INTERACTION

Mechanical the form of V. is not a universal, but only a particular of the universal form of V. as an endless chain of cause and effect. relations.

V.'s characterization as a mutual change in the sides of the system, in which the motion acquires a "circular" character, also applies to any specific system of interacting phenomena. Such a concrete also acts as a "cause of itself", i.e. contains within itself the source of its own movement. Understood in this way, the reason coincides with the internal. contradiction of this particular system.

V. always has a specific character in the sense that there is always a ratio of the parties determined. complete system, eg. solar system, vegetable, animal kingdoms, human. society, def. socio-economic formations. The content of V. is due to the nature of its constituent moments, the mutual change of which acts as the movement of this system. Examples of such a dialectical V. can serve any specific system, for example. living organisms. Living organisms refract the effects of the external environment through specific. organization of their body and the relationship of individuals of this species. A striking example of a self-preserving, self-reproducing and self-moving system of interacting phenomena can be a human being. society in its development based on specific social patterns.

V. there is a process, ext. the unity of which is realized in the continuous change of its elements, sides. Reproduction of the phenomenon on the basis of V. its own. elements and acts as its development (self-development). In a self-developing system, the reason for its existence ultimately turns out to be its own. consequence. The chain of causes and actions closes here not only into a "ring", but also into a "spiral". An example of this form of V. is the system of V. economical. phenomena, scientifically reproduced in Marx's Capital.

In a similar relationship V. are among themselves and the practice of man. Theory is not only a consequence of practice. Arising on the basis of practice and receiving its active development in it, theory has a reverse effect on practice.

V. is expressed, for example, in the relations between wage workers and capitalists within the commodity-capitalist. production relations. Capital is as much a consequence of the existence of wage labor as it is the cause of its given, concrete historical. existence.

With all the dependence of the sides of V., dialectics obliges us to always keep in mind that one of the sides of this V. is leading. Such a leading side is the one from which each new circle of development begins. So, for example, in relation to V. theory and practice, practice is the leading party.

Lit.: Marx K., Capital, vol. 1–3, M., 1955; his own, Towards a Criticism of Political Economy, M., 1953; Engels F., Dialectics of Nature, Moscow, 1955; his own, Anti-Dühring, M., 1957; Lenin V.I., Philosophical Notebooks, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 38; Hegel G., Science of Logic, Soch., vol. 5, M., 1937.

E. Ilyenkov, G. Davydova, V. Lektorsky. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

INTERACTION

INTERACTION - a philosophical category that reflects the processes of interaction of various objects with each other, their mutual conditionality, change of state, mutual transition, as well as the generation of one object by another. Interaction is a kind of direct or indirect, external or internal relationship, connection. The properties of an object can manifest themselves and be known only in interaction with other objects. Interaction acts as an integrating factor, through which the parts are combined into a certain type of integrity, structure. Each form of motion of matter is based on certain types of interaction of structural elements.

Interaction determines the relationship of cause and effect. Each of the interacting parties acts as a cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side. The interaction of opposites are the deepest sources, the basis and the ultimate cause of the emergence, self-motion and development of objects.

Modern natural science has shown that any interaction is associated with material fields and is accompanied by the transfer of matter, motion and information. Knowledge of things means knowledge of their interaction and is itself the result of the interaction of subject and object.

A. G. Spirkin

New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M.: Thought. Edited by V. S. Stepin. 2001 .

Synonyms:

Antonyms:

See what "INTERACTION" is in other dictionaries:

Interaction … Spelling Dictionary

In physics, the impact of bodies or h on each other, leading to a change in the state of their movement. In Newtonian mechanics, the mutual action of bodies on each other is quantitatively characterized by force. A more general characteristic of V. yavl. potent. energy. Initially… … Physical Encyclopedia

interaction- (in psychology) the process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, generating their mutual conditioning and connection. V. acts as an integrating factor that promotes the formation of structures. Feature… Great Psychological Encyclopedia

interaction- The term "interworking" is used to refer to the interactions between networks, between end systems or between parts of them, with the aim of providing a functional unit capable of communicating from end to end. ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

A philosophical category that reflects the processes of the influence of objects on each other, their mutual conditionality and the generation of one object by another. Interaction is a universal form of movement, development, determines the existence and structural ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

INTERACTION, interactions, cf. (book). Mutual communication; mutual conditioning. Interaction of social phenomena. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Communication, coordination, solvation, allelopathy. Ant. inconsistency Dictionary of Russian synonyms. interaction noun, number of synonyms: 5 allelopathy (1) … Synonym dictionary

Actions coordinated in terms of tasks (objects), directions, lines (regions) and time between parts of various types of the Armed Forces (arms, fleet forces, special troops) in the interests of achieving the common goal of a battle, operation. One of the principles of the military ... ... Marine Dictionary

INTERACTION, I, cf. 1. Mutual connection of phenomena. B. supply and demand. 2. Mutual support. V. troops (coordinated actions of troops in the performance of a combat mission). Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

Interaction- this is the process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other.

In addition, interaction in social psychology is usually understood not only as the influence of people on each other, but also as the direct organization of their joint actions, which allows the group to realize common activities for its members.

Interaction is usually classified according to form. In this case, interpersonal and intergroup interaction, interpersonal relationships and communication are distinguished.

Interpersonal interaction - these are accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections between two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes.

Main features such interactions are:

The presence of an external goal (object) in relation to the interacting individuals, the achievement of which involves mutual efforts;

Explicitness (accessibility) for observation from outside and registration by other people;

Situation - a rather rigid regulation by specific conditions of activity, norms, rules and intensity of relations, due to which interaction becomes a rather changeable phenomenon;

Reflexive ambiguity - the dependence of its perception on the conditions of implementation and the assessments of its participants.

Intergroup interaction - takes place between whole groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society.

Interpersonal relationships(synonym: relationships) are subjectively experienced relationships between people, in which the system of their interpersonal attitudes, orientations, expectations is manifested, determined by the content of joint activity. "They arise and develop in the process of joint activity and communication.

Communication - a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts and connections between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information and the development of a common strategy for interaction 2 . Communication is usually included in the practical interaction of people (joint work, teaching, collective play, etc.), ensures planning, implementation and control of their activities.

Western interaction theories
Name of the theory	Leading Representatives	The main idea of ​​the theory
exchange theory	George Homans	People interact with each other based on their experience, weighing possible rewards and costs.
Symbolic interactionism	George Meade, Herbert Bloomer	The behavior of people in relation to each other and to the objects of the surrounding world is determined by the values ​​that they attach to them.
Experience Management	Edwin Hoffman	Situations of social interaction are like dramatic performances in which the actors strive to create and maintain favorable experiences.
Psychoanalytic theory	3. Freud	The interaction of people is strongly influenced by the ideas learned in early childhood and the conflicts experienced during this period.

