PHONOLOGY.
§ 10. The concept of a phoneme as a unit of language. phoneme and sound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
§ 11. The system of vowel phonemes. Strong and weak positions of vowel phonemes.
§ 12. The system of consonant phonemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
§ 13. Strong and weak positions of consonant phonemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GRAPHIC ARTS
§ 14. The subject of graphics as a scientific discipline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
§ 15. Characteristics of the Russian alphabet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
§ 16. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. BRIEF DICTIONARY OF TERMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. WORKSHOPS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. TASKS FOR INDEPENDENT WORK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. CONTROL WORKS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examination No. 1 on the topic "Phonetics" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examination No. 2 on the topics “Phonetics. Phonology. Graphic arts." . . . . .
VI. TESTS ON THE TOPICS “PHONETS. PHONOLOGY. GRAPHIC ARTS"
VII. SCHEMES AND SAMPLES OF THE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE UNITS. . . . . . .
VIII. QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IX. LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. THEORETICAL INFORMATION ON THE MAIN SECTIONS OF THE PROGRAM
PHONETICS
The concept of phonetic transcription
Phonetic transcription is a special system for recording sounding speech. This transcription is done in square brackets. One character in transcription always denotes the same sound (i.e., the same character is always used to denote one sound). There are several basic transcription rules.
1. The transcription uses signs resembling the vowels of the Russian alphabet, except i, yo, yu. Sign e denotes the sound [e] of the front row, the sign uh- the sound [e] of the front-middle row.
2. Signs b and b are used to denote reduced vowels of the 2nd degree of reduction: [b] - reduced middle row of the middle rise, non-labialized, [b] - reduced front row of the upper-middle rise, non-labialized.
3. A reduced sound close to [a] is denoted in transcription by the sign [Λ]. The reduced sound, the middle one between [i] and [e] (or “[i] with an overtone [e]”), is indicated in the transcription [and e]. The sound intermediate between [s] and [e] (or “[s] with an overtone [e]”) is indicated in the transcription [s e].
4. A dot above the vowel of the non-front row indicates the advancement of the stressed vowel forward under the influence of neighboring soft consonants, for example: [lʹ˙n '], [l'˙on], [l'˙у́˙d' and].
5. The sign ^ above the front vowel indicates tension, closeness of the stressed vowel, which appears under the influence of soft consonants:.
6. A line under a vowel indicates a quantitative reduction of an unstressed high vowel, for example: [ s].
7. The transcription uses signs resembling the consonants of the Russian alphabet, except for u. The sound denoted by it in transcription is transmitted by the sign [w':], for example: [w': and]. To indicate the middle language sonorant consonant, the sign of the Latin alphabet [j] or [й] is used. To indicate a voiced fricative back-lingual consonant, often used in words of church subjects, the sign of the Greek alphabet [γ] is used, for example: and].
8. The softness of a consonant is indicated by the apostrophe sign, for example: [d ']. The absence of an apostrophe indicates the hardness of the consonant sound, for example: [d].
9. The longitude of a consonant sound is indicated either by a bar above the sound [ka´sъ], or by a colon after the sound, for example: [ka´s:ъ].
10. A sign under a sonorant consonant indicates the deafening of a sonorant sound, for example: [wet ^].
11. An arc over a combination of consonants means their continuous pronunciation: [no˙d’zh’-b s]
12. A dash “-” means that two (or more) lexical words are one phonetic (unstressed words adjoin stressed words in pronunciation), for example: [ at-house] [to-us-l' and]
13. The transcription does not use capital letters and there are no punctuation marks.
14. The sign / denotes a pause in the speech flow; with the help of this sign, the phrase is divided into syntagmas. // is put at the end of the phrase, because this pause is longer.
