The main characteristics of the modern speech situation. Features of the modern speech situation

Language is a powerful means of regulating people's activities in various fields.

The state of the Russian language of our time determined by a number of factors.

1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is expanding dramatically: new segments of the population are joining the role of speakers, the role of writers in newspapers and magazines

2. In the media, censorship and auto-censorship, which previously largely determined the nature of speech behavior, are sharply weakened.

3. The personal beginning in speech increases. Faceless and unaddressed speech is replaced by personal speech, it acquires a specific addressee. Biological communication, both oral and written, is increasing.

4. The sphere of spontaneous communication is expanding, not only personal, but also oral public. People no longer give or read pre-written speeches. They say.

5. Important parameters of the flow of oral forms of mass communication are changing: the possibility of a direct appeal of the speaker to the listeners and feedback from the listeners to the speakers is created.

6. Situations and genres of communication are changing both in the field of public and in the field of personal communication. Rigid limits of official public communication are weakened. Many new genres of oral public speech are born in the field of mass communication. The dry radio and TV announcer has been replaced by a presenter who reflects, jokes, and expresses his opinion.

7. The psychological rejection of the bureaucratic language of the past (the so-called Newspeak) is growing sharply.

8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression, new forms of imagery, new types of appeals to strangers.

9. Along with the birth of the names of new phenomena, there is a revival of the names of those phenomena that return from the past, forbidden or rejected in the era of totalitarianism. Freedom and emancipation of speech behavior entail a loosening of language norms, an increase in linguistic variability options).

Modern speech situation. Currently, we are witnessing the fall of speech culture, the reason for this: 1. Modern people read very little 2. Many Soviet people went through the so-called Gulag, returning to freedom, they brought the camp language into society

3. The settlement of foreign words that came into our language during the years of perestroika 4. The use of obscene words in modern literature 5. The absence of censorship in the media 6. During the years of perestroika, mass rallies began, people who did not know the elements of oratory often spoke, all this reduced the speech culture.

2. What is the culture of speech? The culture of speech is understood as the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form, in which the choice and organization of language means are carried out. The culture of speech contains three components: normative, communicative and ethical. The culture of speech implies, first of all, the correctness of speech, that is, the observance of the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers (speaking and writing) as an "ideal" or model. The language norm is the central concept of speech culture, and the normative aspect of speech culture is considered one of the most important. The culture of speech develops the skills of selecting and using language means in the process of speech communication, helps to form a conscious attitude to their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks. The choice of language means necessary for this purpose is the basis of the communicative aspect of speech culture. Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture. The ethical aspect of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical norms of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greeting, request, question, gratitude, congratulations, etc.; appeal to "you" and "you"; choice of full or abbreviated name, form of address, etc.). The use of speech etiquette is greatly influenced by extralinguistic factors: the age of the participants in the speech act (purposeful speech action), their social status, the nature of the relationship between them (official, informal, friendly, intimate), the time and place of speech interaction, etc. Ethical component culture of speech imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication, condemns the conversation in "raised tones". Equally important are the accuracy and clarity of speech. 1 Normative. The culture of speech contains three components: normative, communicative and ethical. The normative aspect of the culture of speech is one of the most important, but not the only one. The Czech linguist K. Gauzenblas writes: “There is nothing paradoxical about the fact that one is able to speak on the same topic in a non-literary language and look more cultured than another speaker in a literary language.” it is not enough to achieve normative text… 2 Communicative. The language has a large arsenal of tools. The main requirement for a good text is as follows: of all language means for creating a specific text, those should be chosen that fulfill the tasks of communication, or communicative tasks, with maximum completeness and efficiency. The study of a text from the point of view of the correspondence of its linguistic structure to the tasks of communication in the theory of speech culture is called the communicative aspect of the culture of language proficiency. Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, therefore it is important to know the basic communicative qualities of speech and take them into account in the process of speech interaction. Communicative - an aspect in terms of which normativity should also be considered. The culture of speech is defined as a set of communicative qualities of good speech. These qualities are identified on the basis of the correlation of speech with individual ones, as B.N. Golovin, non-speech structures. Non-speech structures include: language as a certain basis that produces speech; thinking; consciousness; reality; man is the addressee of speech; communication conditions. This complex of non-speech structures requires the following good qualities from speech, that is, corresponding to these structures: the correctness of speech (in other words, normativity), its purity (the absence of dialectisms, jargon, etc., which also applies to the introduction of a normative aspect), accuracy , logic, expressiveness, figurativeness, accessibility, effectiveness and relevance. There is no doubt that all these qualities are really important for the evaluation of many specific texts in a communicative aspect. 3 Ethical. The ethical aspect of speech culture is not always explicit. R.O. Jacobson, a world-famous linguist, identifies six main functions of communication: designation of extralinguistic reality (It was a beautiful mansion), attitude to reality (What a beautiful mansion!), Magical function (Let there be light!), poetic, metalinguistic (judgments about the language itself : They don’t say so; Another word is needed here) and actual, or contact-establishing. If during the performance of the first five functions named here, the ethical aspect manifests itself, say, usually, then when the contact-establishing function is performed, it manifests itself in a special way. The contact-establishing function is the very fact of communication, the topic is not of great importance; it doesn't matter whether the topic is well or badly revealed. The ethical aspect of communication comes to the fore. Thus, speech ethics are the rules of proper speech behavior based on moral norms, national and cultural traditions. The main ethical principle of speech communication - respect for parity - finds its expression, starting with a greeting and ending with a farewell throughout the conversation: NORMATIVE, COMMUNICATIVE, ETHICAL ASPECTS OF ORAL AND WRITTEN SPEECH. A norm is an assessment by native speakers of certain facts as correct or incorrect, acceptable or inadmissible, appropriate or inappropriate. The system of norms of the literary language is obligatory, codified (fixed). This system includes private norms: 1) pronunciation; 2) word usage; 3) writing; 4) shaping; At the same time, literary norms are perceived as mandatory. Generally accepted communicative rules are conditioned by the very nature of human society and constitute a set of conditions without which human life ceases to be normal. One of the speech culture theorists, Professor B. N. Golovin, identifies five levels of the communicative circle. The first level is from reality to the consciousness of the author. Here the idea of the statement is born, the communicative task is manifested. At the second level, the intention of the statements is connected with the language data of the author. At the third level, the “verbal execution” of the idea takes place. At the fourth level, the utterance is perceived by the addressee. The addressee is required to understand the transmitted information. At the fifth level, the recipient correlates the information received during perception with reality, with previously accumulated knowledge, and draws appropriate conclusions. According to linguists, the main units of the communicative circle during the transition of language into speech are the word and the statement.