You can divide the process of human interaction into three stages (levels): initial, intermediate and final.

On my own initial stage(lower level) interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people, when between them there is only a certain primary and very simplified mutual or one-sided "physical" influence on each other for the purpose of exchanging information and communication, which, for specific reasons, may not reach its goals, and therefore not receive comprehensive development.

The main thing in the success of initial contacts lies in the acceptance or non-acceptance of partners in the interaction of each other. Acceptance-rejection relations are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, posture, gaze, intonation, the desire to end or continue communication. They indicate whether people like each other. If not, then mutual or unilateral reactions of rejection follow (sliding gaze, pulling away the hand when shaking, turning away the head, body, fencing gestures, “sour mine”, fussiness, running away, etc.) or termination of established contact.

The effect of congruence also plays an important role in the interaction at its initial stage. Congruence - confirmation of mutual role expectations, complete mutual understanding, a single resonant rhythm, consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact. Congruence implies a minimum of disagreement in the key points of the behavior of the participants in the contact, which results in stress relief, the emergence of trust and

The main factors for achieving congruence usually include:

a) the experience of belonging, which occurs in cases of:

When the goals of the subjects of interaction are interconnected;

When there is a basis for interpersonal rapprochement;

Belonging of subjects to one social group;

b) empathy, which is easier to implement:

When establishing emotional contact;

With the similarity of behavioral and emotional reactions of partners;

In the presence of the same feelings for some subject;

When attention is drawn to the feelings of partners (for example, they are simply described);

c) identification, which is enhanced:

With liveliness, a variety of behavioral manifestations of the interacting parties;

When a person sees traits of his character in another;

When partners seem to change places and discuss from each other's positions;

With a commonality of thoughts, interests, social roles and positions. As a result of congruence and effective primary contacts, Feedback between people

There are three main feedback functions. It usually acts as: 1) a regulator of human behavior and actions; 2) the regulator of interpersonal relations; 3) a source of self-knowledge. Feedback can be of different types, and each of its variants corresponds to one or another specificity of interaction between people and the establishment of stable relations between them. Feedback can be: a) verbal (transmitted in the form of a voice message); b) non-verbal, i.e. carried out through facial expressions, posture, intonation of voice, etc.; c) expressed in the form of an action focused on manifestation, showing another person understanding, approval, and expressed in joint activity. Feedback can be direct and delayed in time, it can be brightly emotionally colored and transmitted by a person to another as a kind of experience, or it can be with a minimal experience of emotions and behavioral responses.

On the middle stage process of interaction between people, which is called productive joint activity, gradually developing active cooperation finds more and more expression in the effective solution of the problem of combining the mutual efforts of partners.

Usually, three forms or models of organizing joint activities are distinguished: 1) each participant does his part of the common work independently of the other; 2) the common task is performed sequentially by each participant; 3) there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others. Their real existence depends on the conditions of activity, its goals and content.

At the same time, at this time, the interaction of people is actively accompanied or mediated by the manifestation of complex socio-psychological phenomena, called compatibility-incompatibility(or workability-failure).

There are several types of compatibility. Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the interaction of the characteristics of temperament, the needs of individuals. Psychological compatibility involves the interaction of characters, intellects, motives of behavior. Socio-psychological compatibility provides for the coordination of social roles, interests, value orientations of participants. Finally, socio-ideological compatibility is based on the commonality of ideological values, on the similarity of social attitudes (in intensity and direction) - regarding the possible facts of reality associated with the implementation of ethnic, class and confessional interests.

It should be remembered that the engine of interaction and joint activity is, first of all, motivation its members. There are several types of social motives for interaction (i.e. motives for which a person interacts with other people):

1) maximization of the total gain (motive of cooperation);

2) maximizing one's own gain (individualism);

3) maximization of relative gain (competition);

4) maximizing the gain of another (altruism);

5) minimizing the gain of another (aggression);

6) minimization of differences in payoffs (equality).

Forms of influence of people on each other in the process of activity. One of them encourage partner for action (order, request, suggestion), others sanction actions of partners (consent or refusal), third call for discussion(question, discussion). The discussion itself can take place in the form of a meeting, conversation, debate, conference, seminar, and a number of other types of interpersonal contacts.

Top level interaction is an exceptionally effective joint activity of people, accompanied by mutual understanding.

Society does not consist of separate individuals, but reveals the sum of those connections and relations in which these individuals are relative to each other. The basis of these connections and relationships is formed by the actions of people and their mutual influence, which are called interactions. Interaction- this is the process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditioning and links1.

In interaction, the relation of a person to another person as to a subject who has his own world is realized. Interaction in social philosophy and psychology, as well as management theory, in addition, refers not only to the influence of people on each other, but also to the direct organization of their joint actions, which allows the group to realize common activities for its members. The interaction of a person with a person in society is also the interaction of their inner worlds: the exchange of opinions, ideas, images, the impact on goals and needs, the impact on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state.

Interaction is the systematic and constant performance of actions aimed at eliciting a response from other people. The joint life and activity of people both in society and in an organization, in contrast to the individual, has more severe restrictions on any manifestations of activity or passivity. In the process of real interaction, adequate representations of the employee about himself and other people are also formed. The interaction of people is the leading factor in the regulation of their self-assessments and behavior in society.

In the organization there are two types of interaction - interpersonal and intergroup, which are carried out in the system of interpersonal relations and communication.

Interpersonal interaction in the organization- these are long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts between employees within groups, departments, teams, which cause mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes. The more contacts there are between their participants and the more time they spend together, the more profitable is the work of all departments and the organization as a whole.

Intergroup interaction- the process of direct or indirect action of many subjects (objects) on each other, generating their interdependence and the peculiar nature of the relationship. Usually it is present between whole groups of the organization (as well as their parts) and is its integrating factor.

Interpersonal relationships (relationships)- these are the relationships between people, subjectively experienced and in which the system of their interpersonal attitudes, orientations, expectations, hopes is manifested, which are determined by the content of joint activity. In an organization, they arise and develop in the process of joint activities and communication.

Communication- a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts and connections between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and includes the exchange of information and the formation of a single strategy for interaction, mutual synergy2. Communication in organizations is included mainly in the practical interaction of people (joint work, teaching) and provides planning, implementation and control of their activities. The direct basis of communication between people in an organization is a joint activity that unites them to achieve a specific goal. A broader understanding of the factors that motivate people to communicate is outlined in Western scholarship. Among them, first of all, the following can be mentioned:

Exchange theory (J. Homans): people interact with each other based on their experience, weighing possible rewards and costs;

Symbolic interactionism (J. Mead, G. Bloomer): the behavior of people in relation to each other and objects of the surrounding world is set by the values ​​that they provide to them;

Impression management (E. Hoffman): situations of social interaction similar to dramatic performances in which actors try to create and maintain pleasant impressions;

Psychological theory (Z. Freud): the interaction of people is strongly influenced by ideas learned in early childhood and conflicts.

