Slavic group of the Indo-European family. Differences between South Slavic languages and other Slavic languages

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education

«CRIMEAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V.I. Vernadsky" (FGAOU VO "KFU named after V.I. Vernadsky")

TAVRICHESKA ACADEMY

Faculty of Slavic Philology and Journalism

on the topic: Modern Slavic languages

discipline: "Introduction to Slavic Philology"

Completed by: Bobrova Marina Sergeevna

Scientific adviser: Malyarchuk-Proshina Ulyana Olegovna

Simferopol - 2015

Introduction

1. Modern Slavic languages. General information

1.1 West Slavic group

1.2 South Slavic group

1.3 East Slavic group

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

2.2 Czech language

2.3 Slovak language

2.4 Serbolussian language

2.5 Polab language

3. South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian

3.2 Slovenian language

3.3 Bulgarian language

3.4 Macedonian language

4. East Slavic group of languages0

4.1 Russian language

4.2 Ukrainian language

4.3 Belarusian language

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Slaviclanguageand- a group of related languages of the Indo-European family (see. Indo-European languages). Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is over 290 million people. They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the root word, affixes, word structure, the use of grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This proximity is explained both by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages, and by their long and intensive contacts at the level of literary languages and dialects. There are, however, differences of a material, functional and typological nature, due to the long-term independent development of Slavic tribes and nationalities in different ethnic, geographical and historical-cultural conditions, their contacts with kindred and unrelated ethnic groups.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and West Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish with a Kashubian dialect that has retained a certain genetic independence , Upper and Lower Lusatian). There are also small local groups of Slavs with their own literary languages. Not all Slavic languages have come down to us. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. the Polish language disappeared. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics (see East Slavic languages, West Slavic languages, South Slavic languages). Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its stylistic, genre and other varieties and its own territorial dialects.

1 . Modern Slavic languages. Ogeneral information

1. 1 West Slavic group

The West Slavic group includes Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Lusatian languages (upper and lower). Polish is spoken by about 35 million people living in Poland, and about 2 million Poles abroad (including about 100 thousand in Czechoslovakia - in Teszyn Silesia and Orava). Kashubians live in Poland on the coast of the Vistula, mainly in the Sea and Kartuz regions. Their number reaches 200 thousand. On the territory of Czechoslovakia, closely related Czech and Slovak languages are represented: In the western regions, about 10 million. people use Czech, in the east, about 5 million speak Slovak. About 1 million people live outside of Czechoslovakia. Czechs and Slovaks.

The Serboluzhitsky language is spoken in the territory of western Germany along the upper reaches of the river. Spree. The Upper Lusatians are part of the state of Saxony; the Lower Lusatians live in Brandenburg. Lusatians are a national minority of the former GDR; before the Second World War there were about 180 thousand; Currently, their number is estimated at 150 thousand people.

Thus, about 50 million people use West Slavic languages, which is approximately 17% of the total number of Slavs and about 10% of the total population of Europe.

On the territory of eastern Germany, the West Slavic languages underwent German assimilation in the 12th-16th centuries and disappeared. The data of modern toponymy testify to the ancient Slavic population of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony and some other areas. Back in the 18th century Slavic speech was preserved on the Elbe, in the Lyukhovsky district on the river. Etse. The language of the Polabian Slavs is being restored on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, small recordings of living speech made in the 17th-18th centuries, and small dictionaries of that time. In Slavic studies, it is called the "polabian language".

1.2 South Slavic group

The South Slavic group includes Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian. They are distributed throughout most of the Balkan Peninsula. The southern Slavs are separated from the Eastern Slavs by the territory of Romania, from the Western Slavs by Hungary and Austria.

Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages are represented on the territory of Yugoslavia. The Slovenian language is spoken by about 1.5 million Slovenians living in Slovenia. 500 thousand Slovenes live outside of Yugoslavia. The Kajkavian dialect is a transitional language from Slovene to Serbo-Croatian.

Over 18 million people speak Serbo-Croatian, uniting Serbs and Croats, as well as Montenegrins and Bosniaks. They use a single literary Serbo-Croatian language. Serbo-Croatian is separated from Bulgarian by a wide belt of transitional and mixed dialects stretching from the mouth of the river. Timok through Pirot Vrane, up to Prizren.

Macedonian is spoken by people south of Skopje in Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria. In the west, the territory of distribution of this language is limited by the Ohrid and Presnyansky lakes, in the east by the river. Struma. The total number of Macedonians is difficult to establish, but it hardly exceeds 1.5 million in total. The Macedonian language received literary processing only after the Second World War.

Bulgarian is spoken by about 9 million people living in Bulgaria. In addition to the Macedonians living in Greece, it should be noted that one hundred outside Bulgaria and Yugoslavia live: Slovenes in Trieste, Italy, Austria, Serbs and Croats (about 120 thousand) in Hungary and Romania, Bulgarians in Moldova and Ukraine. The total number of southern Slavs is about 31 million people.

1.3 East Slavic group

East Slavic languages are used as the main languages throughout the East European Plain north of the Black and Caspian Seas and the Caucasus Range, east of the Prut and Dniester rivers. Especially widespread was the Russian language, which is a means of interethnic communication for many Slavs (over 60 million).

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

Poles use Latin script. To convey some sounds, diacritical marks are used for Latin letters and combinations of letters.

There are eight vowels in the literary language. Nasal vowels are not always pronounced the same, in some positions the nasal overtone is lost.

The territory of distribution of the Polish language is divided into five dialect groups: Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Silesian, Mazovian and Kashubian. The most extensive territories are occupied by dialects of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mavsoshya.

The division into dialects is based on two features of Polish phonetics: 1) mazurenia, 2) features of interword phonetics. Masuria dominates in Mavsosh, Lesser Poland and the northern part of Selesia.

The most significant features characterize the Kashubian dialect, which is distributed west of the lower Vistula. The number of speakers of this dialect reaches 200 thousand people. Some scientists believe that the Kashubian dialect should be regarded as an independent language and attributed to the West Slavic subgroup.

Dialect features:

1. Different from the Polish place of stress. In the southern part of the Kashubian region, the stress falls on the initial syllable; in the north, the stress is free and ubiquitous.

2. Pronunciation of solid s, dz.

3. Pronunciation of vowels i (y), and how ё.

4. The presence of a soft consonant before the group - ar-.

5. Loss of nasality after soft consonants and before all consonants except d, n, s, z, r, t.

6. Partial preservation of vowel differences in longitude and brevity.

2.2 Czech

The Czech script uses the Latin alphabet. For the transmission of Czech sounds, some changes and innovations have been made, based on the use of superscripts.

Czech spelling is dominated by the morphological principle, but there are a number of historical spellings.

The area of distribution of the Czech language is characterized by dialect diversity. The most important dialect groups are: Czech (Czech Republic and Western Moravia), Middle Moravian and Lyashskaya (Silesia and northeastern Moravia). This classification is based mainly on differences in the pronunciation of long vowels. Within the marked dialect groups, smaller dialect units are distinguished (in the Czech group, there are: Central Bohemian, North Bohemian, West Bohemian and North-East Czech dialects; dialect diversity is especially great in Moravia). It should be noted that many dialects of eastern Moravia are close to the Slovak language.

2 . 3 Slovak language

Distributed in the eastern regions of Czechoslovakia. It is closest to the Czech language, with which it has a common grammatical structure and a significant part of the main vocabulary (the names of natural phenomena, animals, plants, parts of the year and day, many household items, etc.) are identical.

The Slovak language consists of three dialects: Western Slovak, many of whose features are close to the neighboring Moravian dialects of the Czech language, Middle Slovak - the dialect basis of the modern literary language, East Slovak, some dialects of which testify to Polish or Ukrainian influence.

2. 4 Serbolussianto

The Lusatian Serbs are the descendants of the Western Slavs, who in the past occupied the territories between the Odra and the Elbe and were subjected to Germanization. They speak quite sharply different dialects from each other: Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian, in connection with which there are corresponding two literary languages. In addition, the presence of the Eastern Lusatian (muzhakovsky) dialect should be noted.

Writing in both Lusatian languages arose in the 16th century.

Lusatian graphics are Latin.

2.5 Polab language

From the language of the tribes that once occupied the territory between the Oder and the Elbe, only information about the language of the Drevlyane tribe, who lived on the left bank of the Elbe in the vicinity of Lüneburg (Hannovrer), has survived. The last speakers of the Polabian language died out at the end of the 18th century, and our information about it is based on records and dictionaries of that language made by German folk art lovers.

The entire region of the Polabian Slavs is usually divided into Velet, Obodrite and Drevlyan dialect groups, but there is no exact information about the first two.

3 . South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian

Serbo-Croatian is used by three nations - Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins, as well as Bosnians, residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. At present, the differences between the Serbian and Croatian versions of the literary language are only in vocabulary and pronunciation. The graphic form of these variants differs; Serbs use the Cyrillic alphabet, which is derived from the Russian civil alphabet, while Croats use the Latin alphabet. Serbo-Croatian is characterized by considerable dialectal diversity. It is customary to distinguish three major dialects: Shtokavian, Chakavian and Kajkavian. These names were obtained by them from the relatively insignificant feature of the interrogative pronoun that The Shtokavian dialect occupies most of the territory of the Serbo-Croatian language. The Chakavian dialect currently occupies a relatively small territory of the Serbo-Croatian language: the coast of Dalmatia, the western part of Croatia, part of Istria and the coastal islands of Krk, Rab, Brac, Korcula and others. located in this region).