3. modern- 1. to someone. Relating to the same time, to the same era with someone or something. 2. Relating to the time of existence of the person being talked about (book). 3. Relating to the present time, to the current moment, to the present era, present. Modern literature. Modern life. 4. Standing at the level of its age, not backward, meeting the material needs, social, cultural needs of the present time. The Russian language is the national language of the great Russian people, which includes the entire set of linguistic means, the cat. Russian people use in their communication. The highest form of Russian. yaz yavl. literary language, which has a whole system of norms, in the formation and strengthening of which, their processing and polishing, Russian writers, scientists, publicists, and public figures played an outstanding role. The literary language is the language of books, newspapers, theater, radio and television, government agencies and educational institutions. The Russian literary language is a normalized and processed form of the national language: "Language is created by the people," Gorky noted. The concept of the modern Russian literary language. Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A. S. Pushkin. The high merits of the Russian language are created by its huge vocabulary, wide polysemy of words, richness of synonyms, inexhaustible treasury of word formation, numerous word forms, peculiarities of sounds, stress mobility, clear and harmonious syntax, variety of stylistic resources. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people, it covers all spheres of speech activity of people. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of language existence, exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the national national language. The literary language is understood as the language processed by masters of the word, scientists, public figures.

4 .History of the development of the Russian national language. The Russian national language has a complex and long history, its roots go back to ancient times. The Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. The development of the Russian language in different eras took place at different rates. An important factor in the process of its improvement was the mixing of languages, the formation of new words and the displacement of old ones. Since the 18th century The Russian language is becoming a literary language with generally recognized norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. The creator of the Russian literary language was A.S. Pushkin. In his work, the norms of the Russian literary language that later became national were fixed. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of the literary language up to the present day. In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, and also against the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words. In the 19th century a real struggle for the approval of linguistic norms unfolded. The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. It was conducted between the followers of the writer N.M. Karamzin and Slavophile A.C. Shishkov. Karamzin fought for the establishment of uniform norms, demanded to get rid of the influence of three styles and Church Slavonic speech, to use new words, including borrowed ones. Shishkov, on the other hand, believed that the Church Slavonic language should be the basis of the national language. The flowering of literature in the 19th century. had a great influence on the development and enrichment of the Russian language. In the first half of the XIX century. the process of creating the Russian national language was completed. In modern Russian, there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the XVIII century. terminology was borrowed by the Russian language from the German language, in the 19th century. - from the French language, then in the middle of the twentieth century. it is borrowed mainly from the English language (in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, however, the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited. The Russian language has inexhaustible possibilities for expressing thoughts, developing various topics, and creating works of any genre.