In the process of selecting personnel, forming production groups and teams, the manager should take into account a number of psychological features of the behavioral reactions of individuals from the initial stage of the development of their interaction.

So, at the initial stage (low level), interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people, when there is a certain primary and very simplified mutual or one-sided "physical" influence on each other between them in order to exchange information and communicate, which, as a result of specific reasons, can not achieve its goal, and therefore not acquire all-round development.

The main thing in the success of initial contacts lies in the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by the partners in the interaction. At the same time, they do not represent a simple "sum" of individuals, but are some completely new and specific formation of connections and relationships that are regulated by real or imaginary difference - similarity, similarity - contrast of people involved in joint activities (practical or mental). Differences between individuals is one of the main conditions for the development of their interaction (communication, relationships, compatibility, wear), as well as themselves as individuals.

Any contact begins with a concrete sensory perception of the appearance, characteristics of the activity and behavior of other people. At this moment, as a rule, the emotional-behavioral reactions of individuals to each other dominate.

Relationships of acceptance - rejection are found in facial expressions, gestures, posture, gaze, intonation, an attempt to end or continue communication. They indicate whether people like each other or not. If not, then mutual or unilateral reactions of rejection occur (sliding gaze, pulling away the hand when shaking, avoiding the head, body, guarding gestures, "sour mine", fussiness, running away, etc.). Conversely, people turn to those who smile, look straight and open, turn their faces, respond with a cheerful and cheerful tone, as those who are trustworthy and with whom further cooperation can be developed through joint efforts.

Of course, the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by partners in interaction has deeper roots. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between scientifically substantiated and verified levels of homogeneity - different rarity (degree of similarity - differences) of the participants in the interaction.

The first (or lower) level of homogeneity is the ratio of individual (natural) and personal parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations) of people. Of particular importance in interpersonal interaction are the age and gender differences of partners.

The second (upper) level of homogeneity - heterogeneity (degree of similarity - contrast of participants in interpersonal interaction) - represents the ratio in the group (similarity - difference) of opinions, attitudes (including likes and dislikes) towards oneself, partners or other people and to the objective world (including in joint activities). The second level is divided into sublevels: primary (or ascending) and secondary (or effective). The primary sublevel is an ascending one, given in interpersonal interaction, the ratio of opinions (about the world of objects and their own kind). The second sublevel is the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions and attitudes, as a result of interpersonal interaction, the exchange of thoughts and feelings between participants in joint activities1. The effect of congruence also plays an important role in the interaction at its initial stage.

Congruence(lat. Congruens, congruentis - proportionate, appropriate, what coincides) - confirmation of mutual role expectations, the only resonant rhythm, the consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact.

Congruence provides for a minimum amount of roughness in the key moments of the lines of behavior of the participants in the contact, which results in stress relief, the emergence of trust and sympathy at a subconscious level.

Congruence is enhanced by the feeling of complicity caused by the partner, interest, search for mutual activity based on his needs and life experience. It may appear from the first minutes of contact between previously unfamiliar partners or not arise at all. But the presence of congruence indicates an increase in the likelihood that the interaction will continue. Therefore, in the process of interaction, it is necessary to try to achieve congruence from the first minutes of contact.

In shaping the organizational behavior of the employees of the organization on the basis of the development of interpersonal interaction, it is necessary to take into account a number of factors that contribute to the achievement of congruence. The main ones include:

1) the experience of co-ownership, which occurs in the following cases:

Connectivity of the goals of the subjects of interaction with each other;

Having a basis for interpersonal rapprochement;

Belongings of subjects to one social group;

2) empathy (gr. Empatheia - empathy), which is more easily implemented:

For establishing emotional contact;

Similarities in behavioral and emotional reactions of partners;

Having the same attitude towards a certain subject;

In case of drawing attention to the feelings of partners (for example, they are simply described)

8) identification, which is enhanced:

When living various behavioral processes of the interacting parties;

When a person sees traits of his character in another;

When partners seem to exchange views and conduct discussions from each other's positions;

Subject to commonality of opinions, interests, social roles and positions.

As a result of congruence and effective initial contacts, feedback is established between people - a process of mutually directed responses that contributes to the maintenance of subsequent interaction and during which there is also an intentional or unintentional communication to another person about how his behavior and actions (or their consequences) are perceived or experienced.

There are three main feedback functions. He usually are:

Regulator of human behavior and actions;

Regulator of interpersonal relations;

source of self-knowledge.

Feedback can be of different types and each of its variants corresponds to one or another specificity of interaction between people and the emergence of stable relationships between them.

Feedback can be:

Verbal (transmitted in the form of a voice message);

Non-verbal, that is, such that is carried out with the help of facial expressions, posture, intonation of voice, etc.;

So that is embodied in the form of action, focused on identifying, showing another person understanding, approval, and turns out to be in general activity.

Feedback can be direct and delayed in time, brightly emotionally colored and transmitted by a person to another person as a kind of experience or be with a minimum manifestation of emotions and corresponding behavioral reactions.

In different options for joint activities, their own types of feedback are appropriate. Therefore, it should be noted that the inability to use feedback significantly hinders the interaction of people in the organization, reduces the effectiveness of management.

The psychological commonality of the participants in organizational interaction, the situation strengthens their contacts, helps the development of relationships between them, contributes to the transformation of their personal relationships and actions into common ones. Attitudes, needs, interests, relationships in general, being motives, determine the promising directions of interaction between partners, while their tactics are also regulated by a mutual understanding of the characteristics of people, their images-representations of each other, about themselves, the tasks of joint activity.

At the same time, the regulation of the interaction and relationships of people is carried out not by one, but by a whole group of images. In addition to the images-representations of partners about each other, the system of psychological regulators of joint activity includes images-representations about oneself - the so-called I-concept, the totality of all the ideas of the individual about himself, which leads to the conviction of his behavior, with the help of which the personality determines who he is. there is. This is also added to the idea of ​​partners about the impressions they make on each other, the ideal image of the social role that partners perform, views on the possible results of joint activities. And although these images-representations are not always clearly understood by people, the psychological content, concentrated in attitudes, motives, needs, interests, relationships, turns out with the help of volitional actions in various forms of behavior aimed at a partner.

At the initial stage of the process of interaction between people in a group (organization), active cooperation gradually develops and becomes more and more embodied in an effective solution to the problem of combining the mutual efforts of employees. This stage is called productive joint activity.

There are three forms, or models, of organizing joint activities:

Each participant performs his part of the overall work independently of the other;

The overall task is performed sequentially by each participant;

There is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others (characteristic in the conditions of a team organization of labor and the development of horizontal ties), the actual existence of which depends on the conditions of the activity, its goals and content.