15. In each phonetic word, stress is indicated during transcription.
Classification of vowels
The vowel sounds of the modern Russian language are classified according to three criteria:
1. according to the degree of elevation of the tongue during the formation of a vowel sound;
2. on the basis of a row (according to the place where the tongue is raised), i.e. by the movement of the tongue horizontally in the oral cavity;
3. in relation to labialization, i.e. participation / non-participation of lips in the formation of a vowel sound.
Basic stressed vowels
§3. Classification of consonants
All consonants of the modern Russian language are classified according to four articulatory features:
2. at the place of noise generation;
3. according to the method of noise generation;
4. by the presence/absence of palatalization (additional iot articulation).
Sonorant are the most sonorous of all consonants. Their formation involves the voice with little participation of noise (approximately 75% - voice, 25% - noise).
Noisy are those consonants in the formation of which noise prevails over the voice or the voice is completely absent. Noisy voiced the consonants are composed of noise with little voice participation (approximately 75% noise, 25% voice). Noisy deaf are formed without the participation of voice, consist entirely of noise.
Many noisy consonants are paired according to the participation of voice and noise. Noisy consonants are paired, differing only in this one feature (with others in common): [b] - [p]; [b '] - [n '], etc. Sonorant consonants do not have a pair on the basis of "participation of voice and noise."
Note: For a list of consonants, paired and unpaired by the participation of voice and noise, see the Phonology section.
Vowels are sounds that, unlike consonants, arise during the formation of a tone without the participation of noise. In addition, unlike consonants, vowels are able to form a syllable and participate in the formation of stress. I must say that there are languages where syllables are able to form some consonants, mostly sonorants.
There are six main, stressed, vowel sounds in Russian: [a], [o], [u], [e], [s], [i]. At the same time, there are ten letters denoting vowels, since
i, ё, yu, e, denoting the sounds [a], [o], [y], [e], also have additional functions (denoting the softness of a consonant or the sound [j] in writing).
The differences in vowels that we hear are associated with the shape of the oral cavity - the resonator, which changes depending on the movement of the tongue up, down, forward, backward - and the opening formed by the lips. Depending on this, vowels of different rise (the back of the tongue moves up or down), series (the tongue moves forward or backward), as well as labialized or rounded (lips are pulled into a tube) and non-labialized or not rounded (lips are not pulled forward) are distinguished. These are the main characteristics of vowel sounds.
Stressed vowels perform a meaningful function. Compare the words small, they say, mule, soap, which we distinguish by ear only due to differences in vowels.
In unstressed syllables, vowels are pronounced less vigorously. As a result, vowel reduction occurs, i.e., a change in sound. These changes affect only the strength and duration of the sound (chipmunk [chipmunk]) or are more significant: the sound quality changes, then one vowel sound, losing its characteristics, becomes indistinguishable from another vowel (forest - fox [l "isa], compare: forests - fox [l "esa \u003d l" isa]). Hence the difficulties that arise when writing words with unstressed vowels. It is clear that if only the strength and duration of the pronunciation of a sound change, then it retains the ability to perform a semantic function (empty [empty j] - wait [pastej]), and if its quality changes, then this function is lost and (if all other sounds in words coincide) homophones may arise ([l'isa] - forests - [l'isa] - fox).
Vowels, the characteristics of which have changed so much that they have become incomparable in sound to any stressed vowel, are denoted in Iranian writing by the signs [ъ] (a strongly reduced vowel sound after a solid consonant: to dates [gdatm]) and [b] (a strongly reduced vowel sound after a soft consonant: children [d'et'm]). An unstressed sound that resembles one or another percussion can be denoted by the same sign, but without the stress symbol (wine [v'ina] - wine [v'ino]).
The degree of change in the vowel sound (reduction) depends on which syllable it is in in relation to the stressed one (drum [drum]).
Sounds are vowels and consonants. They help each other. Vowels connect consonants into syllables. Words are built from syllables, like bricks. In each word, one brick is the most important. This is a stressed syllable. If the stress is incorrectly placed, the word is difficult to understand.