5. The national language has its varieties and branches. Its structure is as follows: literary language. non-literary varieties: vernacular, dialects, territorial social (dialects) (jargons). Literary language is a form of the historical existence of the national language, taken by its speakers as exemplary, it is a historically established system of commonly used language elements, speech means that have undergone long-term cultural processing in the texts (written and oral) of authoritative masters of the word, in oral communication of educated native speakers of the national language. The function of the literary language is to provide verbal communication in the main areas of activity of the entire historically established group of people who speak this national language. Literary language is opposed to folk colloquial speech. The literary language is constantly replenished and updated at the expense of colloquial speech. The development of the literary language is directly related to the development of the culture of the people, especially their fiction. The language of fiction embodies the best achievements of the national speech culture, the main advantages of the literary language of one people, the national language as a whole. The Russian literary language has two main forms of existence: oral and written. The oral form is the primary and only form of the existence of a language that does not have a written language. For the spoken literary language, the oral form is the main one, while the book language functions in both written and oral form (report - oral form, lecture - written form). The written form is more recent in time of occurrence. Fiction exists mainly in written form, although it is also realized in oral form (for example, artistic reading, theatrical performances, any reading aloud). The Russian national language includes, along with the literary language, colloquial speech: colloquial speech, local or territorial dialects, jargons. If we compare the dialectal and literary languages, then in the first we will see a wide variety of nominations for the same concepts, objects, phenomena with the same or the same type of stylistic characteristic of their designations. Russian national language and its varieties. The national language is the highest form of existence and functioning of the language of the nation. National lang. represents a historically established linguistic community, uniting the entire set of forms of its existence: lit. lang. with his letters. and oral varieties, dialects, vernacular and social. jargon. The national language is one of the obligatory signs of a nation, a nationality, a means of their communication and development. Characterizing the language of the Russian nation, there are several variants (forms) of the language. 1. The literary language is the highest form of the Russian national language, the norms of which are fixed in grammars and dictionaries, are brought up by the school, are reflected in the speech of literate native speakers, and are used in the media (media). Literary language is an exemplary, codified, standardized language. Lit. language - a language that is understood by all native speakers. The literary language has written and oral forms that serve the following areas: politics, culture, sulfur production, legislation, art, everyday communication, interethnic communication. The written form is graphically fixed, obeys the laws of spelling and punctuation, and can be edited. The oral form of speech - sounding speech, is created spontaneously, obeys the norms of spelling, intonation. 2. Non-literary variants (forms) of the language - dialects, jargons, vernacular - are limited by the scope of distribution (restrictions are either territorial or social). A territorial dialect is a non-literary variant of a language. This is a type of language used by people living in a certain territory. An example of dialectism (a dialect word): bison - in some Uralic dialects, the same as a wrangler in the literary language (from the dialect verb zubat = argue. Jargon (including slang and slang) is a non-literary variant of the language used between representatives of certain closed social groups (for example, prison and thieves' slang, youth slang, etc.) Here are examples of such words: among students, the word cranberry means colloquium; in youth slang, the expressions laces in a glass and flowers withered contain information that parents are at home; mow, mow , mow down - in the prison argo “to appropriate something contrary to the established rules.” Colloquial speech is a non-literary version of the language used in the speech of poorly educated people, which gives the speech an incorrect and rude character. Oral and written forms of the literary language. The literary language has written and oral forms that serve the following areas s: politics, culture, sulfur production, legislation, art, everyday communication, interethnic communication. The written form is graphically fixed, obeys the laws of spelling and punctuation, and can be edited. The oral form of speech - sounding speech, is created spontaneously, obeys the norms of spelling, intonation. Initially, the language was only spoken and the sound was its only form. The need to transmit speech at a distance, to preserve speech for a long time, led to the invention of writing. Written speech appeared. At first, written speech only recorded sounding speech, but over time it turned out that the difference between written and sounding speech is so great that they began to talk about 2 languages: the sounding language, the oral language and the written language. Written language often expresses intellectual information, so it is used more often in book speech. Oral - usually serves to express emotions, moods, relationships. Oral speech is primarily colloquial, dialogical speech, consisting of replicas exchanged between interlocutors. Oral speech can also be monologue (for example, a teacher's explanation in a lesson, a student's report, etc.), but at the same time it retains all the liveliness of colloquial speech, its expressiveness, intonation. Linguistic differences between oral and written forms of speech come down primarily to differences in syntax. There are fewer complex sentences in oral speech, but there is a lot of unsaid, made up for by gestures, facial expressions, and many incomplete sentences. Written language sets the rules for writing and reading. This is how spelling and punctuation came about. The spelling and punctuation norms of the written language are obligatory for all.

6. Language norm- these are traditionally established rules for the use of speech means, i.e. rules of exemplary and generally recognized pronunciation, use of words, phrases and sentences. The norm is obligatory and covers all aspects of the language. There are written and oral norms. The linguistic norm is defined and studied in at least two aspects. Firstly, the language norm is understood as stable, fixed in the process of communication variants of language units. In this case, the norm determines what is widespread in a given period of development of the national language, describes the options that are often found in speech. The main task of the study of the language norm in the linguistic aspect is the selection and description of linguistic phenomena, the "inventory" of the current state of the language. Secondly, the linguistic norm is considered not only as a linguistic, but also as a socio-historical category. In this case, the norm reflects the social aspect of communication, which is manifested not only in the selection and description of linguistic phenomena, but primarily in the system of their assessments.

Written language norms First of all, these are spelling and punctuation norms. For example, writing H in the word workerNick, and HH in the word birthday boy obeys certain spelling rules. And setting a dash in a sentence Moscow is the capital of Russia explained by the punctuation norms of the modern Russian language.

oral rules subdivided into  grammatical,  lexical and  orthoepic.

Grammar norms - these are the rules for using forms of different parts of speech, as well as the rules for constructing a sentence.

Lexical norms These are the rules for using words in speech. An error is, for example, the use of the verb * lay down instead of put. Even though the verbs lay down and put have the same meaning put - is a normative literary word, and lay down- spacious. Errors are expressions: * I put the book back *He puts the folder on the table etc. In these sentences, you need to use the verb put: I put the books back, He puts the folder on the table.

Orthoepic norms are the pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy (from the Greek. orthos- "correct" and epos- "speech"). About stress in words should be consulted in the "Orthoepic Dictionary". The pronunciation of a word is also recorded in spelling and explanatory dictionaries. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic norms facilitates and speeds up the process of communication, therefore the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially at present in our society, where oral speech has become the means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, forums.

7. Orthoepic norms Pronunciation norms are studied by orthoepy. Orthoepy (from the Greek orthos direct, correct and epos speech) - 1) a system of uniform pronunciation standards in the literary language; 2) science (section of phonetics), dealing with the norms of pronunciation, their justification and establishment.

Orthoepic norms are also called literary pronunciation norms, since they serve the literary language, i.e. the language spoken and written by cultured people. Orthoepy, along with obligatory pronunciation norms, primarily studies variants of pronunciation norms that coexist in the language at some point in time, when the old (historically determined) pronunciation variant is still actively used along with the new variant.

Pronunciation of vowels

1. The strong position for vowels is the position under stress. In an unstressed position, vowels undergo a change (qualitative or quantitative), i.e. are reduced.