3.2 Slovenian language

The Slovenian literary language uses the Croatian script.

The territory of the Slovene language is distinguished by its extreme dialectal diversity. This is due to the fragmentation of the people and partly the nature of the relief. There are up to six dialect groups: 1) Khorutan (extreme northwest); 2) seaside (western Slovenia); 3) Vehnekrainskaya (to the northwest of Ljubljana in the valley of the Sava River); 4) Lower Krainsk (southeast of Ljubljana); 5) Styrian (in the northeast between Drava and Sava); 6) Pannonian (extreme northeast) with Zamursky (beyond the Mura River) dialect, which has a long literary tradition.

3. 3 Bulgarian language

Bulgarians use the Cyrillic alphabet, which goes back to the Russian civil alphabet. Bulgarian differs from the Russian alphabet in the absence of letters s and uh.

A characteristic feature that makes it possible to group the Bulgarian dialects is the pronunciation of the replacements of the old ? . All-Bulgarian dialects in this regard are divided into Western and Eastern. The border that separates these two dialects goes from the mouth of the river. Vit through Pleven, Tatar-Pasardzhik, Melnik to Thessalonica. There are also northeastern dialects.

3. 4 Macedonian language

The youngest and Slavic literary languages. Its development began in 1943, when, in the course of the liberation struggle against Hitlerism, a decision was made to turn Yugoslavia into a federal state on the basis of the national equality of all its peoples, including the Macedonians. The basis of the new literary language was the central dialects (Bitol, Prilep, Veles, Kichevo), where the influence of the Serbian and Bulgarian languages was relatively weaker. In 1945, a single orthography was adopted, which was brought closer to the graphics in 1946. The first school grammar was published.

In addition to the central one, there are also northern and southern dialects. Northern dialect extending north from Skopje and Kumanov, and also occupying the Dolni Polog, characterized by features close to the Serbian language. The southern dialect is diverse.

4. East Slavic group of languages

4.1 Russian language

Russians use graphics dating back to the Cyrillic alphabet. By order of Peter I (1672-1725), the Slayan alphabet was replaced by the so-called "civilian" one. The letters were given a more rounded and simple shape, convenient for both writing and printing; a number of unnecessary letters were excluded. The civil alphabet, with some changes, is used by all Slavic peoples who do not use the Latin alphabet. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological, although we often find elements of phonetic and traditional spelling.

The Russian language is divided into two main dialects - North Great Russian and South Great Russian, between which the Middle Great Russian dialects stretch in a narrow strip from the gray-west to the south-east, forming a passage between the two dialects. Transitional dialects for the most part have a northern basis, on which later (after the 16th century) southern Russian features were layered.

The Northern Great Russian dialect is characterized by three main features that are common to all its dialects: okanie, distinction of vowels a and about not only under stress, but also in unstressed positions, with the presence G explosive and - t(solid) at the end of the 3rd person of the present tense of verbs. There are also clatters and clatters (no distinction c and h).

The South Great Russian dialect is characterized by akany, the presence of fricative g and -t "(soft) in the 3rd person of verbs. Yakan is characteristic.

4.2 Ukrainian language

Ukrainian graphics are basically the same as in Russian. The peculiarity of e is, first of all, the absence of letters e, b, s, e. For transmission yo in Ukrainian the combination is used yo and yo. In the meaning of separating solid b an apostrophe is used.

The territory of the Ukrainian language is divided into three dialects: northern (to the north from the line Sudzha - Sumy - Kanev - Belaya Tserkov - Zhytormir - Vladimir-Volynsky), southwestern and southeastern (the border between them goes from Skvyra through Uman, Ananiev to the lower currents of the Dniester). The southeastern dialect formed the basis of the Ukrainian literary language. Its features basically coincide with the system of the literary language.

4.3 Belarusian language

The Belarusian alphabet differs from the Russian one in the following features: the vowel th always denoted by the letter i; letter b is absent and the separating value is conveyed by an apostrophe; an accent is used to convey a non-syllable y; missing letter sch, since there is no such sound in Belarusian, but there is a combination shh. The Belarusian spelling is based on the phonetic principle.

The territory of the Belarusian language is divided into two dialects: southwestern and northeastern. The approximate border between them goes along the Vilnos-Minsk-Rogachev-Gomel line. The principle of division is the character of akanya and some other phonetic features. The southwestern dialect is characterized primarily by non-dissimilative yak and yak. It should be noted that on the border with the Ukrainian language there is a wide band of transitional Ukrainian-Belarusian dialects.

Slavic language phonetic morphological

Conclusion

The emergence of Slavic writing in the second half of the 9th century. (863) was of great importance for the development of Slavic culture. A very perfect graphic system was created for one of the types of Slavic speech, work began on the translation of some parts of the Bible and the creation of other liturgical texts. Old Church Slavonic became the common language due to Western influence and the conversion to Catholicism. Therefore, the further use of the Old Church Slavonic language is associated primarily with the Slavic south and east. The use of Old Church Slavonic as a literary language led to the fact that this language was primarily subjected to grammatical processing.

The Proto-Slavic language has experienced a long history. It was during the period of the existence of the Proto-Slavic language that all the main characteristic features of the Slavic languages were formed. Among these phenomena, the main phonetic and morphological changes should be noted.

Literature

1. Kondrashov N.A. Slavic languages: Proc. Manual for students of philol. special, ped, in-comrade. - 3rd edition, remastered. and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1986.

2. Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, edited by V.N. Yartseva

3. Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.

4. Nachtigal R. Slavic languages. M., 1963

5. Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, Moscow, 1951.

6. Trubachev O.N. Ethnogenesis and culture of the ancient Slavs: linguistic studies. M., 1991.

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Proto-Slavic language. Old Slavonic language. Modern Slavic languages

Common Slavic or Proto-Slavic the language spoken by the ancestors of the modern Slavic peoples, who lived on the territory of their ancestral homeland, was preserved in the first centuries AD. e. (at least until the middle of the first millennium), but the settlement of the Slavs on ever larger territories naturally led to the development of local dialects, some of which then underwent transformation into independent languages 46 .

Modern philological ideas about this language concern mainly its phonology and morphology; it is unlikely that anyone will undertake to compose a long coherent phrase on it, or even more so to try to “speak in Proto-Slavonic”. The fact is that the Proto-Slavic language was the language preliterate; there are no texts on it, and philologists deduce its word forms, features of its phonology and phonetics by the method of reconstruction. Philology students are introduced in detail to the principles of such a reconstruction, in particular, at the course of the Old Church Slavonic language. 47 . The course "Introduction to Slavic Philology", avoiding duplication of such information, nevertheless includes its necessary beginnings in a brief "introductory-reminder" form.

In the Proto-Slavic language, for example, a very peculiar system of verbal conjugation and declension of names developed, the individual disparate features of which are still preserved to one degree or another by modern Slavic languages. A complex system of childbirth (male, female, and even middle) corresponded to several declensions. Sonorant(“smooth”) consonants j, w, r, l, m, n in Proto-Slavic were able to form an independent syllable (without the participation of a vowel phoneme). In the process of historical evolution, the Proto-Slavic language has repeatedly experienced softening ( palatalization) consonants.

In the Proto-Slavic language, among the consonants, some were only hard, but then they softened, and *k, *g, *h before the front vowels turned into hissing k > h’, g > w’, x > w’ (under certain conditions, k, g, x subsequently also turned into soft whistling k > c', g > h', x > c').

In recent centuries, the Proto-Slavic language has experienced a process of transition from closed syllables to open ones. Among the vowels there were diphthongs. Diphthongic vowel combinations still exist in some other Indo-European languages. As a result of complex processes, they were lost, as a result of which the Old Slavonic and, from oi, ai - ѣ (yat), etc., turned out from the diphthong ei. Diphthongs developed later in the Slovak and Czech languages on a new basis.

Greek brothers Konstantin(monastic Cyril, c. 827-869) and Methodius(c. 815-885) were natives of Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) and knew the local South Slavic dialect well, which was, apparently, a dialect of the ancient Bulgarian language. The Old Slavonic language was originally based on it, preserved in many ancient texts of the end of the 1st millennium AD. e., written in "Glagolitic" and "Cyrillic". (Another name for it is Old Church Slavonic.) Constantine created the Slavic alphabet, using which the brothers translated the most important Christian sacred books into Old Slavonic. Due to the presence of writing and monuments, Old Slavonic, in contrast to Proto-Slavic, has been well studied by philologists.

Main Glagolitic monuments - Kyiv leaflets, Assemanian Gospel, Zograph Gospel, Sinai Psalter, Mary Gospel and others. The main Cyrillic monuments - Savvin's book, Suprasl manuscript, Hilandar leaflets and etc.

