, and the revolution only swept away the barriers for it,
On the other hand, history knows reforms that led to fundamental changes in society. F. Engels, for example, called the "revolution from above" Bismarck's reforms in Germany. The reforms of the late 80s - early 90s can also be considered a “revolution from above”. XX century, which led to a change in the existing system in our country.
Modern Russian scientists have recognized the equivalence of reforms and revolutions. At the same time, revolutions were criticized as extremely inefficient, bloody, full of numerous costs and leading to dictatorship. Moreover, great reforms (i.e. revolutions from above) are recognized as the same social anomalies as great revolutions. Both of these ways of resolving social contradictions are opposed to the normal, healthy practice of "permanent reform in a self-regulating society."
Both reforms and revolutions treat an already neglected disease (the first - by therapeutic methods, the second - by surgical intervention. Therefore, constant innovation- as a one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptability of society to changing conditions. In this sense, innovation is like preventing the onset of a disease (i.e., a social contradiction). Innovation in this regard refers to the evolutionary path of development.
This point of view comes from opportunities for alternative social development. Neither the revolutionary nor the evolutionary path of development can be accepted as the only natural one.
Culture and civilization have long been identified. However Culture and civilization
already in the 19th century, the scientific meaning of these concepts differed. And at the beginning of XX
century, the German philosopher O. Spengler in his work “The Decline of Europe”
and completely opposed them. Civilization appeared to him as the highest stage of culture, on which its final decline takes place. Culture is a civilization that has not reached its maturity and has not ensured its growth.
The differences between the concepts of "culture" and "civilization" were also emphasized by other thinkers. So, N. K. Roerich reduced the difference between culture and civilization to the opposition of the heart to the mind. He associated culture with the self-organization of the spirit, the world of spirituality, and civilization - with the civil, social structure of our life. Indeed, the word "culture" goes back to the Latin word meaning cultivation, cultivation, processing. However, the word upbringing, veneration, as well as cult (as worship and veneration of something) also goes back to the same root (cult-). The word "civilization" comes from the Latin civilis - civil, state, but the word "citizen, resident of the city" also goes back to the same root.
Culture is the core, the soul, and civilization is the shell, the body. P.K. Grechko believes that civilization fixes the level and result of the progressive development of society, and culture expresses the mechanism and process of mastering this level - the result. Civilization equips the earth, our life, makes it convenient, comfortable, pleasant. Culture is “responsible” for the constant dissatisfaction with what has been achieved, the search for something unattainable, worthy, first of all, of the soul, and not of the body. Culture is a process of humanization of social relations, human life, while civilization is their gradual but steady technologization.
Civilization cannot exist without culture, because the system of cultural values is the feature that distinguishes one civilization from another. However, culture is a polysyllabic concept, it includes the culture of production, material relations and political culture and spiritual values. Depending on which sign we single out as the main criterion, the division of civilizations into separate types also changes.
Types of civilization
Depending on their concept and the criteria put forward, various researchers offer their own versions of the typology of civilization.
Types of civilizations
However, in the journalistic literature, the division into civilizations is widely established. Western (innovative, rationalistic) and Eastern (traditional) type. Sometimes so-called intermediate civilizations are added to them. What features characterize them? Let's take a look at the following table as an example.
Main features of traditional society and Western society
| traditional society | Western society |
| The “continuity” of the historical process, the absence of clear boundaries between individual eras, sharp shifts and shocks | History moves unevenly, in “leaps”, gaps between eras are obvious, transitions from one to another often take the form of revolutions |
| Inapplicability of the concept of linear progress | Social progress is quite obvious, especially in the sphere of material production |
| The relationship of society to nature is based on the principle of merging with it, and not dominating it. | Society seeks to maximize the use of natural resources for its needs |
| The basis of the economic system is community-state forms of ownership with a weak development of the institution of private property | The basis of the economy is private property. The right to property is seen as natural and inalienable |
| The level of social mobility is low, the partitions between castes and estates are not very permeable | The social mobility of the population is high, the social status of a person can change significantly throughout life |
| The state subjugates society, controls many aspects of people's lives. The community (state, ethnic group, social group) has priority over the individual | A civil society emerged, largely autonomous from the state. Individual rights are a priority and are constitutionally enshrined. Relationships between the individual and society are built on the basis of mutual responsibility. |
| The main regulator of social life is tradition, custom | Readiness for change, innovation is of particular value. |
Modern Civilizations
Currently, there are different types of civilizations on Earth. In the remote corners of the planet, the development of a number of peoples still retained the features of a primitive society, where life is entirely subordinate to the natural cycle (Central Africa, Amazonia, Oceania, etc.). Some peoples in their way of life have retained the features of eastern (traditional) civilizations. The influence of post-industrial society on these countries is reflected in the growth of crisis phenomena and the instability of life.