Attention should be paid to the difficult cases of reduction. After the hissing [ and] and [ w] and sound [ c] unstressed vowel [ a] pronounced like a short [ a]: jargon, kings. But before soft consonants - like a sound [ ye]: sorry, thirty. On rare occasions [ ye] is also pronounced before hard consonants: rye, jasmine.

2. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of letters a, e, i to pronounce the sound [ ie]: watch. This is what is called "hiccup". It is found in neutral and conversational styles. "Ekane" (pronunciation in a given phonetic position of the sound [ ee] characterizes stage speech: in [ ee]net, t[ ee]New. pronunciation h[ and]sy - obsolete, h[ a]sy - dialectal.

3. Consonants c, w, w - solid sounds, after them in place of the letter and pronounced [ s]: revolution[ s]I, w[ s]zn, sh[ s]p.

4. In a few words of foreign origin, not completely acquired by the Russian language, in place of the letter about, unlike the Russian orthoepic norm, in an unstressed position, pronounced weakened [ about], i.e. without reduction: for the sake of[ about]. too clear [ about] is perceived as a mannered, on the other hand, distinct pronunciation [ about] in "Russified" book words ( sonata, novella) is also not desirable, because gives the pronunciation a colloquial tone.

5. Letter yo proposed to use the Russian historian N. M. Karamzin, simplifying the complex pattern that existed earlier in the alphabet of the letter. However, the letter yo now we can only meet in primers and textbooks for foreigners studying Russian. The absence of this letter in books and periodicals leads to incorrect pronunciation of words. Pay attention to words in which the vowel [ about], denoted by the letter yo, sometimes erroneously replaced with a percussion [ uh], whitish, maneuvers pronounced like whitish, maneuvers. Sometimes, on the contrary, percussion [ uh] is erroneously replaced by [ about] yo: grenadier, scam pronounced like grenadier, scam. This pronunciation is not normal.

Pronunciation of consonants

1. Voiced consonants at the absolute end of a word and before deaf consonants are stunned: arbu [s], pre[ t]acceptance.

Communicative competence- this is the ability of a person to organize his speech activity by language means and methods corresponding to the situation of communication.

Purpose of this course- increasing the level of speech culture, the formation of communicative competence.

Course objectives:

acquaintance with the basic concepts of the discipline (literary language, norm, style, culture of speech, functional style, business communication, etc.);

the formation of general ideas about the system of norms of the Russian literary language;

familiarization with the rules of communication in various situations of communication, the rules for drawing up basic business documents (applications);

to study general ideas about the rules of communicative-logical construction of speech, the basic laws of logic, strategies for conducting a dispute and the peculiarities of conducting business communication;

to form the need for a careful attitude to the native language, its wealth, the ability to use the means of linguistic and speech expressiveness;

Two types of cultural speech: correct and exemplary

correct- this is a speech that meets all the norms, rules of the language. Namely, the norms: pronunciation, vocabulary, phraseology, morphology, syntax, spelling and punctuation.

Exemplary is a speech that, in addition, complies with the norms (rules, requirements, principles, recommendations) of style, the requirements of relevance, accessibility, richness, imagery and originality.

The concept of speech culture

A culture of speech- the most important component of the general culture, i.e. all the achievements of human society in industrial, social and spiritual activities. The culture of speech is a prerequisite for the successful activity of any person. The culture of speech is the ability to correctly, accurately and vividly express one's thoughts and feelings.

The concept of "culture of speech" is closely connected with the concept of "literary language": one concept implies another. The culture of speech arises along with the formation and development of the literary language.

One of the main tasks of the culture of speech is the preservation and improvement of the literary language, which has the following features:

written fixation of oral speech (the presence of writing affects the nature of the literary language, enriching its expressive means and expanding the scope of application);

normalization

branched functional-stylistic system;

dialectical unity of book and colloquial speech;

close connection with the language of fiction.

Three components of speech culture: normative, communicative, ethical

The culture of speech includes three components: normative, communicative and ethical.

The most important of them is normative component. Norm¾ is a set of the most stable, traditional implementations of the language system, selected and fixed in the process of communication. The norm exists at all language levels (sound, word-formation, lexical, grammatical, syntactic). A literary language cannot exist and successfully perform a communicative function without the obligatory norms (the absence of linguistic norms would lead to misunderstanding in the communication process).

An ideal language norm could be considered such a norm that meets at least two requirements: 1) does not change over several centuries; 2) exists in the speech of absolutely all native speakers (without exceptions for social, professional groups, as well as for population groups identified according to the territorial principle). However, the norm with the named parameters is "hard to achieve" or "completely unattainable".

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the last century, and even 15-20 years ago, today may become a deviation from it. For example, the word bankrupt was borrowed in the 18th century. from the Dutch language and originally in Russian it sounded like bankrut. Its derivatives had a similar pronunciation: bankrupt, bankrupt, go bankrupt. In the time of Pushkin, a pronunciation variant appears with "o" along with "y". You could say bankrupt and bankrupt. By the end of the XIX century. finally defeated bankrupt, bankruptcy, bankrupt, go bankrupt. It has become the norm.

The accents are also changing. Thus, at the end of the 1990s, both variants of pronunciation were acceptable: thinking and thinking. In the modern dictionary (2005), only one form is given - thinking.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

There is a professional use of any language means: in the speech of many specialists, including people with a high general linguistic culture, forms that are different from the generally accepted ones are common - a compass (for sailors), syringes ´ (for doctors), the price is negotiable (for economists), comb the fund - neatly arrange books in the library (for librarians), computers (for computer scientists) and many others.