Stressed and unstressed vowels
Stressed vowels - stressed vowels - are in strong position. Vowels without stress, they are called unstressed, - in weak position . Letters that represent sounds in weak positions are called orthograms. spelling - (from the Greek orthos - correct and gramma - letter) - spelling words according to some spelling rules.
Spelling - (from the Greek word: “orthos” - correct, and “grapho” - “write”) - the rules of written speech (i.e., spelling words). In Russian they say "spelling".
Pronunciation of unstressed vowels
Let's look at the words:
mushrooms, flowers- I hear And what to write? And or E?
water, grass- I hear A, what to write? A or O?
balls, rows- I hear an obscure sound And what to write? I? E? AND?
The conclusion is that in an unstressed position we do not hear a clear sound and we can make a mistake when writing.
In modern Russian, there is a law - in unstressed syllables, the sound O is not pronounced. Sound A works instead of it. And it will return to its place only when it becomes percussive. This is how sounds work. Compare : sea - seas, table - tables, elephant - elephants. Other vowel sounds behave in the same way: in unstressed syllables, each of them is replaced by some other.
In unstressed syllables, there is no vowel sound E. Say the word floors. It is not pronounced the way it is spelled. It is not difficult to notice that the sound U in words is not dangerous, it is well and clearly pronounced even in an unstressed position.
For competent writing, it is very important to learn how to identify unstressed vowels by ear without errors in order to anticipate the place in a word where you can make a mistake.
The squirrel was on a bitch. We hear unstressed sounds clearly and understand all the words.
Children play with a ball. It is not clear what children are playing with: a ball or a sword.
Checking an unstressed vowel
To understand written speech, it is important to learn how to write words without errors. There is a law in Russian: to check a weak position with a strong one.
Read the sentences and find clues in them.
Have a cat - k? tyata. Cat - Oh, so kittens are also Oh.
The tiger has gryata. Tiger - And, so the cubs are also I.
Here is an elephant. Does he have sl? nyata. Elephant - Oh, so baby elephants are also Oh.
Remember the rule: to check the spelling of a weak position, you need to change the word. How to do it?
1 step:Say the word being tested.
Does it have vowels in unstressed syllables?
If there is, what are they?
2 step:Choose a test word, change the word so that the sound being tested is under stress.
3 step:Write the vowel according to the sound you hear under the stress.
Step 4: Check what is written, read the word syllable by syllable.
Using a spelling dictionary
Worth taking advantage spelling dictionary , which can be used to check spelling.
You just need to know the secrets of the dictionary and memorize the alphabet well. Very often, short spelling dictionaries can be found at the end of Russian textbooks. If you don’t have a dictionary at hand, ask adults, the teacher, for spelling. Remember, the main thing is not to write with an error. It is better to leave room for the letter by marking it with a dot and enter the letter when there is no doubt at all.
Let's make a conclusion. The position of an unstressed vowel in a word is a danger that requires proof. Unstressed vowels cannot be trusted. Today in the lesson we learned how to check them in different ways: by a strong position, that is, by choosing a test word, and by using a dictionary if there is no test word. Remember this:
unstressed vowel sound
Causes a lot of pain.
For there to be no doubt
We put the sound under stress.
Or check with a spelling dictionary.
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Preparation for exams in Russian:
Essentials from theory:
We offer online tests:
1. Read.
- Tell me what picture can be imagined by reading these lines. How can you name it?
- Write the first sentence. Mark the stress in the words. Which words do not have an accent mark?
The sun rises over the earth
Every day it's getting higher.
And all day, spinning, cooing
Doves on the roof.
(I. Surikov)
2. Get acquainted with the Memo 2 "How to identify stressed and unstressed vowels in a word?". Using the memo, explain which vowel in each of these words is stressed and which is unstressed.
Cherry, plum, currant.
3. Read patter.
- Sleep. Pronounce the unstressed vowel in each two-syllable word. What are the letters in the letter?
Grass in the yard
firewood on the grass.