In an organization or its subdivisions, people's aspirations can still lead to clashes in the process of agreeing on positions, as a result of which people enter into "agreement-disagreement" relationships one after another. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. In this case, the distribution of roles and functions between the participants in the interaction takes place. These relations cause a special direction of volitional efforts in the subjects of interaction, associated either with a concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to show mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other volitional qualities of the individual, based on the intellect and a high level of his consciousness and self-awareness. At the same time, the interaction of people is actively accompanied and mediated by the manifestation of complex socio-psychological phenomena, which are called compatibility and incompatibility or wear and tear - incompatibility. Interpersonal relations in a group (organization) and a certain degree of compatibility (physiological and psychological) of its members give rise to another socio-psychological phenomenon, which is commonly called "psychological climate".

There are several types of human compatibility. Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the interaction of temperamental characteristics, the needs of individuals. Psychological compatibility involves the interaction of characters, intellects, behavioral motives. Socio-psychological compatibility has a prerequisite for coordinating social roles, interests, value orientations of participants. Finally, socio-ideological compatibility is based on the commonality of ideological values, the similarity of social attitudes in relation to various facts of reality related to the implementation of ethnic, class and confessional interests. There are no clear boundaries between these types of compatibility, while the extreme levels of compatibility, for example, physiological and socio-psychological, socio-ideological, have obvious features1.

In joint activities, control by the participants themselves is noticeably activated (self-control, self-examination, mutual control, mutual examination), which affects the executive part of the activity, including the speed and accuracy of individual and joint actions.

However, it should be remembered that the engine of interaction and joint activity is primarily the motivation of its participants. There are several types of social motives for interaction (that is, motives due to which a person interacts with other people):

Maximization of the common (joint) gain (motive of cooperation)

Maximizing your own gain (individualism)

Relative Gain Maximization (Competition)

Maximizing another's gain (altruism)

Minimizing the gain of another (aggression);

Minimization of differences in gains (equality) 2. Mutual control, which is carried out by participants in a joint

activity, may lead to a revision of individual motives of activity, if there are significant differences in their direction and level. As a result, individual motives begin to be adjusted and coordinated.

During this process, thoughts, feelings, relations of partners in joint activities are constantly coordinated in various forms of the impact of people on each other. Some of them encourage the partner to act (order, request, suggestion), others authorize the actions of partners (consent or refusal), others cause discussion (question, reflection), which can take place in various forms. However, the choice of influence is more often determined by the functional-role relations of partners in joint work. For example, the control function of the leader (manager) encourages him to use orders, requests and authorizing answers more often, while the educational function of the same leader often requires the use of discussion forms of interaction. Thus, the process of mutual influence of partners in interaction is realized. With its help, people "process" each other, trying to change and transform the mental states, attitudes and, ultimately, the behavior and psychological qualities of the participants in joint activities.

Physiological system - this is a constant collection of various organsunited by some common function.

Functional system is a temporary set of organs

1. self-regulation;

2. dynamism (disintegrates after reaching the desired result);

3. availability of feedback.

Thanks to this, the body works as a whole. A special place in physiology is given homeostasis.

homeostasis - This is a set of biological reactions that ensure the constancy of the internal environment of the body (blood, lymph, intercellular and cerebrospinal fluid).

1. Physiological characteristics of excitable tissues. excitability parameters.

Excitable tissues include: nervous muscle, glandular. Excitability is the ability of a tissue, under the influence of stimuli, to move from a state of functional rest to a state of excitation.

Classification of irritants.

a) by nature irritants are: physical, chemical, physico-chemical, biological, social.

b) according to physiological significance: adequate and inadequate. Adequate name the stimuli to which the given tissue is adapted in the course of its evolutionary development.

inadequate- these are unnatural stimuli, for the perception of which the tissue is not adapted (for example, the action of an electric current on a muscle or a mechanical blow to the eye).

G) by strength irritants are divided into: subthreshold, threshold, superthreshold.

1. Excitability - the ability of living tissue to respond to the action of the stimulus by changing the physiological properties and the occurrence of the excitation process.

There are strength and time indicators of excitability

To power indicators of excitability include threshold strength of the stimulus(those., the smallest force of the stimulus that causes excitation). For electric current, a special term has been introduced - rheobase.

To temporary indicators of excitability include:

good irritation time and chronaxy. useful time into one reobase causes excitation of the tissue. Chronaxia is the shortest time during which the electric current into two reobases causes excitation of the tissue.

PV - good time- the minimum time of action of an irritating impulse with a force of one rheobase, necessary for excitation.

Xp - chronaxy- the minimum time of action of an irritating impulse with a force of 2 rheobases necessary for the occurrence of AP.

Damage to peripheral nerves leads to a sharp lengthening of chronaxia

Chronaxis technique helps to make an early diagnosis or to determine the effectiveness of treatment.

4. refractoriness - a temporary decrease in the excitability of the tissue in the process of its excitation (sometimes absolute when there is no response to any stimulus and relative- at the same time, excitability is restored and the tissue is able to respond to strong (over-threshold) stimuli.

The state of rest in an excitable tissue is said to be in the case when the tissue is not affected by an irritant from the external or internal environment. At the same time, a constant level of metabolism is noted, there are no visible manifestations of tissue function.

Excitation - This is an active physiological process that occurs in the tissue under the influence of an irritant.

At the same time, its physiological properties change, functional functions are observed (a nerve impulse occurs in the nerve, the muscle contracts).

Inhibition is that which occurs when stimuli act on the tissue. Inhibition is manifested in the suppression (weakening) of excitation.

But long before the advent of these methods, it became clear that "animal electricity" is due to the processes occurring on the cell membrane.

- on the outer surface of the membrane there is a small amount (5-10%) carbohydrates(glycoproteins, glycolipids), which perform receptor and protective function.

Its value is 30-90 mV.

According to the membrane-ionic theory (Bernstein, Hodgkin, Huxley, Katz), the cause of the charge difference on the membrane is the unequal concentration of anions and cations inside and outside the cell.

Concentration Na+ outside the cell 10-12 times more than in the cell.

Ions Сl- outside the cell 30-50 times more than inside the cell.

The cell also contains macromolecular anions(proteins - glutamate, aspartate, organic phosphates).

IONIC ASYMETRY

IONIC ASYMETRY

Potassium concentration gradient

Sodium concentration gradient

1 . Unequal permeability for them the cell membrane;

2. Works of ion pumps, which transport ions into and out of the cell against concentration and electrical gradients using ATP energy.

Membrane permeability at rest for K+ is 25 times higher than for Na+.

According to the law of diffusion, K+ leaves the cell (because its concentration inside the cell is 40 times greater than outside the cell). Organic anions, due to their large size, cannot leave the cell and they create a negative charge on the inner surface of the membrane. Thus, the main ion that creates PP is K+ ion.

The action potential is expressed in the rapid fluctuation of the membrane PP under the action of a stimulus.