The Old Slavonic language is characterized by a complex system of verb forms that convey various shades of the past tense - aorist (past perfect), perfect (past indefinite), imperfect (past imperfect), pluperfect (long past).

It had reduced vowels ъ and ь, which were subsequently lost at the end of a word and in a weak position (for example, window from Art.-Slav. window, house from Art.-Slav. dom), and in a strong position they developed into “full-vowels” ( father from Art.-Slav. otts) 48 . A characteristic Old Slavonic feature was the nasal vowels [on] and [en] - displayed by the letters ѫ (“yus big”) and ѧ (“yus small”). The nasals were preserved, for example, in Polish, but in Russian [o n] moved to [y], and [en] - to [’a].

The fate of the Proto-Slavic vowels *o and *e in combination with sonorant consonants *r and *l was very interesting. If we conditionally designate all other consonants with the letter t, then it turns out that among the southern Slavs, for example, in the same Old Slavonic language, a vowel lengthened with its subsequent interchange with the consonant *r, *l: *tort> *to:rt> tro: t > trat; *tolt > to:lt > tlo:t > tlat; *tert > te:rt > tre:t > trht; *telt > te:lt > tle:t > tlѣt (that is, the so-called disagreement of the type -ra-, -la-, -rѣ- has developed: city, head, gold, power, milk, environment, etc.). Among the Western Slavs, this corresponded to a disagreement like -ro-, -lo- (cf. Polish głowa, krowa). The Eastern Slavs, however, developed full agreement like -oro-, -olo-, -ere- (city, head, gold, parish, milk, middle, etc.): *tort > tort > tor°t > torot; *tårt > tert > ter e t > teret etc. (small letter in uppercase denotes a faint overtone that appeared initially).

Russian classical poetry actively used Old Slavonic synonyms (familiar to Russian readers through the Church Slavonic language) - for example, to give "height" to style.

There were seven cases in the Old Slavonic language. Usually, the endings of the nominative and accusative cases of the singular coincided in both animate and inanimate nouns (an exception was made to designate persons standing hierarchically high: prophet, prince, father, etc. - here the form of the accusative could coincide with the form of the genitive, as in modern Russian). The modern prepositional case, the sixth in a row, corresponded to the local one. By the way, as for the Old Slavonic words and their declension by case, we will mention such interesting phenomena as the vocative case of nouns (seventh) lost by the Russian language - goro (from mountain), earth (from earth), synou (from son), etc. , as well as the dual number, also lost by the Slavic languages (except for the language of the Lusatian Serbs). The Bulgarian and Macedonian languages have generally lost the declension of nouns - in them, as in other languages of the analytical system (like, for example, French), prepositions and word order indicate the contextual meanings of nouns (they also developed a characteristic postpositive definite article, written together after words - e.g. Bulgarian "book that from "book").

Personal pronouns ja, ty, my, wy, on, etc. are rarely used in Polish speech, although they are provided for by the language system. Instead of the second person pronoun wy, Poles usually use the word "pan" (in relation to a woman or girl pani), transforming the phrase accordingly - so that the address is made in the form of a third person, for example: co pan chce? (i.e. what do you want?)

A characteristic feature of the Slavic languages is the verb form (imperfect and perfect), which makes it possible to compactly express the semantic nuances associated with an action that lasts or repeats, on the one hand, and is completed, on the other.

The Slavic languages form a group that is part of the Indo-European language family. Slavic languages are currently spoken by more than 400 million people. The languages of the group under discussion break up, in turn, into West Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbo-Lusatian, which includes two dialects (Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian), and Polabian, which has been dead since the end of the 18th century), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian 49 , Slovenian, Macedonian and dead since the beginning of the 20th century. Slovinsky) and East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian) 50 . As a result of a detailed comparative historical study of the Slavic languages, one of the greatest philologists of the 20th century. prince Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy(1890-1938) wrote:

“We have seen that in relation to the language, the Russian tribe occupies a completely exceptional position among the Slavs in terms of its historical significance” 51 .

This conclusion of Trubetskoy is based on the unique historical and cultural role of the Russian language, which he understands as follows: “Being a modernized and Russified form of the Church Slavonic language, the Russian literary language is the only direct successor to the common Slavic literary and linguistic tradition, which originates from the holy first teachers of the Slavic, i.e. e. from the end of the era of Proto-Slavic unity " 52 .

To substantiate the question of the "historical significance" of the "Russian tribe", it is, of course, necessary, in addition to the peculiarities of the language, to draw on the spiritual culture created by the Russian people. Since this is a huge complex problem, we restrict ourselves here to simply listing the main names: in science - Lomonosov, Lobachevsky, Mendeleev, Pavlov, Korolev; in literature - Pushkin, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Gorky, Bunin, Mayakovsky, Bulgakov, Sholokhov; in music - Glinka, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninov, Scriabin, Stravinsky, Shostakovich, Sviridov; in painting and sculpture - Bryullov, Surikov, Repin, Vasnetsov, Valentin Serov, Kustodiev, Konenkov, etc.

A M.V. Lomonosov, in the "Dedication" prefaced by his "Russian Grammar", states:

“Charles the Fifth, the Roman emperor, used to say that it was decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with women. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would add to that that it was decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would find in it the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, richness and strength in images brevity of Greek and Latin" 53 .

As for the understanding of the Russian literary language as a "Russified form" of Church Slavonic, for the sake of objectivity, it is necessary to linger a little on this topic.

Two groups of concepts of the origin of the Russian literary language can be distinguished. Some concepts that go back partly to the academician Izmail Ivanovich Sreznevsky(1812-1880), part of the academician Alexey Alexandrovich Shakhmatov(1864-1920), one way or another, they see the Russified Old Church Slavonic in the Old Russian literary language. Others go back to the work of the academician Sergei Petrovich Obnorsky(1888-1962).

In the work of S.P. Obnorsky " "Russkaya Pravda" as a monument of the Russian literary language"says:

“An analysis of the language of Russkaya Pravda made it possible to clothe in flesh and blood the concept of this literary Russian language of the older period. Its essential features are the well-known artlessness of the structure, i.e., proximity to the colloquial element of speech,<...>the absence of traces of interaction with the Bulgarian, common - the Bulgarian-Byzantine culture ... " 54 .

The conclusion of the scientist is that the Russians already in the 10th century. it had its own literary language, independent of Old Slavonic, was revolutionary, and they immediately tried to challenge it, emphasizing that Russkaya Pravda was not a literary monument, but a work of “business content”. Then S.P. Obnorsky involved in the analysis "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh, "The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener" - that is, the artistically most important ancient Russian monuments.

Academician Obnorsky published the famous book " Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the older period» 55 . In it, in particular, he wrote “about the Russian basis of our literary language, and, accordingly, about the later collision of the Church Slavonic language with it and the secondary nature of the process of penetration of Church Slavonic elements into it” 56 . Proceedings of S.P. Obnorsky were deservedly awarded the Stalin Prize (1947) and the Lenin Prize (1970, posthumously) - that is, the highest creative awards of the Soviet era.

The essence of the conclusions of Academician Obnorsky is that the Russian literary language developed independently - that is, "the Russian literary language is Russian by nature, Church Slavonic elements are secondary in it" 57 .

Indeed, all the monuments listed above studied by Obnorsky - both the set of ancient legal norms "Russian Truth", and literary and artistic masterpieces - are typically Russian in terms of language.

(This does not negate the fact that, in parallel, in a number of genres, Russians wrote in Church Slavonic - for example, Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", the lives of the saints, church teachings, etc. And oral speech in Church Slavonic sounded - during church services.)

For comparison, one can point to, for example, the Polish language, whose vocabulary tangibly reflected the results of centuries of pressure on it from Latin, explained by the fact that the direction of the development of Polish culture has long been set by the Catholic Church. The Poles generally wrote in Latin for centuries, while the Orthodox Slavic peoples created literature in Church Slavonic. 58 . But, on the other hand, it was Polish, as already mentioned, that retained the Proto-Slavic nasal vowels [en] and [o n] (in Polish they are denoted by the letters ę and ą: for example, księżyc - moon, month; dąb - oak). Separate Proto-Slavic features have been preserved by some other Slavic languages. So, in Czech to this day there are so-called smooth syllables, for example vlk - wolf. Bulgarian still uses such ancient verb tenses as aorist (past perfect), perfect (past indefinite) and imperfect (past imperfect); in Slovenian, the “long-past” (“pre-past”) verb tense pluperfect and such a special non-conjugated verb form (former in Old Church Slavonic) as supin (attainment mood) have been preserved.

The language of the Polabian Slavs (Polabyans), who lived along the western bank of the Laba (Elbe) River, disappeared by the middle of the 18th century. His small dictionary has been preserved, which also included separate phrases in a sloppy way. This text, invaluably useful for philologists, was compiled in the 18th century. literate Polabyanin Jan Parum Schulze, the former, apparently, not a simple peasant, but a village innkeeper. At about the same time, the German pastor H. Hennig, a native of the places of historical residence of the Polabyans, compiled an extensive German-Polabian dictionary.