Pay attention! An unstressed vowel in a word can be denoted by different letters.
Therefore, the spelling of a word with an unstressed vowel must be checked.
4. Sleep the name of the bird. What does it mean? Underline in it the letter denoting an unstressed vowel sound.
- Now change the word owl so that it denotes several objects (owls). Write it down. Underline the letter that represents the stressed vowel.
Pay attention! When changing the word (owl - owls), stressed and unstressed vowels in the same part of the word are indicated by the same letter about.
- What word can be a test for the word owl?
5. Read words the way they are written. Now read the way we pronounce them.
- In which words do the underlined letters sound different from the spelling? Why?
- Does the unstressed vowel sound and the stressed vowel sound in each pair of words have the same letter?
- What word will be a test word for each of these words: land, pine, country, winter? Explain your answer.
6. Read. Find words in which the letter denoting an unstressed vowel in the first syllable must be checked. Choose a test for each word.
- Write first the test word, then the word to be checked.
7. Read the words. Why should their spelling be checked?
Tables, ... - sheets, ... - elephants, ... - doctors.
- Choose test words. Remember how to do it: change each word so that the unstressed vowel becomes stressed.
- Write down the test word first, and then the test word.
8. Read. Which word of each pair is a test word, and which one is a test word?
Mountains - g..ra, closet - cabinet..fy, candles - St..cha, numbers - h..slo.
- Write three pairs of words, putting in the missing letters.
- Make up a sentence with any word. Write it down.
9. Read.
P..smo, ... - sh..ry, ... - r..ka, ... - ..gra, ... - p..tno, ... - r..sa, . .. - m..rya.
- Choose a test for each word. To do this, change the word so that the unstressed vowel becomes stressed.
- Write down the test and test words, inserting the missing letters.
10. Read test words.
, nests - ..., tears - ..., cheeks - ..., wasps - ..., rocks - ..., arrows - ... .
- Choose a test word for each test word. To do this, change the word so that the stressed vowel becomes unstressed.
- Write the test word first, then the test word. Mark the stress in the words.
11. Read. What words-names of the seasons are missing in the sentence?
- Write a sentence with the missing words. Prove that the letters underlined in the words are spelled correctly.
Good ... snows,
... flowers,
... mushrooms,
... fruits.
Words for reference: spring, autumn, winter, summer.
12. Read the riddles. Explain the clues.
The eyes are on the horns, and the house is on the back.
Sickle tail, combed head.
- In which words can you easily explain the spelling of the highlighted letters, and in which do you find it difficult? Write down any riddle.
13. Read. Explain the meaning of each word. Why are these words interesting?
- In which words do you need to check the letters in the common part of the words? Why? Find a test for each word.
- Write any group of words. Mark them with emphasis. Underline in the general part of the words the letters denoting unstressed vowels.
14. Read expressively enigmatic.
- Who is standing among the grass?
- By what special signs can you recognize this animal? Write an answer.
- Why is it necessary to check the spelling of the letters highlighted in the words?
What kind of animal e sleep
I got up like a column, under about sleep
And stands among the a you -
Ears larger than about l about you?
(E. Trutneva)
h a yats
15. Read. What letters are missing in the words?
about? a?
K..za, g..ra, gl..za, m..rya, k..ltso, sh..ry, sl..va, sh..gi, gr..chi, h..lmy, p..on, in..yes, from..sleep, from..dy, gr..for.
e? and?
Gn..zdo, z..blah, h..slo, n..tukh, z..rno, gr..by, n..smo, str..la, z..ma, st..on, r..ka, p..la, s..stra.
- Why does the spelling of missing letters in words need to be checked? How to do it?
- Write any five words, filling in the missing letters.
16. Read.
You can find out if a word is spelled correctly in a special book called " Spelling Dictionary".
orthographic dictionary indicates exactly how to correctly write the word that caused you difficulty.
- Familiarize yourself with the spelling dictionary of the textbook.