PD provides signal transmission between nerve cells, in the central nervous system, working organs, and muscles. The PD value is 80-130 mV, the duration is 0.5-1 ms.

PD includes:

PD includes:

– depolarization phase(i.e. reducing the membrane potential to zero);

- Inversions(reversal of charge sign: internal the membrane surface becomes positive charge, outdoor – negative);

- phase of repolarization- restoration of the initial charge of the membrane (minus from the inside, plus - from the outside);

- Trace potentials(trace depolarization and trace hyperpolarization)

When the cell is excited, Na channels are activated. Along the concentration gradient, Na ions rush into the cell, where its concentration is lower. In this case, the negative charge of the inner surface of the membrane decreases (depolarization). Then the charge difference arises with the opposite sign, since the number of cations in the cell exceeds the number of anions (inversion, charge exchange).

Thus, the main role in the occurrence of PD is played by Na+ ions.

It is "sodium-potassium pump". Carrier proteins (Na-K-ATPase), splitting the ATP molecule, use its energy to transfer ions (Na and K) against concentration and electrical gradients.

The amplitude of the LO depends on the strength of the stimulus

Spreads across the membrane by attenuation (decrement)

Can be summed up (as a result, the amplitude of depolarization increases)

Transforms into an action potential upon reaching the level of critical depolarization

Absolute refractoriness - lack of excitability (corresponds to the phase of depolarization and inversion)

Relative refractoriness (repolarization phase)

Supernormal excitability (trace depolarization)

Subnormal excitability (trace hyperpolarization).

law of force

all or nothing law

law of time (duration)

law of "steepness" (rise time of force)

polar law

The All or Nothing Law - subthreshold stimuli do not cause a response ("nothing"), on threshold and suprathreshold - there is a maximum response ("everything").

law of steepness – in order for AP to occur, the steepness of the stimulus must be no less than the threshold value. With a slow increase in the strength of irritation, excitation may not occur (accommodation).

1. Under the action of direct current, excitation occurs only at the moment closures or just at the moment opening chains.

2. At the same time, at the moment closures arousal only occurs under the cathode , and at the moment opening - under the anode.

3. The excitation that occurs under the cathode is greater than under the anode.

At the same time, a catelectroton develops under the cathode - an increase in excitability.

under the anode - anelectrotone - a decrease in excitability.

At the heart of this phenomenon lies the phenomenon accommodation fabrics, because direct current can be represented as a current with an infinitely small slope of rise.

Basic concepts: interaction, causation of interaction, interpersonal interaction, intergroup interaction, stages and levels of interaction, types and types of interaction, relationships, mutual influence, subject-object and subject-subject relationships, types and functions of relationships

Society does not consist of separate individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relations in which these individuals are in relation to each other. The basis of these connections and relationships is the actions of people and their influence on each other, which are called interactions.

4.1. The peculiarity of human interaction

General characteristics of interaction. Interaction - this is a process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, generating mutual conditioning and connection. It is causality that constitutes the main feature of interaction, when each of the interacting parties acts as the cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side, which determines the development of objects and their structures. If the interaction reveals a contradiction, then it acts as a source of self-movement and self-development of phenomena and processes. In interaction, the relation of a person to another person as to a subject who has his own world is realized. The interaction of a person with a person in society is the interaction of their inner worlds, the exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, the impact on goals and needs, the impact on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state. In addition, interaction in social psychology is usually understood not only as the influence of people on each other, but also as the direct organization of their joint actions, which allows the group to realize common activities for its members. The interaction itself in this case acts as a systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate reaction from other people. Joint life and activity, in contrast to the individual, at the same time has more severe restrictions on any manifestations of activity - the passivity of individuals. This forces people to build and coordinate the images of "I - he", "we - they", to coordinate efforts between them. In the course of real interaction, adequate ideas of a person about himself, other people, and their groups are also formed. The interaction of people is the leading factor in the regulation of their self-assessments and behavior in society. In a very simplified form, interaction can be represented as a process that consists of: – physical contact; - movement in space; – perceptions and attitudes of its participants; - spiritual verbal contact; - non-verbal information contact; - joint group activities. The structure of interaction usually includes: – subjects of interaction; - the mutual connection of its subjects; - mutual influence on each other; - Mutual changes in the subjects of interaction. Usually, intrapersonal, interpersonal, personal-group, personal-mass, intergroup, mass-group interactions are distinguished. But two types of interaction are of fundamental importance in their analysis: interpersonal and intergroup. Interpersonal interaction - these are accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections of two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and experiences. The main features of such interaction are: the presence of an external goal (object) in relation to the interacting individuals, the achievement of which involves mutual efforts; explicitness (accessibility) for observation from outside and registration by other people; situationality - rather strict regulation by specific conditions of activity, norms, rules and intensity of relations, due to which interaction becomes a rather changeable phenomenon; reflexive ambiguity - the dependence of its perception on the conditions of implementation and assessments of its participants. Intergroup interaction is a process of direct or indirect influence of multiple subjects (objects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditionality and the peculiar nature of relations. Usually it takes place between whole groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society. Interacting, representatives of various groups of society, on the one hand, change their own features and qualities, making them somewhat different, not similar to the previous ones, and on the other hand, they turn some of the unique features of each of them into something common, into a joint property. Revealing that these features belong only to representatives of one community becomes problematic over time. At the same time, we can talk about three options for interaction: impact, that is, a predominantly one-sided, unidirectional influence of one community (personality) on another (others), when one group (personality) is active, dominant, the other is inert, passive in relation to this influence (specific manifestations can be coercion, manipulation, etc.). P.); assistance, when two or more groups (persons) on an equal footing provide assistance, support to each other, achieve unity in deeds and intentions, and cooperation is the highest form of assistance; opposition, create obstacles to actions, generate contradictions in positions, block the efforts of another community (personality) or interfere with it, as well as organize active opposition up to physical actions (in order to contradict, prevent, collide with someone, it is necessary to to have certain qualities, to show vigor and combativeness). The likelihood of opposition increases in cases where a group (person) or its representatives encounter something new, unusual, non-traditional in their lives, in particular, with an unusual way of thinking, other mores and orders, alternative views. Under these circumstances, the reaction of counteraction is quite objective and normal. Each of the listed variants of interaction is not “one-dimensional”, but has a wide range of manifestations. For example, the impact can vary from harshly tyrannical to mild, taking into account the characteristics of the objects of influence, opposition can also be represented by a range - from irreconcilable contradictions to minor disagreements. It should be borne in mind that there may not be an unambiguous interpretation of interaction options, since each of them can absorb others, and some of them can gradually transform even into their opposite, move to another group, etc. Contents and interaction dynamics. At present, in Western science there are many points of view explaining the reasons for the interaction of people (see Table 1) . Tab. one. Western interaction theories