Active promotion of the values of the post-industrial society by the media, raising them to the rank of universal human values causes a certain negative reaction from traditional civilizations, seeking not only to preserve their values, but also to revive the values of the bygone past.
Thus, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, etc. are referred to the Arab-Islamic civilization. Between individual Islamic countries and even within these countries, the struggle between supporters of rapprochement with Western civilization and Islamic fundamentalists is intensifying. If the former allow the expansion of secular education, the rationalization of life, the widespread introduction of modern achievements in science and technology, then the latter believe that the basis (foundation) of all spheres of life are the religious values of Islam and take an aggressive position in relation to any innovations and borrowings from Western civilization.
India, Mongolia, Nepal, Thailand, etc. can be attributed to the Indo-Buddhist civilization. The traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism prevail here, and religious tolerance is characteristic. In these countries, on the one hand, economic and political structures characteristic of an industrial society have developed, on the other hand, a significant part of the population lives by the values of a traditional society.
The Far East Confucian civilization includes China, Korea, Japan, etc. The cultural traditions of Taoism, Confucianism and Shintoism prevail here. Despite the traditions that have been preserved, these countries have been drawing closer in recent years to developed Western countries (especially in the economic sphere).
To what type of civilizational development can Russia be attributed? In science, there are several points of view on this matter:
Russia is a European country and Russian civilization is close to the Western type, although it has its own characteristics;
Russia is an original and self-sufficient civilization that occupies its own special place in the world. This is neither Eastern nor Western, but Eurasian civilization, which is characterized by superethnicity, intercultural exchange, supranational nature of spiritual values;
Russia is an internally split, "pendulum" civilization, which is characterized by a constant confrontation between western and eastern features. In its history, cycles of rapprochement with Western and Eastern civilizations are clearly marked;
To determine which point of view is more objective, let us turn to the characteristics of Western civilization. Researchers believe that within it there are several local civilizations (Western European, North American, Latin American, etc.). Modern Western civilization is a post-industrial civilization. Its features are determined by the consequences of the scientific and technological revolution (NTR), which took place in the 60-70s. XX century.
Global problems
The global problems of mankind are called problems that concern all people living on Earth, the solution of which depends not only on further social progress, but also on the fate of all mankind.
Global problems appeared in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution in the second half of the twentieth century, they are interconnected, cover all aspects of people's lives and concern all countries of the world without exception.
We list the main problems and show their relationship with each other.
The threat of a thermonuclear catastrophe is closely interconnected with the threat of nuclear war, as well as man-made disasters. In turn, these problems are interconnected with the threat of a third world war. All this is connected with the depletion of traditional sources of raw materials and the search for alternative forms of energy. The unresolved nature of this problem leads to an ecological catastrophe (depletion of natural resources, pollution environment, food problem, lack of drinking water, etc.). The problem of climate change on the planet is acute, which can lead to catastrophic consequences. The ecological crisis, in turn, is connected with the demographic problem. The demographic problem is characterized by a deep contradiction: in developing countries there is an intensive population growth, and in developed countries there is a demographic decline, which creates enormous difficulties for economic and social development.
At the same time, the “North-South” problem is aggravating, i.e. contradictions are growing between developed countries and developing countries of the “third world”. The problems of protecting health and preventing the spread of AIDS and drug addiction are also becoming increasingly important. The problem of the revival of cultural and moral values is of great importance.
After the events in New York on September 11, 2001, the problem of combating international terrorism sharply escalated. The next innocent victims of terrorists can be residents of any country in the world.
In general, the global problems of mankind can be schematically represented as a tangle of contradictions, where from each problem various threads stretch to all other problems. What is the a strategy for the survival of mankind in the face of exacerbation of global problems? The solution of global problems is possible only through the joint efforts of all countries coordinating their actions at the international level. Self-isolation and peculiarities of development will not allow individual countries to stay away from the economic crisis, nuclear war, the threat of terrorism or the AIDS epidemic. To solve global problems, overcome the danger that threatens all of humanity, it is necessary to further strengthen the interconnection of the diverse modern world, change interaction with the environment, abandon the cult of consumption, and develop new values.