There is a territorial (dialect) word usage. In everyday colloquial speech of native speakers of the Russian language living in different territories, local words and forms of dialectal origin are often used, for example * drink tea (drink tea), * byvAT (sometimes), * kartovina (potato) in the speech of the inhabitants of the Russian North. Dialecticisms can be inherent in residents not only of villages, but also of central cities. So, it was found that, along with the generally accepted name of rectangular bread loaf, residents of Moscow and St. Petersburg actively use the word brick (this is already a local dialect), and in the speech of Perm and Chelyabinsk residents, all forms of bread, including rectangular, are referred to as the word bun (from the point of view of the norm, this word refers only to a special type of round white bread).

So, both professional and territorial vocabulary exist today in the speech of native speakers of the Russian language. They reflect deviations from the norm that really exist in the language, convincingly proving that the norm is not an ideal or a dogma. Norms are mobile, they change depending on the goals and conditions of communication.

The culture of speech implies, in addition to observing language norms, the choice and use of language means in accordance with communicative tasks. (For each goal - its own means!) In accordance with the requirements of the communicative aspect of the culture of speech, native speakers must master its functional styles, as well as focus on communication conditions that significantly affect how we speak (or write) at the moment. So, for example, if the goal is to create a scientific text (article, term paper or thesis), this determines the choice of a scientific functional style that meets the requirements of conceptual accuracy, consistency, etc. If the goal is to write a business letter, the only right choice in this case will be officially - business style. The mixing of functional styles, the substitution of one for another (even if other norms of speech are observed) is evidence of the low culture of the speaker/writer.

The communicative component of the culture of speech also implies accuracy, intelligibility and purity of speech. So, excessive, inappropriate use of borrowed words in oral speech makes communication difficult, and jargon and swear words violate the purity of speech. The communicative component of the culture of speech bears the main burden in the most effective achievement of the goals of communication.

The communicative component of the culture of speech includes three main components: 1) defining the purpose of communication; 2) determination of the pragmatic conditions of the communicative act; 3) dictated by the purpose and pragmatics, the basis for the choice and organization of language means that form the corresponding texts in their written or oral implementation.

The system of communicative goals seems to be the following. There are propositional and modal goals. Propositional goals determine the actual content of the text, modal goals are a communicative setting of the text such as: information, persuasion, motivation, etc. The opposition of propositional and modal meanings, which goes back to the concept of S. Bally, was developed in relation to the meaning of the sentence-statement.

Among the most important pragmatic characteristics of the communicative component of the culture of speech, if we try to generalize the experience of research in this area, we should include: 1) correspondence between the goal of communication of the addresser and the expectations from the communication of the addressee; 2) an accurate understanding of the speech characteristics of the addresser and addressee in this situation; 3) taking into account private pragmatic characteristics of the addresser and addressee.

The ethical component of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in a particular situation. Ethical norms of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greeting, request, farewell, gratitude, congratulations, etc.; appeal to "you" or "you"; choice of full or abbreviated name, form of address, etc.).

Every society has its own ethical standards of behavior. Ethics of communication, or speech etiquette, requires compliance with certain rules of linguistic behavior in certain situations. The ethical component manifests itself mainly in speech acts - purposeful language actions: the expression of a request, a question, gratitude, greetings, congratulations, etc.

A special area of communication ethics is explicit and unconditional prohibitions on the use of certain language means, for example, in any situation, foul language is strictly prohibited. Some intonational language means may also be prohibited - for example, speaking in "raised tones".

Thus, the ethical aspect of the culture of speech implies the necessary level of ethics of communication in different social and age groups of native speakers of the literary language, as well as between these groups.

Ensuring the maximum effectiveness of communication is associated with all three components (normative, communicative, ethical) of speech culture. The Russian literary language of our days, expressing the modern aesthetic-artistic, scientific, social, spiritual life of the people, serves the self-expression of the individual, the development of all forms of verbal art, creative thought, the moral revival and improvement of all aspects of society at a new stage of its development.

5. Modern speech situation: main characteristics and trends.

The modern speech situation is characterized by the involvement of broad sections of the population in public speech, the diversity of its types (political, military, diplomatic, academic, church, business) and genres (lecture, report, sermon, speech at a rally, in public discussion, etc.)

A feature of modern public speech communication is its dialogization: various forms of dialogue (argument, discussion, polemics, television debates, interviews), often mediated by the media, come to the fore. The dialogue of the TV presenter and his guest in the studio, as a rule, implies the presence of another, third participant - the audience of viewers, which can be expressed in the well-known formula: "Thank you to everyone who was with us today." Sometimes political opponents, arguing with each other in the media, argue primarily for the audience, winning over potential voters.

Dialogization of communication is also manifested in the monologue form of speech. In order to be effective, a monologue (a lecture, a report, a speech at a rally, a teacher’s word in a lesson, etc.) must include means of dialogization: appeals, questions or question-answer moves, particles, introductory words and expressions that allow you to establish contact with the audience, arouse and maintain its attention and interest in speech.

The state of the Russian language of our time is determined by a number of factors.

1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is expanding dramatically: new strata of the population are joining the role of speakers, the role of writers for newspapers and magazines. Since the late 80s, thousands of people with different levels of speech culture have received the opportunity to speak publicly.

2. In the media, censorship and auto-censorship, which previously largely determined the nature of speech behavior, are sharply weakened.

4. The sphere of spontaneous communication is expanding, not only personal, but also oral public. People no longer give or read pre-written speeches. They say.

7. The psychological rejection of the bureaucratic language of the past (the so-called Newspeak) is growing sharply.

8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression, new forms of imagery, new types of appeals to strangers.