You can divide the process of human interaction into three levels: initial, intermediate and final. On the lowest level interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people, when between them there is only a certain primary and very simplified mutual or one-sided "physical" influence on each other for the purpose of exchanging information and communication, which, for specific reasons, may not achieve its goal, and therefore not receive comprehensive development. The main thing in the success of initial contacts lies in the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by the partners in the interaction. At the same time, they do not constitute a simple sum of individuals, but are some completely new and specific formation of connections and relationships, which is regulated by a real or imaginary (imagined) difference - similarity, similarity - contrast of people involved in joint activity (practical or mental). Differences between individuals are one of the main conditions for the further development of interaction (its other forms - communication, relationships, mutual understanding), as well as themselves as individuals. Any contact usually begins with a concrete sensory perception of the external appearance, features of the activity and behavior of other people. At this moment, as a rule, the emotional-behavioral reactions of individuals to each other dominate. Relationships of acceptance - rejection are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, posture, gaze, intonation, the desire to end or continue communication. They indicate whether people like each other. If not, then mutual or unilateral reactions of rejection follow (sliding gaze, jerking the hand when shaking, turning away the head, body, fencing gestures, "sour mine", fussiness, running away, etc.) or termination of established contact. And vice versa, people turn to those who smile, look straight and open, turn to the front, respond with a cheerful and cheerful intonation, to those who are trustworthy and with whom further cooperation can be developed through joint efforts. Of course, the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by partners in interaction has deeper roots. A distinction can be made between science-based and proven stages homogeneity - heterogeneity(degrees of similarity - differences) of the participants in the interaction. initial stage there is a ratio of individual (natural) and personal parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations) of people. Of particular importance in interpersonal interaction are the age and gender differences of partners. Final stage homogeneity - heterogeneity (degree of similarity - contrast of participants in interpersonal interaction) - there is a correlation in the group (similarity - difference) of opinions, attitudes (including sympathies - antipathies) to oneself, partners or other people, to the objective world (including to the joint activities). The final stage is divided into stages: primary (or initial) and secondary (or effective). The primary stage is the initial ratio of opinions given before interpersonal interaction (about the world of objects and their own kind). The secondary stage finds expression in the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions and relationships as a result of interpersonal interaction, the exchange of thoughts and feelings between participants in joint activities. An important role in the interaction at its initial stage is also played by the effect congruences. It is a confirmation of mutual role expectations, a single resonant rhythm, the consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact. Congruence implies a minimum of mismatches in the key moments of the lines of behavior of the participants in the contact, which results in stress relief, the emergence of trust and sympathy at a subconscious level. Congruence is enhanced by the feeling of complicity, interest, search for mutual activity caused by the partner based on his needs and life experience. Congruence may appear from the first minutes of contact between previously unfamiliar partners, or may not arise at all. The presence of a congruence indicates an increase in the likelihood that the interaction will continue. In this sense, one should strive to achieve congruence from the first minutes of contact. The main prerequisites for achieving congruence usually include: a) feeling of belonging which occurs in cases: ♦ when the goals of the subjects of interaction are interconnected; ♦ when there is a basis for interpersonal rapprochement; ♦ when subjects belong to the same social group; b) empathy, which is easier to implement: ♦ when establishing emotional contact; ♦ with the similarity of behavioral and emotional reactions of partners; ♦ in the presence of the same feelings for some subject; ♦ when attention is drawn to partners' feelings (for example, they are simply described); in) identification, which increases: ♦ with liveliness, variety of behavioral manifestations of the interacting parties; ♦ when a person sees traits of his character in another; ♦ when partners seem to change places and discuss from each other's positions; ♦ when referring to previous cases; ♦ with a commonality of thoughts, interests, social roles and positions. As a result of congruence and effective primary contacts, Feedback between people, which is a process of mutually directed responses that serves to maintain subsequent interaction and during which there is also an intentional or unintentional communication to another person about how his behavior and actions (or their consequences) are perceived or experienced. There are three main feedback functions. It usually acts as: 1) a regulator of human behavior and actions; 2) the regulator of interpersonal relations; 3) a source of self-knowledge. Feedback can be of different types, and each option corresponds to one or another specificity of interaction between people and the establishment of stable relations between them. Feedback can be: a) verbal (transmitted in the form of a voice message); b) non-verbal, carried out through facial expressions, posture, intonation of voice, etc.; c) expressed in the form of an action focused on manifestation, showing another person understanding, approval, and expressed in joint activity. Feedback can be immediate and delayed in time, it can be emotionally colored and transmitted by a person to another as a kind of experience, or it can be with a minimal experience of emotions and behavioral responses. In different options for joint activities, their own types of feedback are appropriate. The inability to use feedback significantly complicates the interaction of people, reducing its effectiveness. Thanks to feedback in the course of interaction, people become similar to each other, bring their state, emotions, actions and actions in line with the unfolding process of relationships. The existing psychological community of partners strengthens their contacts, leads to the development of relationships between them, contributes to the transformation of their personal relationships and actions into joint ones. Attitudes, needs, interests, relationships in general, acting as motives, determine the promising areas of interaction between partners, while its tactics are also regulated by a mutual understanding of the personal characteristics of people, their images-representations about each other, about themselves, the tasks of joint activity. At the same time, the regulation of the interaction and relationships of people is carried out not by one, but by a whole group of images. In addition to images-representations of partners about each other, the system of psychological regulators of joint activity includes images-representations of themselves ("I-concept"), partners' ideas about the impression they made on each other, the ideal image of the social role that partners perform, views on the possible results of joint activities. These images-representations together are not always clearly perceived by people in the process of interaction. They often act as unconscious impressions and do not find a way out into the conceptual sphere of thinking of the subjects of joint activity. At the same time, the psychological content contained in attitudes, motives, needs, interests, relationships, is manifested through volitional actions in various forms of partner-directed behavior. On the middle level process of human interaction, which is called productive collaboration, gradually developing active cooperation finds more and more expression in the effective solution of the problem of combining the mutual efforts of partners. Usually distinguish three models organization of joint activities: 1) each participant does his part of the common work independently of the other; 2) the common task is performed sequentially by each participant; 3) there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others. Their real existence depends on the conditions of activity, its goals and content. The common aspirations of people, however, can lead to clashes in the process of coordinating positions. As a result, people enter into an agreement-disagreement relationship with each other. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. In this case, the distribution of roles and functions between the participants in the interaction takes place. These relations cause a special orientation of volitional efforts in the subjects of interaction. It is associated either with a concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to show mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other volitional qualities of the individual, based on the intellect and a high level of consciousness and self-awareness of the individual. At the same time, at this time, the interaction of people is actively accompanied or mediated by the manifestation of complex socio-psychological phenomena, called compatibility - incompatibility (or workability - incompatibility). Just as interpersonal relationships and communication are specific forms of interaction, so compatibility and synergy must be considered its special constituent elements. Interpersonal relations in the group and compatibility (physiological and psychological) of its members give rise to another important socio-psychological phenomenon, which is commonly called the psychological climate. There are several types of compatibility. Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the interaction of temperamental characteristics, the needs of individuals. Psychological compatibility involves the interaction of characters, intellects, behavioral motives. Socio-psychological compatibility provides for the coordination of social roles, interests, value orientations of participants. Finally, socio-ideological compatibility is based on the commonality of ideological values, on the similarity of social attitudes (in intensity and direction) - regarding the possible facts of reality associated with the implementation of ethnic, class and confessional interests. There are no clear boundaries between these types of compatibility, while the extreme levels of compatibility, for example, physiological and socio-psychological, socio-ideological, have obvious differences. In joint activities, control by the participants themselves is noticeably activated (self-control, self-examination, mutual control, mutual examination), which affects the performance part of the activity, including the speed and accuracy of individual and joint actions. At the same time, it should be remembered that the motivation of its participants is primarily the engine of interaction and joint activities. There are several types of social interaction motives (motives for which a person interacts with other people): 1) maximizing the total gain (cooperation motive); 2) maximizing one's own gain (individualism); 3) maximizing the relative gain (competition); 4) maximizing the gain of the other (altruism); 5) minimizing the gain of another (aggression); 6) minimizing differences in payoffs (equality). Within the framework of this scheme, all possible motives that determine the social interaction of people can be generally included: interest in certain activities and specific people, means of communication, results of cooperation, the nature of relations between partners, etc. However, the most significant for understanding interaction are just the ones mentioned above. The mutual control over each other carried out by the participants in joint activities can lead to a revision of individual motives for activity if there are significant differences in their direction and level, as a result of which the individual motives of people begin to be coordinated. During this process, there is a constant coordination of thoughts, feelings, relationships of partners in joint life. It is clothed in various forms of influence of people on each other. Some of them encourage the partner to act (order, request, suggestion), others authorize the actions of partners (consent or refusal), and others cause discussion (question, reasoning). The discussion itself can take the form of coverage, conversation, debate, conference, seminar and a number of other types of interpersonal contacts. However, the choice of forms of influence is more often dictated by the functional-role relationships of partners in joint work. For example, the supervisory function of the manager encourages him to more frequent use of orders, requests and sanctioning answers, while the pedagogical function of the same leader requires more frequent use of discussion forms of interaction. Thus, the process of mutual influence of partners in interaction is realized. Through it, people "process" each other, striving to change and transform the mental states, attitudes and, ultimately, the behavior and psychological qualities of partners in joint activities. Mutual influence as a change in opinions and assessments can be situational when circumstances require it. As a result of repeated changes in opinions and assessments, stable assessments and opinions are formed, the convergence of which leads to the behavioral, emotional and cognitive unity of the participants in the interaction. This, in turn, leads to convergence of interests and value orientations, intellectual and character traits of the partners. The regulators of the mutual influence of people on each other are the mechanisms of suggestion, conformity and persuasion, when under the influence of opinions, relations of one partner, the opinions, relations of the other change. They are formed on the basis of a deeper property of living systems - imitation. Unlike the latter, suggestion, conformity and persuasion regulate interpersonal norms of thoughts and feelings. Suggestion is such an influence on other people that they perceive unconsciously. Conformity, in contrast to suggestion, is a phenomenon of a conscious change in opinions and assessments. Situationally and consciously, conformity allows you to maintain and coordinate ideas (norms) about the events taking place in people's lives and activities. Of course, events have varying degrees of significance for those who are forced to evaluate them. Persuasion is a process of long-term influence on another person, during which he consciously learns the norms and rules of behavior of partners in interaction. Convergence or change in mutual points of view and opinions affects all spheres and levels of interacting people. In the conditions of solving specific current problems of life and activity, especially communication, their convergence - divergence acts as a kind of regulator of interpersonal interaction. If the convergence of assessments and opinions forms a single "language", group norms of relations, behavior and activities, then their divergence acts as a driving force for the development of interpersonal relations and groups. Interpersonal interactions depend on the degree certainties - uncertainties(obviousness - non-obviousness) of facts, events, phenomena on which certain decisions are made. The researchers found the following relationship: with a high certainty (obviousness) of the problem, the probability of changing estimates and opinions is less, the adequacy of its solution is higher. With high uncertainty (non-obviousness) of the problem, the probability of changes in estimates and opinions is greater, the adequacy of its solution is less high. This dependence can be called the law of "socio-psychological expediency", which generally indicates that in the conditions of discussion of opinions, assessments, their adequacy to the real state of affairs increases. Top level interaction is always exceptionally effective joint activity of people, accompanied by mutual understanding.“Mutual understanding of people is such a level of their interaction at which they are aware of the content and structure of the present and possible next actions of the partner, and also mutually contribute to the achievement of a common goal. For mutual understanding, joint activity is not enough, mutual assistance is needed. It excludes its antipode - mutual opposition, with the appearance of which misunderstanding arises, and then misunderstanding of man by man. At the same time, mutual misunderstanding