In preparing this chapter, materials from the following tutorials were used:
- Grechko P.K. Introduction to social science. – M.: Pomatur, 2000.
- Kravchenko A. I. Social science. - M .: "Russian Word - RS" - 2001.
- Kurbatov V.I. Social science. - Rostov-on-Don: "Phoenix", 1999.
- Man and Society: Textbook on social science for students in grades 10-11 / Ed. L.N. Bogolyubova, A.Yu. Lazebnikova. M., 2001
- Lazebnikova A.Yu. Modern school social science. Questions of theory and methodology. - M .: School - Press, 2000.
- Klimenko A.V., Rumynina V.V. Exam in social studies: Notes of answers. – M.: 2000.
- Social science. 100 examination answers./Ed. B.Yu. Serbinovsky. Rostov-on-Don.: "Mar.T", 2000.
SOCIETY
Society as a dynamic system
Society and nature
Culture and civilization
The relationship of economic, social, political and spiritual spheres of society
The most important institutions of society
Variety of ways and forms of social development
The problem of social progress
The integrity of the modern world, its contradictions
Global problems of mankind
The concept of "society" is ambiguous. In its original meaning, it is a kind of community, union, cooperation, association of individuals.
From a sociological point of view society- This a certain group of people, united by common interests (goal) for joint activities (for example, a society for the protection of animals or, conversely, a society of hunters and fishermen).
The historical approach to understanding society is associated with the allocation a specific stage in the historical development of a people or of all mankind(for example: primitive society, medieval society, etc.).
The ethnographic meaning of the concept "society" focuses on ethnic characteristics and cultural traditions of a certain population of people(eg: Bushmen Society, American Indian Society, etc.).
Can be defined society and how big a stable group of people occupying a certain territory, having a common culture, experiencing a sense of unity and considering themselves as a completely independent entity(for example, Russian society, European society, etc.).
What unites the above interpretations of society?
- society consists of individuals with will and consciousness;
- You can't call a society just a certain number of people. People are united in society by joint activities, common interests and goals;
- any society is a way of organizing human life;
- The connecting link of society, its framework, are the connections established between people in the process of their interaction (public relations).
Society as a complex dynamic system
In general, a system is a collection of interconnected elements. For example, a pile of bricks cannot be called a system, but a house built from them is a system where each brick takes its place, is interconnected with other elements, has its own functional significance and serves a common goal - the existence of a durable, warm, beautiful building. But a building is an example of a static system. After all, a house cannot improve, develop by itself (it can only collapse if the functional connections between the elements - bricks) are broken.
An example of a dynamic self-developing system is a living organism. Already in the embryo of any living organism, the main features are laid down, which, under the influence of the environment, determine the essential aspects of changes in the organism throughout life.
Similarly, society is a complex dynamic system that can exist only by constantly changing, but at the same time retaining its main features and qualitative certainty.
There is also a broad, philosophical point of view on society.
Society is a form of organization of individuals that has arisen in opposition to the environment (nature), lives and develops according to its own objective laws. In this sense, society is a set of forms of unification of people, a “collective of collectives”, all of humanity in its past, present and future.
Based on this broad interpretation, let us consider the relationship society and nature.
Society and nature
Both society and nature are part of the real world. Nature is the basis on which society has arisen and develops. If nature is understood as the whole of reality, the world as a whole, then society is part of it. But often the word "nature" refers to the natural habitat of people. With this understanding of nature, society can be regarded as a part of the real world that has become isolated from it, but society and nature have not lost their relationship. This relationship has always existed, but has changed over the centuries.
Once upon a time in primitive times, small societies of hunters and gatherers were completely dependent on the cataclysms of nature. Trying to protect themselves from these cataclysms, people created culture, as the totality of all the material and spiritual values of society that have an artificial (i.e., not natural) origin. Below we will talk more than once about the diversity of the concept of “culture”. Now we emphasize that culture is something created by society, but opposite to the natural environment, nature. So, the manufacture of the first tools of labor, the skills of making fire are the first cultural achievements of mankind. The appearance of agriculture and cattle breeding is also the fruits of culture (the word culture itself comes from the Latin “tillage”, “cultivation”).
1. “Exactly because of the dangers that nature threatens us, we have united and created a culture designed, among other things, to make our social life possible. - wrote Z. Freud. “After all, the main task of culture, the true rationale, is to protect us from nature.”