- Find out from the dictionary which letter is missing in these words.
Girl..chka, boy..k, r..bota, m..dved.
Vowel sounds- speech sounds, which are characterized by the following most important acoustic and articulatory features: firstly, they consist only of tone (voice), and secondly, when they are formed, there is no obstacle in the way of the air stream.
From an acoustic point of view, vowels consist of only one tone, and different ratios of tone and noise characterize consonants. So, when pronouncing vowel sounds, as a result of the vibration of tense vocal cords in the larynx, a voice, or musical tone, is formed. The resulting sound is transformed, enriched with additional tones formed in the supraglottic cavities (pharynx, nasal and oral cavity). These resonator tones give the sound a specific timbre, a special quality that distinguishes one vowel from another. Since the timbre of any sound, or its quality, depends on the volume and shape of the resonator (cf. the different volume and shape of resonators for musical instruments: violin, cello-cheli and double bass; domra, balalaika and guitar), then the timbre of vowel sounds is determined by the position of the tongue and lips, which can change the size and shape of the oral cavity.
The tongue is the most mobile organ of articulation, it can move horizontally and vertically in the oral cavity, thus forming different vowels.
The degree of elevation of the tongue to the palate ensures the difference in vowels in rise: the highest position of the tongue forms the vowels of the upper rise ([u], [s], [y]), the middle position forms the vowels of the middle rise ([e], [o]) and lower - low vowels ([a]). Upper vowels are called closed (narrow), and lower vowels are called open (wide), since the lower position of the tongue opens the mouth wider and the lower jaw drops lower. If we pronounce the vowels [i], [e], [a] in succession, we can feel the vertical movement of the tongue.
The body of the tongue can also move horizontally: move closer to the teeth or move back, to the root of the tongue, forming front vowels ([u], [e]), middle ([a]) and back ([y], [o ]). If we pronounce the vowels [and], [s], [y] in sequence, we can notice the horizontal movement of the tongue.
When pronouncing the vowels [e], [o], [a], the tongue moves vertically: [e] and [o] are middle vowels, and [a] is a lower vowel; however, there is still movement of the tongue forward (when pronouncing the front vowel - [e]), backward (when pronouncing the back vowel - [o]), or the tongue occupies the middle position ([a] - the middle vowel).
Lips may also be involved in the formation of vowels. When pronouncing rounded vowels ([y], [o]), the lips are somewhat rounded and stretched forward.
When articulating vowels, the air stream does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity, passes freely. The stronger, more intensely we pronounce the vowel sound, the wider we open our mouth. Vowel sounds are mouth openers.
The functional difference between vowels and consonants is that they behave differently when forming a syllable. A vowel forms the top of a syllable (there is no syllable without a vowel), and a consonant in a syllable usually accompanies a vowel.
vowel percussive sound- a vowel under stress (in a stressed position), pronounced without weakening the articulation, that is, without reduction. This means that the stressed vowel is longer and more intense, pronounced with more force, that is, louder and more intense than the vowel in an unstressed position. The tension and length of articulation contribute to the fact that the individual coloring of the sound (its timbre) becomes more definite and clear. Due to this, the position under stress is a strong position for vowels, that is, the position in which the vowels differ the most from each other cannot be confused. For example, catfish-himself, forest-foxes.Material from the site
Unstressed vowel (reduced) sound- a vowel sound pronounced with a greater or lesser weakening of articulation. In an unstressed position, vowels are characterized by less force, more sluggish (less energetic) articulation, and usually more brevity. The result of changing the quality and quantity of unstressed vowels is called reduction. Vowels that are pronounced with reduction are called reduced. The position of the unstressed vowel is weak, since in this position the vowels, pronounced less intensively, usually lose their individual distinctions (in row and rise). With this pronunciation, we sometimes cease to distinguish the meanings of different words. For example: I myself [myself] caught a catfish [myself] or I saw a fox [fox] in the forest [fox].