The Polabian language, like Polish, retained nasal vowels. It had an aorist and an imperfect, as well as a dual number of nouns. It is very interesting that the stress in this West Slavic language was, judging by a number of data, different places. 59 .

The status of some Slavic languages is still philologically debatable.

They consider themselves a separate independent people, for example, Rusyns, currently living in Ukraine, Serbia, Croatia and other regions 60 . In the conditions of the USSR, they stubbornly tried to classify them as Ukrainians, which caused constant protests in the Rusyn environment. Based on their self-name, Rusyns usually associate themselves with Russians (according to their folk etymology, Rusyns - " Rus sons"). The question of the degree of real proximity of the Rusyn language to Russian has not yet been clearly resolved. In medieval texts, “Rusyns” often refer to themselves as “Russians”.

In Poland, attempts were repeatedly made to prove that the Kashubian language is not an independent Slavic language, but only an dialect of the Polish language, that is, in other words, its dialect (thus, the Kashubians were denied the status of an independent Slavic people). Something similar can be found in Bulgaria in relation to the Macedonian language.

In Russia, before the October Revolution, philological science was dominated by the point of view according to which the Russian language is divided into three unique huge dialects - Great Russian (Moscow), Little Russian and Belarusian. Its presentation can be found, for example, in the works of such prominent linguists as A.A. Shakhmatov, acad. A.I. Sobolevsky, A.A. Potebnya, T.D. Florinsky and others.

Yes, academic Alexey Alexandrovich Shakhmatov(1864-1920) wrote: “The Russian language is a term used in two meanings. It denotes: 1) the totality of dialects of Great Russian, Belarusian and Little Russian; 2) the modern literary language of Russia, which in its foundation is one of the Great Russian dialects " 61 .

Looking ahead, one cannot fail to emphasize that at present the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, which are qualitatively different from Russian, are already undoubted reality.

This is, in particular, the result of the fact that during the XX century. after the October Revolution, the artificial alienation of the Little Russians and Belarusians from the Russians and the Russian language was systematically ideologically provoked under the pretext of pursuing the so-called "Leninist" national policy, which consciously and consistently aroused local nationalist mindsets:

“Sometimes one hears talk that, they say, Ukrainization is being carried out too sharply, that the masses don’t need it, that the peasantry seems to be well and understands the Russian language, that the workers do not want to assimilate Ukrainian culture, because this alienates them from their Russian brothers” , - one of the party leaders of the 1920s frankly stated, then with pathos declaring: “All such conversations - no matter how ultra-revolutionary and“ internationalist ”dresses they dress - the party in the person of its leaders and every individual reasonable party member - is considered a manifestation anti-worker and anti-revolutionary influence of bourgeois-NEP and intellectual sentiments on the working class ... But the will of the Soviet government is unshakable, and it knows how, as almost a decade of experience has shown, to complete any business that is recognized as useful for the revolution, and overcome any resistance against their activities. So it will be with the national policy, which the vanguard of the proletariat, its spokesman and leader, the All-Union Communist Party, decided to put into practice. 62 .

M.V. Lomonosov in the 18th century. not unreasonably believed that before philologists it was not a separate Slavic language, but a “Little Russian dialect”, and “although this dialect is very similar to ours, however, its stress, pronunciation and endings of sayings have been canceled a lot from the neighborhood with the Poles and from long-term being under their rule, or, frankly, spoiled" 63 . The belief that the local dialect of the Little Russians is simply "Russian changed into a Polish model" was shared by other philologists.

N.S. Trubetskoy in the 20s of the XX century. continued to believe that the Ukrainian folk dialect is an offshoot of the Russian language (“There is no need to talk about the depth or antiquity of the differences between the three main Russian (East Slavic) dialects”). At the same time, a well-informed scientist noted the following curious fact:

“The corresponding folk languages - Great Russian and Little Russian - are closely related and similar to each other. But those Ukrainian intellectuals who advocated the creation of an independent Ukrainian literary language did not want this natural resemblance to the Russian literary language. Therefore, they abandoned the only natural way to create their own literary language, completely broke not only with Russian, but also with the Church Slavonic literary and linguistic tradition and decided to create a literary language solely on the basis of the folk dialect, while doing so in such a way that this language would be as similar as possible to into Russian.

“As expected,” N.S. writes further. Trubetskoy, this enterprise in this form turned out to be unfeasible: the dictionary of the folk language was insufficient to express all the shades of thought necessary for the literary language, and the syntactic structure of folk speech was too clumsy to satisfy at least the elementary requirements of literary style. But out of necessity, one had to join some already existing and well-finished literary and linguistic tradition. And since they did not want to adjoin the Russian literary and linguistic tradition for anything, it only remained to join the tradition of the Polish literary language. 64 . Wed also: “Indeed, the modern Ukrainian literary language ... is so full of Polonisms that it gives the impression of just a Polish language, slightly flavored with a Little Russian element and squeezed into a Little Russian grammatical system” 65 .

In the middle of the XIX century. Ukrainian writer Panteleimon Alexandrovich Kulish(1819-1897) invented a spelling system based on the phonetic principle, which has since been commonly called "kulishivka", to "help the people to enlightenment". She, for example, canceled the letters "s", "e", "b", but instead introduced "є" and "ї".

Later, in his declining years, P.A. Kulish tried to protest against the attempts of political intriguers to present this “phonetic spelling” of his “as a banner of our Russian discord”, even declaring that, as a rebuff to such attempts, from now on he would “print in etymological old-world orthography” (that is, in Russian. - Yu.M.).

After the October Revolution, the kulishivka was actively used to create the modern Ukrainian alphabet. 66 . For Belarusians, after the revolution, an alphabet was also invented based on a phonetic, rather than etymological principle (for example, Belarusians write “malako”, not milk,"naga", not leg etc.).

The vast majority of words are common to the Slavic languages, although their meaning now far from always coincides. For example, the Russian word palace in Polish corresponds to the word "pałac", "dworzec" in Polish is not a palace, but a "station"; rynek in Polish, not a market, but “square”, “beauty” in Polish “uroda” (compare with Russian “freak”). Such words are often referred to as "false friends of the translator".

Sharp differences between the Slavic languages are related to stress. In Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, as well as in Bulgarian, different (free) stress: it can fall on any syllable, that is, there are words with stress on the first syllable, on the second, on the last, etc. Serbo-Croatian stress already has a restriction : it falls on any syllable except the last one. Fixed stress in Polish (on the penultimate syllable of a word), Macedonian (on the third syllable from the end of words), as well as in Czech and Slovak (on the first syllable). These differences entail considerable consequences (for example, in the field of versification).

And yet, the Slavs, as a rule, are able to maintain a conversation with each other, even without knowing each other's languages, which once again reminds both of the close linguistic proximity and ethnic kinship 67 . Even wishing to declare the inability to speak one or another Slavic language, the Slav involuntarily expresses himself understandably for the surrounding native speakers of this language. The Russian phrase “I can’t speak Russian” corresponds to the Bulgarian “Not speaking Bulgarian”, the Serbian “Ja we don’t speak Serbian”, the Polish “Nie muwię po polsku” (Do not move in Polish), etc. Instead of the Russian “Come in!” the Bulgarian says “Get in!”, the Serb “Slobodno!”, the Pole “Proszę!” (usually with a specification of whom he “asks”: pana, pani, państwa). The speech of the Slavs is filled with such mutually recognizable, commonly understood words and expressions.

Slavic languages- a group of related languages of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is more than 400 million people. They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, the structure of the sentence, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This proximity is explained by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages and their long and intense contacts with each other at the level of literary languages and dialects.

The long independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of material, functional and typological differences.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into 3 groups:

East Slavic
South Slavic
West Slavic.

The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes in its composition the literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialect fragmentation and stylistic structure within each Slavic language is not the same.

Branches of Slavic languages:

East Slavic branch
- Belarusian (ISO 639-1: be; ISO 639-3: Bel)
- Old Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: orv)
  - Old Novgorod dialect † (ISO 639-1: — ; ISO 639-3: —)
  - West Russian † (ISO 639-1: — ;ISO 639-3: —)
- Russian (ISO 639-1: en; ISO 639-3: rus)
- Ukrainian (ISO 639-1: UK; ISO 639-3: ukr)
  - Rusyn (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: rue)

West Slavic branch
- Lechitic subgroup
  - Pomeranian (Pomeranian) languages
    - Kashubian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: csb)
      - Slovenian† (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Polabian † (ISO 639-1: — ; ISO 639-3: pox)
  - Polish (ISO 639-1: pl; ISO 639-3: pol)
    - Silesian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: szl)
- Lusatian subgroup
  - Upper Lusatian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hsb)
  - Lower Sorbian(ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: dsb)
- Czech-Slovak subgroup
  - Slovak (ISO 639-1: sk; ISO 639-3: slk)
  - Czech (ISO 639-1: cs; ISO 639-3: ces)
    - knaanite † (ISO 639-1: — ; ISO 639-3: czk)

South Slavic branch
- Eastern group
  - Bulgarian (ISO 639-1: bg; ISO 639-3: bul)
  - Macedonian (ISO 639-1: mk; ISO 639-3: mkd)
  - Old Church Slavonic † (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
  - Church Slavonic (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
- Western group
  - Serbo-Croatian group/Serbo-Croatian language (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hbs):
    - Bosnian (ISO 639-1: bs; ISO 639-3: boss)
    - Serbian (ISO 639-1: sr; ISO 639-3: srp)
      - Slavic Serbian † (ISO 639-1: — ;ISO 639-3: —)
    - Croatian (ISO 639-1: hr; ISO 639-3: hrv)
      - Kajkavian (ISO 639-3: kjv)
    - Montenegrin (ISO 639-1: — ;ISO 639-3: —)
  - Slovenian (ISO 639-1: sl; ISO 639-3: slv)

In addition to these languages, polyvalent languages, that is, speakers (like all modern national literary languages) both in the function of written, artistic, business speech, and in the function of oral, everyday, colloquial and stage speech, the Slavs also have "small" literary, almost always brightly dialect-colored languages. These languages, with limited use, usually function alongside national literary languages and serve either relatively small ethnic groups or even individual literary genres. There are also such languages in Western Europe: in Spain, Italy, France and in German-speaking countries. The Slavs know the Ruthenian language (in Yugoslavia), the Kaikavian and Chakavian languages (in Yugoslavia and Austria), the Kashubian language (in Poland), the Lyash language (in Czechoslovakia), etc.