9. Along with the birth of the names of new phenomena, there is a revival of the names of those phenomena that return from the past, forbidden or rejected in the era of totalitarianism ”(Russian language of the end of the 20th century. M., 1996).

The freedom and emancipation of speech behavior entails the loosening of linguistic norms, the growth of linguistic variability (instead of one acceptable form of a linguistic unit, different variants turn out to be acceptable).

Modern trends in colloquial speech

The mechanisms of interaction between the literary language and non-literary spheres of speech cannot be considered fully understood. Of considerable interest in this regard is the picture of the assimilation by colloquial speech and literary vernacular of elements coming from various social dialects, professional vernacular, jargonized vocabulary, youth slang, etc.

Non-literary vocabulary is divided into: 1) Professionalisms 2) Vulgarisms 3) Jargonisms 4) Slang. This part of the vocabulary is distinguished by its colloquial and informal character.

Professionalisms are words used by small groups of people united by a certain profession.

Vulgarisms are rude words not usually used by educated people in society, a special lexicon used by people of lower social status: prisoners, drug dealers, homeless people, etc.

Jargons are words used by certain social or common interest groups that carry a secret meaning that is incomprehensible to everyone.

Slang is words that are often seen as breaking the rules of the standard language. These are very expressive, ironic words that serve to designate objects that are spoken about in everyday life.

Jargon" - from fr. "jargon" is the speech of a relatively open social or professional group, which differs from the common language in a special composition of words and expressions. This is a conditional language, understandable only in a certain environment, it has a lot of artificial, sometimes conditional words and expressions.

The events of the second half of the 1980s - early 1990s were similar to the revolution in their impact on society and language. The state of the Russian language of our time is determined by a number of factors.

1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is expanding dramatically: new strata of the population are joining the role of speakers, the role of writers for newspapers and magazines. Since the late 80s, thousands of people with different levels of speech culture have received the opportunity to speak publicly.
2. In the media, censorship and auto-censorship, which previously largely determined the nature of speech behavior, are sharply weakened.
3. The personal beginning in speech increases. Great and unaddressed speech is replaced by personal speech, it acquires a specific addressee. The dialogue of communication, both oral and written, is increasing.
4. The sphere of spontaneous communication is expanding, not only personal, but also oral public. People no longer give or read pre-written speeches. They say.
5. Important parameters of the flow of oral forms of mass communication are changing: the possibility of a direct appeal of the speaker to the listeners and feedback from the listeners to the speakers is created.
6. Situations and genres of communication are changing both in the field of public and in the field of personal communication. Rigid limits of official public communication are weakened. Many new genres of oral public speech are born in the field of mass communication. The dry radio and TV announcer has been replaced by a presenter who reflects, jokes, and expresses his opinion.
7. The psychological rejection of the bureaucratic language of the past (the so-called Newspeak) is growing sharply.
8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression, new forms of imagery, new types of appeals to strangers.
9. Along with the birth of the names of new phenomena, there is a revival of the names of those phenomena that return from the past, banned or rejected in the era of totalitarianism (Russian language of the end of the twentieth century, M., 1996).

Mass media have a special influence on the state of speech culture. Each person daily experiences the powerful impact of television speech, speech that sounds on the radio or presented on the pages of newspapers and magazines. The quality of this speech evokes an immediate emotional response. It is newspapers and magazines, radio and television for many native speakers that serve as the main source of ideas about the language norm, they form the language taste; many diseases of the language are rightly associated with the mass media.

Modern mass media reflect the main socio-economic processes in society and the processes of transformation in the language. Any phenomenon or event in one form or another is reflected on the pages of newspapers and magazines, on TV screens, in the news feeds of Internet portals. These or those word formations introduced into the language by the mass media are firmly included in our speech, rooted in it.

A significant layer of media vocabulary is foreign borrowings.

An analysis of the language of modern literature, as well as the mass media, allows us to summarize the features of the current stage of development of the Russian language in terms of borrowings from the English language as follows:

English becomes the dominant language-donor;

there is an activation of the use of earlier borrowings;

there is a reinterpretation of old borrowings in the direction of neutralizing their negative connotations; in some cases, the process does not stop at a neutral point, but shifts towards a positive, sometimes unjustifiably positive, connotation;

there is a semantic development of exoticisms with the aim of their greater integration;

reorientation of borrowings of the monosemantic plan of the terminological corpus into polysemantic words of the standard language is carried out;

the borrowing of English words is of particular importance because of their greater economy and rationality compared to Russian descriptive synonyms;

semantic groups, including computer vocabulary, as well as vocabulary related to business, economics and management, come out on top in quantitative composition;

the process of assimilation of borrowings through the media is activated in connection with the intensification of contacts with foreign countries;

there is an initial stage of moderation of the process of borrowing, which is based on the psychological characteristics of the transition period.

Features of the modern speech situation:
1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is expanding dramatically. Broad sections of the population receive speakers, writers.
2. Censorship is sharply weakened in the media.
3. The personal beginning in speech increases.
4. Expanding the scope of spontaneous communication, impromptu.
5. The main parameters of the flow of oral forms of mass communication are changing.
6. Situations and genres of communication in the field of public and personal communication are changing.
7. The rejection of bureaucratic language is growing sharply.
8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression.
9. The birth of new names and the birth of old ones.
In 1991 passed conference "Russian language and modernity" . It put forward the following theses:
1. The modern speech situation is not critical, does not indicate the death of the language, but reflects the typical features of the language of the 20s and the main trends in its development.
2. All researchers are not satisfied with the speech competence of Russian speakers, which indicates a decline in speech culture.
Types of speech culture:
1. Fully functional (elite). The most complete knowledge of all the possibilities of the national language. The attitude to one's own speech is critical. For carriers of this type, a creative attitude to the language is characteristic, their speech is always figurative.
2. Not fully functional. Incomplete measure of language proficiency.
3. Middle literary. A failed incomplete type. People have an idea about the norm, but do not own it. precedent texts - media texts. They treat their own speech uncritically, they know only two functional styles: colloquial and professional. Use a large number of stamps. The level of general culture is low.
4. Literary jargon. ignorance of euphemisms - more decent expressions. Demonstrative unwillingness to use them.
5. Everyday. Never think about their speech.