- one of the essential prerequisites for the collapse of human interaction or the cause of a wide variety of interpersonal difficulties, conflicts, etc. An essential characteristic of mutual understanding is always its adequacy. It depends on a number of factors: on the type of relationship between partners (relationships of acquaintance and friendship, friendship, love and marital relations, comradely, business relations); from the sign or valence of relations (likes, dislikes, indifferent relations); on the degree of possible objectification, the manifestation of personality traits in the behavior and activities of people (sociability, for example, is most easily observed in the process of interaction). Of great importance in the adequacy of both accuracy, depth and breadth of perception and interpretation are opinions, assessments of other more or less significant people, groups, authoritative persons. For a correct analysis of mutual understanding, two factors can be correlated - sociometric status and the degree of similarity according to it. At the same time, the following is found out: people with different socio-psychological statuses in the team steadily interact with each other (are friends); reject each other, that is, they experience interpersonal rejection, those persons who are similar in status and it is not high enough for them (significant differences). In pairs of people who mutually reject each other, the combinations “choleric - choleric”, “sanguine - sanguine” and “phlegmatic - sanguine” are most often found. There was not a single case of mutual denials in a pair of the "phlegmatic - phlegmatic" type. In friendly couples, there is not a single case of the combinations “choleric - choleric”, “sanguine - sanguine”, and in pairs of people who mutually reject each other, such combinations are the majority. A wider range of combinations with other types of temperament have melancholics, who steadily retain interpersonal attraction to their own kind, with phlegmatic and sanguine people. The combination of a melancholic with a choleric occurs only once: choleric people, due to their irritability, “unrestraint”, do not get along well (incompatible) with melancholic people and other choleric people, and melancholic people are better compatible with phlegmatic and sanguine people. Thus, interaction is a complex multi-stage and multifaceted process during which communication, perception, relationships, mutual influences and mutual understanding of people are carried out. Types of interaction. Interaction, as already emphasized, is diverse. An indicator of this is its typology. Usually there are several types of interactions. The most common is the dichotomous division: cooperation and competition(consent and conflict, accommodation and opposition). In this case, both the type of interaction (cooperation or rivalry) and the degree of expression of this interaction (successful or less successful cooperation) determine the nature of interpersonal relations between people. In the process of interaction of these types, as a rule, the following leading behavioral strategies in interaction: 1. Cooperation aimed at the full satisfaction of the participants in the interaction of their needs (either the motive of cooperation or competition is realized). 2. Opposition, which involves focusing on one's goals without taking into account the goals of communication partners (individualism). 3. Compromise, realized in the private achievement of the goals of partners for the sake of conditional equality. 4. Compliance, involving the sacrifice of one's own interests in order to achieve the goals of a partner (altruism). 5. Avoidance, which is the avoidance of contact, the loss of one's own goals for exceptions another's win. The division into types can be based on the intentions and actions of people that reflect their understanding of the situation of communication. Then there are three types of interactions: additional, intersecting and hidden. An additional interaction is such an interaction in which the partners adequately perceive each other's position. Intersecting is an interaction in which partners, on the one hand, demonstrate the inadequacy of understanding the positions and actions of another participant in the interaction, and on the other hand, clearly show their own intentions and actions. Hidden interaction includes two levels at the same time: explicit, verbally expressed, and hidden, implied. It implies either a deep knowledge of the partner, or greater sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication - tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, since they convey the hidden content. Interaction is always present in the form of two components: content and style. Content determines around what or about what this or that interaction is deployed. Style indicates how a person interacts with others. We can talk about productive and unproductive styles of interaction. productive style is a fruitful way of contact between partners, contributing to the establishment and extension of relationships of mutual trust, the disclosure of personal potentials and the achievement of effective results in joint activities. It is known that this style of interaction does not exist between people initially. It is installed. At the same time, quite often the participants in the interaction, due to personal characteristics, cannot adapt to each other, come to an agreement, overcome barriers, and establish trusting relationships. In other cases, having exhausted the resources of adaptation available to them, having achieved some balance and trust in the first stages of the development of interaction, people cannot maintain effective relationships. In both cases, one speaks of unproductive style interactions - an unproductive way of contact between partners, blocking the realization of personal potentials and the achievement of optimal results of joint activities. A real manifestation of the unproductive style of interaction is a situation perceived by a person as “conflict”, “dead end”, as well as anxiety, tension, negative relationships and emotions experienced at the same time. At the same time, people react to a problem situation in interaction in different ways: some solve it on their own, others need support and psychological help. Usually isolated five major criteria that allow you to correctly understand the style of interaction: The nature of the activity in the position of the partners (in the productive style - “next to the partner”, the active position of both partners as accomplices in the activity, in the unproductive style - “above the partner”, the active position of the leading partner and the passive position of subordination of the slave that complements it ). The nature of the goals put forward (in a productive style - partners jointly develop both close and distant goals; in an unproductive style - the dominant partner puts forward only close goals without discussing them with a partner). The nature of responsibility (in a productive style, all participants in the interaction are responsible for the results of activities; in an unproductive style, all responsibility is attributed to the dominant partner). The nature of the relationship that arises between partners (in a productive style - benevolence and trust; in an unproductive style - aggression, resentment, irritation). The nature of the functioning of the mechanism of identification - isolation (identification and isolation in a productive style; extreme forms of identification and alienation in an unproductive style). The peculiarity of intergroup interaction. Social psychology has so far paid little attention to the problems of intergroup interaction. Three of his integrative phenomena are currently being investigated. First, this group affiliation, which reflects the interaction between groups that are components of a larger community. Any group is characterized by the desire to be an integral part and feel belonging to a wider social community. These are interactions of groups of different scale and volume (vertical interaction), which cannot be equal. In this case, a large social group, as it were, absorbs into itself the small ones, which function according to the laws of the first. Consequently, in order to comprehend the socio-psychological characteristics of a small group, it is first necessary to understand the uniqueness of a large social group, of which it is a part. The general socio-psychological characteristics of the group should begin with the identification of its social affiliation. The general analysis in this case will be primary in relation to the particular. If we take for comparison two social groups that differ in their belonging to different large social groups, we must, first of all, determine the significant differences between these large groups and, on the basis of this, give a comparative description of the small groups that make up them. The very division of a large social group into smaller ones (subgroups) contributes to the formation of a social sense of belonging - a sense of "we", which gives rise to the perception of social phenomena through the prism of "us" and "them". A conflict of interest between groups provokes the development of aggression, hostility towards representatives of another group. This causes the participants in the interaction to feel a sense of danger, threat, and the other group is perceived as the source of this threat. At the same time, there is an increase in intra-group solidarity, cohesion, a more complete awareness by individuals of belonging to their group. The impenetrability of the boundaries of group membership is increasing. At the same time, social control in the group is significantly enhanced, which leads to the fact that the degree of deviation of individuals from the fulfillment of group norms decreases. Secondly, the phenomenon of intergroup interaction is openness group, which is necessary in order to maintain its existence in constantly changing social conditions and ensure the full functioning and development. All processes of group interaction with the surrounding society are carried out through group openness. Openness is manifested in the desire of the group to receive information and influence from outside, as a result of which it is subjected to various kinds of influences and assessments from other groups. The level of group openness can be regarded as a kind of criterion for updating the group and maintaining a balance between the processes of differentiation and integration. The openness of the group can also be associated with the attraction of new members or even a change in the composition of the group. The level of group openness is determined by the well-being of the existence of the group in society. The higher the level of well-being, the more open the group can be. Under unfavorable conditions, an open group becomes a closed one. Closeness in this case is significant from the point of view of preserving the group as a whole and saves the group for some time. However, if it is closed for a sufficiently long period of time, then it gradually loses its positive adaptive functions and, through stagnation, is reborn, turning from an adaptive social phenomenon into a maladaptive one. Thirdly, the most important phenomenon of intergroup interaction is intergroup reference, which manifests itself in an appeal to a significant external group, acting as a carrier of certain values ​​and norms, a certain reference model. Intergroup reference is determined by the value orientations of the group, its social attitudes and leading development trends. If the latter change, then the intergroup reference also changes. Modern socio-psychological studies of intergroup interaction show that its main functions are the preservation, stabilization and development of groups as functional units of social life. In interacting with other groups, each group strives for a more or less stable state by maintaining a relative balance of integration and differentiation tendencies. If the tendencies of differentiation intensify in the external relations of the group, then the internal relations will be characterized by the strengthening of the tendency of integration and vice versa. Rivalry, cooperation, non-participation relations are the main strategies for interaction between social groups. The dominant strategy of interaction should be considered the strategy of rivalry.