On a rather vast territory in the basin of the Elbe River, in Slavic Laba, lived in the Middle Ages Polabian Slavs who spoke the Polabian language. This language is a severed branch from the Slavic language "tree" as a result of the forced Germanization of the population that spoke it. He disappeared in the 18th century. Nevertheless, separate records of Polabian words, texts, translations of prayers, etc., have come down to us, from which it is possible to restore not only the language, but also the life of the disappeared Polabyans. And at the International Congress of Slavists in Prague in 1968, the famous West German Slavist R. Olesh read a report in the Polabian language, thus creating not only literary written (he read from typescript) and oral forms, but also scientific linguistic terminology. This indicates that almost every Slavic dialect (dialect) can, in principle, be the basis of a literary language. However, not only Slavic, but also another family of languages, as numerous examples of the newly written languages of our country show.

Classification methods for Slavic languages

The first printed information about the Slavic languages was usually presented as a list, i.e. enumeration. This is what the Czech J. Blagoslav did in his grammatical work on the Czech language of 1571 (published only in 1857), in which he notes Czech, then “Slovene” (probably Slovak), where he also included the language of the Croats, then follows Polish language; he also mentions the southern (possibly Church Slavonic), "Mazovian" (actually a Polish dialect), "Moscow" (i.e. Russian). Yu. Krizhanich, comparing in the XVII century. some Slavic languages, spoke of the proximity of some of them to each other, but did not dare to classify them. "List classifications" of Slavic languages, i.e. an attempt to single them out by enumeration and thereby distinguish them from other Indo-European languages is also characteristic of the 18th century, although occasionally they are also found in the 19th century. So, in 1787-1789. By decree of Empress Catherine, a two-volume book “Comparative Dictionaries of All Languages and Dialects” was published in St. Petersburg - an attempt to collect information about all the languages \u200b\u200bof the world known by that time and give them parallel lists of words. It is important for us that among “all languages and dialects” there were also 13 Slavic languages (“dialects”) submitted here: the words there are given “1 - in Slavonic, 2 - Slavic-Hungarian, 3 - Illyrian, 4 - Bohemian, 5 - Serbian, 6 - Vendsky, 7 - Sorabsky, 8 - Polabsky, 9 - Kashubsky, 10 - Polish, 11 - Little Russian, 12 - Suzdal" + 13 "in Russian"; “Slavic-Hungarian” is Slovak, “Vendsky” is one of the Lusatian Serb languages, “Suzdal” is social jargon! F. Mikloshich in "Morphology of the Slavic Languages" (1852) gives languages in the following order: a) Old Church Slavonic, b) New Slavonic (Slovene), c) Bulgarian, d) Serbian (and Croatian), e) Little Russian, or Ukrainian (and Belarusian ), f) Great Russian, g) Czech (and Slovak), h) Polish, i) Upper Lusatian, j) Lower Lusatian; but without Polabian and Kashubian.

Classification by J. Dobrovsky.

Attempts to classify the Slavic languages on a scientific basis date back to the beginning of the 19th century. and are associated with the name of the founder of Slavic philology J. Dobrovsky. For the first time, a list of Slavic languages and dialects was given by Dobrovsky in 1791-1792. in the book "History of the Czech Language and Literature", published in German. There was no classification yet. He singled out the “full” Slavic language and listed its dialects, including Russian, “Polish with Silesian”, “Illyrian” with Bulgarian, “Rats-Serbian”, Bosnian, “Slavonian” (dialects of the historical region of Slavonia in Croatia), "Dalmatian and Dubrovnik", Croatian with Kajkavian, with "Wind" (Slovenian), "Czech with Moravian, Silesian and Slovak", Lusatian. In the second edition of this book (1818) and especially in his main work on the Old Church Slavonic language according to its dialects (“Institutiones linguae slavicae dialecti veteris”, 1822), Dobrovsky for the first time presents a scientific classification of Slavic languages, dividing them into two groups (each with 5 languages ):

A (Eastern): Russian, Church Slavonic (Slavica vetus), "Illyrian", or Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, or "Vindian" ("in Krajina, Styria and Carinthia");
B (Western): Slovak, Czech, “Vendian Upper Sorbian” (= Upper Sorbian) and “Vendian Lower Sorbian” (= Lower Sorbian), Polish.

J. Dobrovsky relied on 10 signs of phonetic, word-forming and lexical properties, cf .:

In the future, features 3 (l-epenteticum), 4 (combinations , ) and 6 (combinations , ) will be regularly, up to the present day, used by researchers when comparing three subgroups of Slavic languages. Other signs will remain unclaimed, for example, the prefix rose-, which is also characteristic of the East Slavic languages, in particular, for Ukrainian (rozum ‘mind’). In addition, the classification lacks several languages - Ukrainian, Kashubian, Bulgarian.

Views on classification after J. Dobrovsky.

Soon after Dobrovsky, the largest Slavist of the 19th century took up the classification of Slavic languages. P. Y. SHAFARIK. In the book "History of Slavic languages and literatures" (1826) and especially in the famous "Slavic antiquities" (1837) and "Slavic ethnography" (1842), he, following Dobrovsky, presented a two-component classification of "Slavic dialects":

1) southeastern group: Russian, Bulgarian, "Illyrian" (Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian);
2) northwestern group: "Lechitic" (Polish, Kashubian), Czech (Czech, Moravian, Slovak), Polabian (+ Upper and Lower Lusatian).

Of the 10 signs of Dobrovsky, Shafarik used only two phonetic ones - No. 3 and No. 4, he considered the rest to be insignificant. On the other hand, he added the following feature: the loss of [d] and [t] before [n] in the southeastern ones and the preservation - in the western ones of the type ϖ ν?τι - vadnouti ‘wither’. It is significant that A. Schleicher, the creator of the “family tree” hypothesis, applied it to the Slavic languages as well. Thus, outlining the development of the northeastern branch of the Indo-European languages (1865), he proposed the following scheme for the differentiation of the Slavic languages:

Here the western group is opposed to the combined southern and eastern. There are no Slovak, Kashubian, Belarusian languages, but Ukrainian is reflected along with Great Russian. Two-component classifications suffered from large generalizations, the omission of certain languages, and, in addition, were based on a minimum number of linguistic distinguishing features. Here is a summary table of the most important two-component classifications of the Slavic languages of the 19th century to see how far the three-component classification that replaced them has gone:

Reading the above table horizontally and vertically, it is not difficult to establish which languages and how are reflected in a particular classification; a dash (sign -) may indicate that the author did not know about the existence of a particular language or considered it to be an adverb (dialect) of a larger language, etc.

The three-component classification model and its shortcomings.

The two-component classification is being replaced by a three-component one. Doubts about the two-component classification proposed by J. Dobrovsky were expressed by A. Kh. Vostokov, pointing out that the Russian language, in a number of its characteristics, occupies an independent position between the southern and western languages. It can be said that the idea of a three-component division of the Slavic languages goes back to Vostokov, which was later supported by M. A. Maksimovich (works of 1836, 1838, 1845), N. Nadezhdin (1836), the Czech F. Palatsky (1836) and others. Maksimovich developed Vostokov's idea, highlighting the western, southern (or transdanubian) and eastern branches. Palacki, emphasizing the geographical principle, divided the Slavic languages into southwestern (= South Slavic), northwestern (= West Slavic) and East Slavic. This classificatory model was reinforced throughout much of the 19th century. In its approval, a special role was played by I. I. Sreznevsky (1843).

Based on historical and ethnographic (community of historical destinies of certain groups of Slavic peoples, commonality of material and spiritual culture, etc.) and linguistic criteria, he proposed to distribute the Slavic "dialects" as follows:

1) Eastern dialects: Great Russian, Ukrainian;
2) southwestern dialects (= South Slavic): Old Church Slavonic, Bulgarian, Serbian and Croatian, "Horutanian" (= Slovenian);
3) northwestern dialects (= West Slavic): Polish, Polabian, Lusatian, Czech and Slovak.