6. The main functions of the language and their implementation in speech.

The functions of the language are not equivalent. Those functions of the language are recognized as fundamental, the fulfillment of which predetermined its emergence and constitutive properties. The most important social function of language is communicative. It determines its main characteristic - the presence of a material (sound) form and a system of encoding and decoding rules. These properties provide and maintain the unity of expression and perception of meaning. This function forms a pragmatic component of the language structure, adapting speech to the participants and the situation of communication. With the help of language, people convey their thoughts and feelings to each other, thereby influencing each other and forming social consciousness.

The second main social function of the language is called the cognitive (cognitive) function, which consists of a logical (thought-forming) function. Thought then becomes formalized and sensually perceived when it is embodied in the forms of language and expressed in speech. Another component: an accumulative (historical) function, in which language serves as a means of accumulating social experience, a means of forming and developing material and spiritual culture, thereby changing public consciousness.

Statements about language are denoted by the metalinguistic (metalinguistic) function of language, implemented in linguistic texts, in the process of mastering a native or foreign language.

Example: “I explained that there is a big difference between “demonstrative”, when they show what is, and “ostentatious”, when they show what is not” (Khodasevich).

The setting for the message to satisfy the aesthetic sense of the addressee with its form in unity with the content is performed by the aesthetic (poetic) function, which, being the main one for a literary text, is also present in everyday speech, manifesting itself in its rhythm, imagery, etc. Unlike communicative function, which is the main one in ordinary (practical) language, the aesthetic function dominates in artistic speech.

The social function of the language, its social significance, lies in the fact that the language is involved in the development of various aspects of the spiritual life and labor activity of the people.

The achievements of the people, the nation in the development of science, fiction and other areas of spiritual culture are carried out with the direct participation of the native language and are expressed in it. That is why every nation strives, while developing its national culture, to maintain and improve its national language.

7. General characteristics of the national language. The concept of the modern Russian literary language.

The national language is the common language of the whole nation, covering all spheres of speech activity of people. It is not homogeneous and consists of the following varieties: 1) Literary language; 2) Territorial and social dialects; 3) Non-literary vernacular.

The highest form of the national language is literary language- the language is standardized, serving the cultural needs of the people, fiction, the media, science, government agencies.

National language is wider!

Modern Russian literary language :

Russian is the language of the Russian nation

Literary - normalized (having a system of norms and rules)

8.language norm. Types of language norm. Signs of the language norm.

A linguistic norm is a set of the most stable language means and rules illuminated by tradition, their use, accepted in a given society, in a given era.

There are three formulas of language norms:

1. A is right, B is wrong.

2. A - correct, B - correct.

3. A - correct in X style, B - correct in y style.

In accordance with the main levels of the language and the areas of use of language tools the following types of norms are distinguished:

1. orthoepic norms - this is the rule for pronouncing sounds and sound combinations and placing stress in a word. Deviation from this type of norms generates the corresponding type of speech errors.

Subdivided into:

proper pronunciation.

· Accent

2. Lexical norms - rules for the use of words in accordance with their lexical meaning and compatibility, violation leads to lexical errors (smart girl / smart leg (lex.)).

Variety of lexical errors:

Mixing words with similar meanings

Mixing words with similar sounds

Mixing words that are similar in meaning and sound

Unresolved ambiguity

· Pleonasms, tautologies.

3. Phraseological norms

Rules for the use of stable combinations of words in accordance with their meaning, composition and grammatical form.

Types of phraseological errors:

Changing the lexical composition or replacing a component (she keeps it in her mittens/ mittens; Ivanushka grew by leaps and bounds, and at night/ by hours)

truncation (successes wish the best / successes leave much to be desired)

Expansion of the lexical composition (it's time for you to take up mine mind; he is before his will not forget the coffin).

Distortion of grammatical form (beat bucket/ buckets; tablecloth for him road/road; in head goes around / head).

Contamination - combining the components of two different phraseological units into one (this work a penny not worth / a broken penny)

Pleonastic combinations - use with words that duplicate its meaning ( Vain monkey labor, tough hedgehog gloves, random stray bullet).

Use in an unusual meaning (the lesson passed and your song was sung).

4. Word-building norms are the rules for the formation of words in the modern Russian literary language.

deviation from word-formation norms leads to word combinations.

5. Morphological norms - the rules for the formation of grammatical forms of words.

6. Syntactic norms - the rules for constructing a combination, sentence and text.

10. Speech errors and their classification.

speech error- an error associated with incorrect or not with the most successful use of words or phraseological units. The main causes of speech errors are misunderstanding of the meaning of a word, lexical compatibility, use of synonyms, use of homonyms, use of polysemantic words, verbosity, lexical incompleteness of the statement, new words, obsolete words, words of foreign origin, dialectisms, colloquial and colloquial words, professional jargon, phraseological units, cliches and stamps.

Speech errors are divided into:

1) Lexical(A lexical error is the use of one word instead of some other, completely different from it in meaning: "Onegin was a courtyard" (instead of "nobleman")).