2. With the development of cultural achievements, society was no longer so dependent on nature. Wherein society did not adapt to nature, but actively changed the environment, transforming it in its own interests. This change in nature has led to impressive results. Let us remember thousands of species of cultivated plants, new species of animals, drained swamps and flowering deserts. However, society transforming nature, exposing it to cultural influence, was often guided by momentary benefits. So, the first environmental problems began to arise in antiquity: many species of plants and animals completely disappeared, most of the forests in Western Europe were cut down in the Middle Ages. In the 20th century, the negative impact of society on nature became especially noticeable. Now we are talking about an ecological catastrophe, which can lead to the destruction of both nature and society. So the question arose about legal protection of nature .
The protection of the natural environment is understood as the preservation of its quality, which makes it possible, firstly, to preserve, protect and restore the healthy state and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem, and secondly, to preserve the biological diversity of the planet.
Environmental law deals with the legal protection of nature. Ecology (from the word “ekos” - home, residence; and “logos” knowledge) is the science of the interaction of man and society with the natural habitat.
The environmental legislation of the Russian Federation includes a number of provisions of the Constitution, 5 federal laws on environmental protection, 11 natural resource legislation, as well as decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.
Legal protection of nature
So in the Constitution of the Russian Federation in Art. 42 speaks of the right of every person to a favorable environment, to reliable information about its condition. Article 58 speaks of the obligation of everyone to preserve nature and the environment, to take care of the natural resources of Russia.
The federal laws “On Environmental Protection” (1991), “On Ecological Expertise” (1995), “On Protection of Atmospheric Air” (1999), etc. are devoted to the legal protection of nature. Attempts are being made to conclude an international treaty on the protection of nature. On December 12, 1997, the International Protocol on the Control of Industrial Waste Emissions into the Atmosphere (Kyoto Protocol) was signed in Kyoto.
Thus, the relationship of nature, society and culture can be described as follows:
society and nature in interconnection form the material world. However, society separated itself from nature, creating culture as a second artificial nature, a new habitat. However, even having protected itself from nature by a kind of boundary of cultural traditions, society is not able to break ties with nature.
V. I. Vernadsky wrote that with the emergence and development of society the biosphere (the earthly shell covered by life) passes into the noosphere (the area of the planet covered by intelligent human activity).
Nature still has an active impact on society. So, A. L. Chizhevsky established the relationship between the cycles of solar activity and social upheavals in society (wars, uprisings, revolutions, social transformations, etc.). L. N. Gumilyov wrote about the impact of nature on society in his work “Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth”.
The relationship of society and nature we see in a variety of ways. So, improvement of agrotechnical methods of soil cultivation results in higher yields, but an increase in air pollution from industrial waste can lead to the death of plants.
Society is a complex dynamic system.
Instruction
A dynamic system is a system that is constantly in a state of motion. It develops, changing its own features and characteristics. One such system is society. A change in the state of society can be caused by influence from outside. But sometimes it is based on the internal need of the system itself. The dynamic system has a complex structure. It consists of many sublevels and elements. On a global scale, human society includes many other societies in the form of states. States constitute social groups. The unit of a social group is a person.
Society constantly interacts with other systems. For example, with nature. It uses its resources, potential, etc. Throughout the history of mankind, the natural environment and natural disasters have not only helped people. Sometimes they hindered the development of society. And even became the cause of his death. The nature of interaction with other systems is formed due to the human factor. It is usually understood as the totality of such phenomena as the will, interest and conscious activity of individuals or social groups.
Characteristic features of society as a dynamic system:
- dynamism (change of the whole society or its elements);
- a complex of interacting elements (subsystems, social institutions, etc.);
- self-sufficiency (the system itself creates the conditions for existence);
- (the relationship of all components of the system);
- self-management (the ability to react to events outside the system).
Society as a dynamic system consists of elements. They can be material (buildings, technical systems, institutions, etc.). And intangible or ideal (actually ideas, values, traditions, customs, etc.). Thus, the economic subsystem consists of banks, transport, goods, services, laws, etc. A special backbone element is . He has the ability to choose, has free will. As a result of the activity of a person or a group of people, large-scale changes can occur in society or its individual groups. This makes the social system more mobile.
The pace and quality of changes taking place in society can be different. Sometimes the established orders exist for several hundred years, and then changes occur quite quickly. Their scope and quality may vary. Society is constantly in development. It is an ordered integrity in which all elements are in a certain relationship. This property is sometimes called the non-additivity of the system. Another feature of society as a dynamic system is self-governance.