Classification by I. I. Sreznevsky used up to the present. True, some changes have been made to it, for example, in terms: instead of "adverbs" - languages; in the names of subgroups - respectively East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic; Belarusian is included in East Slavic, and Kashubian is included in West Slavic.

However, this classification has also been criticized. The fact is that the material of each Slavic language or dialect is quite diverse and does not always fit into the framework of classifications, which, as a rule, are based on taking into account only a few - usually phonetic - signs, according to which languages are included in one or another subgroup. Outside the classification principles are numerous linguistic features that bring together languages traditionally assigned to different subgroups. Such signs are often simply not taken into account.

Isogloss method and its role in the classification of dialects and languages.

Only in the twentieth century the procedure for identifying language parallels using the isogloss method began to take shape. This method is formulated as the establishment on a linguistic (dialectological) map of the lines of distribution of one or another linguistic phenomenon in order to determine the degree of proximity between dialects and dialects within individual languages and between languages - within individual linguistic subgroups or groups. The isogloss method, applied to linguistic material of all levels (i.e., phonetic, grammatical, lexical), allows you to more clearly determine the place and relationship of related languages to each other, which may lead to a revision of some provisions of the traditional classification. O.N. Trubachev (1974) rightly wrote about this at one time, pointing out the insufficiency of the three-component classification, which poorly takes into account the original dialect fragmentation of the Proto-Slavic language:

“1) West Slavic, East Slavic and South Slavic language groups were secondarily consolidated from components of very different linguistic origins,
2) the original Slavia was not a linguistic monolith, but its opposite, i.e.<…>a complex set of isoglosses"

According to some experts, within the East Slavic subgroup, Russian and Ukrainian are more distant from each other, while Belarusian occupies, as it were, an intermediate position between them (there is also, however, an opinion about the great proximity of the Belarusian and Russian languages). Be that as it may, but some features bring Belarusian closer to the Russian language (for example, Akanye), others - to Ukrainian (for example, the presence of a long-past tense in both languages). It has long been noted that the Ukrainian language has a number of features that unite it with the South Slavic languages (especially with their western part), for example, inflection of verbs 1 l. pl. h. present tense -mo: write-mo ‘we write’, practice-mo ‘we work’, etc. - cf. South Slavic Serbian-Croatian write-mo, for the sake of-mo, Slovenian. piše-mo, dela-mo, etc.

Methods based on phonetic and word-formation material

Attempts, on the basis of some signs, to establish in which direction the development of the speech array took place after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language, do not stop to this day. The latest hypothesis on this issue belongs to the Belarusian Slavist F.D. Klimchuk (2007). He analyzes the phonetic development in the modern Slavic languages and dialects of a number of elements in the ancient words specially selected for these purposes - ten, black grouse, wild, quiet and smoke. Here is how these words look in phonetic transmission:

In accordance with this, the Slavic dialect continuum is divided into two zones - northern and southern. To prove this, it is necessary to formulate the conditions and trace the form in which the selected phonetic elements were realized in specific Slavic languages and dialects. This is about

a) realization of consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before etymological [e], [i];
b) about the distinction between vowels [i] and y [ы] or their merging into one sound.

In the northern zone, the consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] in the indicated position are soft, in the southern zone they are hard (i.e. velarized or non-velarized, often called semi-soft). The vowels [i] and y [ы] in the northern zone retained their quality, in the southern zone they merged into one sound. In the Proto-Slavic, Old Slavonic and Book Old Russian languages of the early period, the vowels [i] and y [ы] differed from each other, representing two independent sounds. The consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before the etymological [e], [i] in these languages were pronounced “semi-softly”. In other words, they were solid but not velarized. The Proto-Slavic model for the implementation of consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before [e], [i] was preserved only in some regions and microregions of Slavia - in many dialects of the Carpathians and the upper reaches of the river. San, sometimes in Polissya, as well as in the northern and southern parts of Russia. In a significant part of the dialects of the Slavic languages of the northern zone, the soft consonants [d], [t] have changed into , respectively. This phenomenon has received the name tsekanya-zekanya.

Studying the distribution of more than 70 suffixes of nouns across the Slavic territory, as well as conducting a group analysis of geographical and ichthyological (the name of fish and everything connected with them) vocabulary, A. S. Gerd and V. M. Mokienko (1974) identified on this basis four Slavic areas opposed to each other:

1) West East Slavic - South Slavic;
2) West East Slavic + Slovenian - South Slavic (except Slovenian);
3) East Slavic - West South Slavic;
4) North Slavic and West South Slavic - East South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian).

Quantitative method based on phonetic and morphological features.

In the twentieth century another approach to the study of the ways of the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language and the establishment of the degree of closeness of the Slavic languages in relation to each other is taking shape. This approach is called quantitative or statistical. The Pole J. Chekanovsky was the first to use it in relation to the Slavic material in 1929. Based on the list provided to him by T. Ler-Splavinsky of several dozen phonetic and morphological features characteristic of various regions of Slavia, Chekanovskiy compiles a special table indicating the presence ~ absence of such features in a particular language, after which, using special statistical techniques, it establishes an index of proximity between languages.

The Lusatian Serbo languages occupy a central place in the area of the West Slavic languages. The Polabian language is closer to Czech and Slovak than to Polish. Chekanovsky also comes to the conclusion that there were deep ties between the Lechitic languages and the Northern Great Russian dialects. Moreover, the author believes that the future East Slavic massif, under the influence of the Avar raids, broke away from the northern massif, which united both Western and Eastern Slavs.

Before the arrival of the Hungarians in the Pannonian lowland (the end of the 9th century), the western and southern Slavs formed a wide belt stretching from north to south (to the Balkans). The expansion of the Hungarians separated the western and southern Slavs. Traces of former connections in the form of common features are noted in the language of Czechs and Slovaks, on the one hand, and in Slovenian dialects, on the other. And in the South Slavic massif itself, there was a division into a western branch (Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian) and an eastern branch (Old Slavic, Bulgarian, and later Macedonian). Chekanovsky believed that his conclusions should shake the existing opinion about the straightforwardness of the division of the Proto-Slavic into three arrays.

Method of lexical-statistical modeling.

A qualitatively new turn marks the appearance in 1994 of A. F. Zhuravlev's monograph "Lexico-statistical modeling of the system of Slavic linguistic kinship" (based on a doctoral dissertation defended in 1992). The author for the first time refers to the Proto-Slavic lexical material, which by hundreds of times exceeds the phonetic-morphological features traditionally used to determine linguistic kinship. There is a significant difference between these two categories of features: if phonetic-morphological features evolve mainly by replacing some elements with others, then the development of the dictionary proceeds mainly through the accumulation (cumulation) of more and more new words. In addition, the author rightly considers the vocabulary to be more stable over time than phonetics and morphology, and this refers to the vocabulary of its most ancient layer. Zhuravlev makes a continuous selection from the first 15 issues of the "Etymological Dictionary of Slavic Languages" edited by O. N. Trubachev (before the word * lokas 'puddle, pothole on the road') - a total of 7557 positions (headwords), while he avoids post-Proto-Slavic, bookish and some other categories of words that were absent in the Proto-Slavic time. Interesting statistics of the Proto-Slavic vocabulary, preserved in the analyzed Slavic languages and dialects, turned out to be:

It should be noted that the presented data was to a certain extent influenced by such a factor as the completeness or incompleteness of the collected vocabulary for a particular language (as, for example, for Polab - an extinct language and known only from records and written monuments).

Taking into account the derived indices of genetic proximity, the Russian language, for example, is characterized by the following relationships:

a) within the East Slavic subgroup: North and South Great Russian dialects are lexically closer to Belarusian than to Ukrainian;
b) outside the East Slavic subgroup, the statistical similarity of the Proto-Slavic lexical heritage of the North Great Russian dialect is closer to the Serbo-Croatian language,
c) while the South Great Russian dialect is turned to Polish,
d) the Russian language as a whole at the level of Proto-Slavic vocabulary is closer to Polish
e) and to Serbo-Croatian.

The difference between the results obtained by phonostatistical and lexico-statistical methods is found, for example, in the qualification of languages with the highest degree of similarity: in the first case, at the language level, these are Czech and Slovak, and in the second, Serbo-Lusatian. Zhuravlev is inclined to believe that such a discrepancy is caused primarily by the difference in the supporting material - phonetics and vocabulary, and by the inconsistency and unequal pace of their historical development. At the same time, both approaches allow us to conclude that the West Slavic group as a whole demonstrates its inhomogeneous, i.e. heterogeneous character. In this regard, the idea is expressed that the practice of the initial division of the Proto-Slavic into western and eastern massifs and further into eastern and southern or western and southern should give way to other, more complex and multidimensional relationships.

Traditional classification, taking into account some of the latest data

As you can see, the totality of some features divides the Slavic language array in one direction, the totality of others - in another. Moreover, even within the planned zones themselves, linguistic and dialectal isoglosses can be distributed in different directions, depriving the subgroups (western, southern and eastern) of the known genetic classification of more or less clear boundaries, on the contrary, outlining them either as intersecting with each other, or as entering into each other, then in the form of isolated situations that turned out to be torn off from the main array, etc. All this suggests that both the Proto-Slavic speech array and the arrays formed after its collapse were characterized by a constant quality - the original dialect fragmentation, the lack of clear boundaries between local speech arrays, their mobility, etc.

Taking into account the achievements of the isogloss method, quantitative analysis of the proximity of languages and dialects, as well as taking into account situations of linguistic continuity, etc., the traditional three-component classification of Slavic languages can currently be schematically represented as follows:

East Slavic:

South Slavic:

West Slavic:

Thus, the problem of classifying Slavic languages has not been finally resolved. It is believed that its solution will depend on the compilation of the All-Slavic Linguistic Atlas (OLA), the question of which was raised at the I International Congress of Slavists in Prague in 1929. Since 1961, the Commission on OLA, which includes specialists on linguistic geography and dialectology of all Slavic and a number of non-Slavic countries. The material is collected in 850 Slavonic (usually rural) settlements, including some resettlement territories. For this purpose, a questionnaire was compiled, including 3,454 questions - on phonetics, grammar, vocabulary and word formation. The distribution of signs is studied and mapped (the principle applies: one sign - one map), while paying attention to isoglosses and their bundles, i.e. clusters.

Since 1965, the Institute of the Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradov Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow regularly publishes collections of studies and materials under the general title “Common Slavic Linguistic Atlas. Materials and Research”, and in 1988 the first issue of the atlas appeared, dedicated to the reflexes of the yat (* e) in the modern Slavic territory. Words with reflexes of the specified vowel are given in transcription. For the first time, it is possible to see, for example, a word and its transcription in all its phonetic subtleties in the vast territory inhabited by modern Slavs.

As an example, let's take the Proto-Slavic word *celovekъ 'man' and see in what pronunciation forms it actually appears in different Slavic areas (the stroke "indicates that the syllable following it is stressed): clovjek - clouk - clajk - c'lo" vek - c'lo "vik - šlo" vik - co "vek - c'ojek - cojak - cvek - coek - clov'ek - cala" v'ek - colo "v'ik - c'ila" v'ek - cuek - c'elo "v'ek - c'olo" v'ek - š'ila "v'ek - cu?ov'ek etc. etc.

What does such a linguo-geographic distribution of this word show? And the fact that in reality the word in the process of historical development undergoes serious phonetic changes. What remains of the phonetic elements that made up the Proto-Slavic word *celovekъ? Only one element turned out to be stable - the final one - k, while the first element appears either in a hard or in a soft form, or generally turns into a whistling ([s], ) or hissing ([ š], [ š']) ; [e] is preserved somewhere, but somewhere it turns into [i], [o], [a] or disappears altogether. The fate of subsequent vowels and consonants is also tortuous. This method shows us how one and the same word really lives in different Slavic areas. From this we can conclude how complex phonetic and other processes are and how difficult it is for scientists to follow them and classify their results for certain purposes. Nevertheless, the three-term genetic classification of the Slavic languages, which has already become a classic, is still actively used by researchers.

Just as a tree grows from a root, its trunk gradually grows stronger, rises to the sky and branches, the Slavic languages \u200b\u200b"grew" from the Proto-Slavic language (see Proto-Slavic language), whose roots go deep to the Indo-European language (see Indo-European family of languages). This allegorical picture, as is known, served as the basis for the theory of the "family tree", which, in relation to the Slavic family of languages, can be accepted in general terms and even historically substantiated.

The Slavic language "tree" has three main branches: 1) East Slavic languages, 2) West Slavic languages, 3) South Slavic languages. These main branches-groups branch out in turn into smaller ones - so, the East Slavic branch has three main branches - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, and the Russian language branch, in turn, has two main branches - North Russian and South Russian dialects (see Adverbs of the Russian language ). If you pay attention to further branches of at least the South Russian dialect, you will see how branches-zones of Smolensk, Upper Dnieper, Upper Desninsk, Kursk-Oryol-sky, Ryazan, Bryansk-Zhizdrinsky, Tula, Yelets and Oskol dialects are distinguished in it, if you draw a picture of the allegorical “family tree” further, there are still branches with numerous leaves - the dialects of individual villages and settlements It would be possible to describe the Polish or Slovenian branches in the same way, explain which of them has more branches, which has fewer, but the principle description would remain the same.

Naturally, such a “tree” did not grow immediately, that it did not immediately branch out and grow so much that the trunk and its main branches are older than smaller branches and twigs. Yes, and it did not always grow comfortably and exactly some branches withered, some were chopped off. But more on that later. In the meantime, we note that the “branched” principle of classifying Slavic languages and dialects presented by us applies to natural Slavic languages and dialects, to the Slavic linguistic element outside its written appearance, without a normative written form. And if the various branches of the living Slavic language "tree" - languages and dialects - did not appear immediately, then the written, bookish, normalized, largely artificial language systems formed on their basis and in parallel with them did not immediately appear - literary languages (see Literary language).

In the modern Slavic world, there are 12 national literary languages: three East Slavic - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, five West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak, Upper Lusatian-Serbian and Lower Lusatian-Serbian, and four South Slavic - Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian.

In the ninth century the works of the brothers Cyril and Methodius created the first Slavic literary language - Old Church Slavonic. It was based on the dialect of the Thessalonica Slavs, it was used to translate a number of church and other books from Greek, and later some original works were written. The Old Slavonic language first existed in the West Slavic environment - in Great Moravia (hence the number of moralisms inherent in it), and then spread among the southern Slavs, where book schools - Ohrid and Preslav - played a special role in its development. From the 10th century this language also begins to exist among the Eastern Slavs, where it was known under the name of the Slovene language, and scientists call it Church Slavonic or Old Slavonic. The Old Slavic language was an international, inter-Slavic book language until the 18th century. and had a great influence on the history and modern appearance of many Slavic languages, especially the Russian language. Old Slavonic monuments have come down to us with two writing systems - Glagolitic and Cyrillic (see. The emergence of writing among the Slavs).

Slavic programming languages, Slavic languages of the world
branch

Languages of Eurasia

Indo-European family

Compound

East Slavic, West Slavic, South Slavic groups

Separation time:

XII-XIII centuries n. e.

Language group codes GOST 7.75–97: ISO 639-2: ISO 639-5: See also: Project:Linguistics Slavic languages. According to the publication of the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Languages of the World", volume "Slavic Languages", M., 2005

Indo-Europeans
Indo-European languages
Anatolian Albanian Armenian Baltic Venetian Germanic Illyrian Aryan: Nuristani, Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Dardic Italian (Romance) Celtic Paleo-Balkan Slavic· Tocharian italicized dead language groups
Indo-Europeans
Albanians Armenians Balts Venetians Germans Greeks Illyrians Iranians Indo-Aryans Italics (Romans) Celts Cimmerians Slavs Tokhars Thracians Hittites in italics now defunct communities
Proto-Indo-Europeans
Language Homeland Religion
Indo-European Studies p o r

1 Classification
2 Origin
- 2.1 Modern research
3 Development history
4 Phonetics
5 Writing
6 Literary languages
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Literature

Classification

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes in its composition the literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialect fragmentation and stylistic structure within each Slavic language is not the same.

Branches of Slavic languages:

East Slavic branch
- Belarusian (ISO 639-1: be; ISO 639-3: Bel)
- Old Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: orv)
  - Old Novgorod dialect † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Western Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
- Russian (ISO 639-1: en; ISO 639-3: rus)
- Ukrainian (ISO 639-1: UK; ISO 639-3: ukr)
  - Rusyn (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: rue)

West Slavic branch
- Lechitic subgroup
  - Pomeranian (Pomeranian) languages
    - Kashubian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: csb)
      - Slowinski † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Polabian † (ISO 639-1: -; ISO 639-3: pox)
  - Polish (ISO 639-1: pl; ISO 639-3: pol)
    - Silesian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: szl)
- Lusatian subgroup
  - Upper Lusatian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hsb)
  - Lower Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: dsb)
- Czech-Slovak subgroup
  - Slovak (ISO 639-1: sk; ISO 639-3: slk)
  - Czech (ISO 639-1: cs; ISO 639-3: ces)
    - knaanite † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: czk)

South Slavic branch
- Eastern group
  - Bulgarian (ISO 639-1: bg; ISO 639-3: bul)
  - Macedonian (ISO 639-1: mk; ISO 639-3: mkd)
  - Old Church Slavonic † (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
  - Church Slavonic (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
- Western group
  - Serbo-Croatian group/Serbo-Croatian language (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hbs):
    - Bosnian (ISO 639-1: bs; ISO 639-3: boss)
    - Serbian (ISO 639-1: sr; ISO 639-3: srp)
      - Slavic Serbian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
    - Croatian (ISO 639-1: hr; ISO 639-3: hrv)
      - Kajkavian (ISO 639-3: kjv)
    - Montenegrin (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
  - Slovenian (ISO 639-1: sl; ISO 639-3: slv)

Origin

Genealogical tree of modern Slavic languages according to Gray and Atkinson

The Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the "Balto-Slavic parent language", according to which the Balto-Slavic parent language first emerged from the Indo-European parent language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. It can be assumed that it took place to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. for a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later.

The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. This period significantly increased the territory of Slavic settlements. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were mastered, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the most ancient - before the establishment of close Balto-Slavic language contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialect fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.

Modern research

In 2003, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson, scientists from the University of Oclad, published their study of the modern languages of the Indo-European family in the scientific journal Nature. The data obtained indicate that the Slavic linguistic unity broke up 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. And the Balto-Slavic linguistic unity broke up 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

The history of development

Main article: History of the Slavic languages Bascan Plate, XI century, Krk, Croatia

In the early period of the development of the Slavic parent language, a new system of vowel sonants developed, consonantism became much simpler, the stage of reduction became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey the ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is included in the satem group (sürdce, pisati, prositi, cf. lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zürno, znati, zima, cf. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent - to the name.

Novgorod birch bark of the 14th century

Most of the suffixes were already formed on the Proto-Slavic soil. In the early period of its development, the Proto-Slavic language experienced a number of transformations in the field of vocabulary. Having retained in most cases the old Indo-European vocabulary, at the same time he lost some lexemes (for example, some terms from the field of social relations, nature, etc.). Many words have been lost in connection with various kinds of prohibitions (taboos). For example, the name of oak was lost - the Indo-European perkuos, whence the Latin quercus. In the Slavic language, the taboo dǫbъ was established, from where “oak”, Pol. dąb, Bulgarian. db, etc. The Indo-European name for the bear has been lost. It is preserved only in the new scientific term "Arctic" (cf. Greek ἄρκτος). The Indo-European word in the Proto-Slavic language was replaced by a taboo combination of the words *medvědь (originally "honey eater", from honey and *ěd-).

Zograph codex, X-XI centuries.

During the period of the Balto-Slavic community, vowel sonants were lost in the Proto-Slavic language, in their place diphthongic combinations arose in position before consonants and the sequences of “vowel sonant before vowels” (sьmürti, but umirati), intonations (acute and circumflex) became relevant features. The most important processes of the Proto-Slavic period were the loss of closed syllables and softening of consonants before iot. In connection with the first process, all ancient diphthongic combinations turned into monophthongs, syllabic smooth, nasal vowels arose, a syllable division shifted, which, in turn, caused a simplification of consonant groups, the phenomenon of intersyllabic dissimilation. These ancient processes have left their mark on all modern Slavic languages, which is reflected in many alternations: cf. "reap - reap"; “to take - I will take”, “name - names”, Czech. ziti - znu, vziti - vezmu; Serbohorv. zheti - zhaњem, uzeti - let's know, name - names. The softening of consonants before the iot is reflected in the form of alternations s - sh, z - zh, etc. All these processes had a strong impact on the grammatical structure, on the system of inflections. due to the softening of consonants before the iot, the process of the so-called. the first palatalization of the posterior palate: k > h, d > f, x > w. On this basis, even in the Proto-Slavic language, the alternations k: h, g: w, x: w were formed, which had a great influence on nominal and verbal word formation.

Later, the second and third palatalizations of the posterior palate developed, as a result of which alternations arose k: c, g: dz (s), x: s (x). The name changed by cases and numbers. In addition to the singular and plural, there was a dual number, which was later lost in almost all Slavic languages, except for Slovene and Lusatian, while the rudiments of dualism are preserved in almost all Slavic languages.

There were nominal stems that performed the functions of definitions. the late Proto-Slavic period arose pronominal adjectives. The verb had the stems of the infinitive and the present tense. From the first, the infinitive, supine, aorist, imperfect, participles in -l, participles of the real past tense in -v, and participles of the passive voice in -n were formed. From the foundations of the present tense, the present tense, the imperative mood, the participle of the active voice of the present tense were formed. Later, in some Slavic languages, the imperfect began to form from this stem.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: Eastern, Western and Southern. From them, the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. The West Slavic group had 3 subgroups: Lechit, Lusatian and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was dialectally the most differentiated.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period in the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes occurred during the period of early feudalism. XII-XIII centuries there was a further differentiation of the Slavic languages, there was a loss of the super-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language. in some cases they disappeared, in others they turned into full vowels. As a result, there have been significant changes in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

In most Slavic languages, the opposition of vowels in longitude / brevity is lost, at the same time in Czech and Slovak languages (excluding North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in Slovene these differences persist. Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, retain nasal vowels that are lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time, nasalizations were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovene language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the respective languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).

Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech, the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n' has been preserved, in Slovak - t - t', d - d' , n - n', l - l', while in the West Slovak dialect, due to the assimilation of t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as the hardening of l', as a rule, only one pair of n - n' is represented, in a number of West Slovak dialects ( Povazhsky, Trnavsky, Zagorsky) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - from the old paired soft consonants, only n '(< *nj), l’ (< *lj) не подверглись отвердению (в первую очередь в сербохорватском ареале).

Stress in Slavic languages is realized in different ways. In most Slavic languages (except Serbo-Croatian and Slovene), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress was replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the extinct Polabian language also had a mobile stress). in Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the North Kashubian dialects, as well as in Belarusian and Bulgarian, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. in a number of languages, primarily in West Slavic, a fixed stress was formed, assigned to a certain syllable of a word or bar group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the Polish standard language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern Kashubian dialect, and also in the Lemko dialect. The first syllable is stressed in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Lusatian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, and also in some Goral dialects of the Lesser Polish dialect. In Macedonian, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In Slovene and Serbo-Croatian, the stress is polytonic, multi-local, the tonic characteristics and the distribution of stress in word forms are different in dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress is different, but is assigned to a certain morpheme.

Writing

Slavic languages received their first literary processing in the 60s. ninth century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Konstantin the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavonic for the needs of Great Moravia. At its core, the new literary language had a South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. Later it was further developed in Bulgaria. In this language (usually called the Old Church Slavonic language), the richest original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From IX century. Slavic texts have not been preserved. The most ancient date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuil of 993, the Varosha inscription of 996 and others. Starting from the XI century. more Slavic monuments have been preserved.

Modern Slavic languages use alphabets based on Cyrillic and Latin. The Glagolitic alphabet is used in Catholic worship in Montenegro and in several coastal areas in Croatia. In Bosnia, for some time, the Arabic alphabet was also used in parallel with the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets.

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary language were performed by foreign languages (in Russia - the Old Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).

The Russian literary language has gone through a centuries-old and complex evolution. He absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Slavonic language, was influenced by many European languages.

Czech Republic in the 18th century literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, almost disappeared. cities were dominated by the German language. the period of national revival in the Czech Republic artificially revived the language of the 16th century, which at that time was already far from the national language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th-20th centuries. reflects the interaction of the old book language and colloquial. The Slovak literary language had a different history, it developed on the basis of the vernacular. Serbia until the 19th century dominated by the Church Slavonic language. 18th century began the process of rapprochement of this language with the people. As a result of the reform carried out by Vuk Karadzic in the middle of the 19th century, a new literary language was created. The Macedonian literary language was finally formed in the middle of the 20th century.

In addition to the "big" Slavic languages, there are a number of small Slavic literary languages (microlanguages), which usually function along with national literary languages and serve either relatively small ethnic groups or even individual literary genres.

Notes

Balto-Slavonic Natural Language Processing 2009
http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/worldlang.htm
Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People (Languages spoken by more than 10 million people) according to the Encarta encyclopedia. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009.
Omniglot
1 2 Sometimes separated into a separate language
see Meillet's law.
Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - 1st ed. - T. 1-4. - M., 1964-1973.
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 10. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Lifanov K. V. Dialectology of the Slovak language: Textbook. - M.: Infra-M, 2012. - S. 34. - ISBN 978-5-16-005518-3.
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 16. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - S. 14-15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)

Literature

Bernstein S. B. Essay on comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Introduction. Phonetics. M., 1961.
Bernstein S. B. Essay on comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Alternations. nominal bases. M., 1974.
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proto-Slavic † (proto-language)
Oriental	Old Novgorod † (Old Pskov †) Old Russian † Western Russian † Belarusian (dialects) Russian (dialects) Ukrainian (Rusyn dialects)
Western
Southern
Other	literary microlanguages Pan-Slavic languages
† - dead, split or changed languages

Slavic microlanguages
Oriental	Galshansky \| Carpatho-Ruthenian \| Podlasie \| Western Polissian
Western	vich \| Eastern Slovak \| lyash \| Pannonian-Rusyn
southwestern	Venetian-Slovenian \| Gradish-Croatian \| Kajkavian \| Moliz-Slavic \| Prekmursko-Slovenian \| Rezyan \| Chakavian
southeastern	Banat-Bulgarian \| Pomak \| Aegean-Macedonian
see also

Slavic languages, Slavic languages of India, Slavic languages of Spain, Slavic languages of Kazakhstan, Slavic languages of cats, Slavic love languages, Slavic world languages, Slavic flame languages, Slavic programming languages, Slavic markup languages

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