2) Morphological(These are incorrect formations of word forms during inflection, when the wrong ending is taken to the word form, which is required. The following typical errors are observed: - the formation of the nominative plural from masculine nouns with the ending - a (-я) instead of the ending - and ( -y): locksmith (instead of locksmiths), turner, bulldozer, hair, reprimand, hospital, combine operator, etc. (instead of getting sick), ride (instead of ride), crawl (instead of crawl), climb (instead of crawl), torment (instead of torment), scatter (instead of scatter), tremble (instead of tremble). cheaper, beautiful, lie down (instead of lying down), business, places; I don’t need to go there (instead of nothing); someone has doubts (instead of someone), for someone, from someone ( instead of someone after someone, something from someone).)

3) Syntactic (these are the norms for the correct construction of phrases and sentences. Compliance with syntactic norms is the most important condition for the correctness of speech.)

4) Stylistic (this is the incorrect use of the word and (or) the incorrect construction of the sentence. The use of paronyms and pleonasm. Paronyms(words similar in meaning) are often used incorrectly. The following pairs can be cited as examples: difference (of something from something) - difference (between something and something), assimilate - master (the second is used in the sense of a higher degree of manifestation of the action), equal (same) - smooth (without protrusions, irregularities), provide (give for use) - present (present), linguistic (from language in the meaning of organ) - linguistic (from language in the meaning of speech) and many others. Pleonasm is a verbal excess, interspersed with words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view. After updating an existing object...(After updating an object...); An operation is the way in which an action is performed...(An operation is a way of performing an action...); To provide... (To provide...). Tautology(a definition is called that repeats what was said earlier in a different form.) Incorrect: Along with these signs, there are a number of others ... True: Along with these signs, there are others ...)

5) communicative in accordance with the language level at which they arise.

Speech errors (P) are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a language unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, that is, a violation of lexical norms. These are pleonasm, tautology, speech clichés, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-distinguishing of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, ambiguity not eliminated by the context.

№	Error type	Examples
P1	The use of a word in an unusual sense	We were shocked by the wonderful performance of the actors. Thanks to the fire, the forest burned down.
R2	Unjustified use of dialect and colloquial words	Such people always manage to fool others. Oblomov did nothing and played the fool all day long.
P3	Bad use of pronouns	The text was written by V. Belov. It refers to the artistic style; I immediately had a picture in my mind.
P4	The use of words of a different stylistic coloring; mixing vocabulary from different eras; inappropriate use of stationery, expressive, emotionally colored words, outdated vocabulary, jargon, inappropriate use of phraseological units	According to the author's idea, the hero wins; Molchalin works as Famusov's secretary; In the novel by A.S. Pushkin there are lyrical digressions; The author now and then resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications. If I were there, then for such an attitude towards my mother, I would have given this cupcake in the gnaw; Don't put your finger in Zoshchenko's mouth, just let the reader laugh.
R5	Indistinguishability of shades of meaning introduced into the word by prefix and suffix	In such cases, I look in the dictionary.
R6	Non-distinguishing of paronyms, synonymous words; errors in the use of antonyms when constructing an antithesis; destruction of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit in an unsuccessfully organized context	Effective measures were taken; The name of this poet is familiar in many countries; In the third part of the text, not a cheerful, but not a major motif makes us think; the phonograph record has not yet said its last word.
R7	Violation of lexical compatibility	The author uses artistic features.
R8	Use of superfluous words, including pleonasm	Young youth; very lovely.
P9	The use of words near or close to the same root (tautology)	This story tells about real events.
P10	Unjustified repetition of a word	The hero of the story does not think about his act. The hero does not even understand the full depth of what he has done.
P11	Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions	When the writer came to the editorial office, he was accepted by the editor-in-chief. When they talked, the writer went to the hotel.
R12	Use of superfluous words, lexical redundancy	Then the fact that you can smile, our bookstore will take care of it.

11. Language and speech: comparative characteristics.

Language is a system of signs and symbols. Speech is the ability to speak a language. Language reveals itself only through speech. In linguistics, speech is understood as a specific speaking that takes place in time, clothed in a linguistic form (inner speech).

Difference: speech is concrete, unique, relevant, unfolds in time. It is realized in space, speech is active, tends to unite words. Unlike language, it is less conservative, but more mobile. Speech as a sequence of words involved in it reflects the experience of the speaker, is conditioned by the context, and can be chaotic. On the one hand, speech using already known language means depends on the language. And it has characteristics that have no other relation to the language (specific timbre, duration, degree of literacy, accent).

12. Two forms of speech: oral and written.

Speech communication occurs in 2 forms: oral and written. They are in a complex unity and occupy the same place in social speech practice. The basis of oral and written speech is literary speech - normalized.

Feature of oral speech: Oral speech is a sounding speech functioning in the sphere of direct communication. Historically, the oral form is primary. A greater role in it is played by: 1) the place of logical stress; 2) The degree of clarity of pronunciation; 3) The presence or absence of pauses.

Oral speech has an intonation variety capable of conveying all the richness of human feelings. It is perceived by ear. It can be prepared or unprepared. Prepared differs: 1) thoughtfulness; 2) a clear structural compositional organization; 3) compliance with speech norms; 4) Strict logic. Unprepared characterized by: 1) spontaneity; 2) The statement is formed gradually, depending on the situation. The speaker controls the sl. Language levels: 1) logical-compositional; 2) syntactic. Those. makes sure that the speech is logical and coherent. Chooses appropriate words to adequately express thought.

Oral speech, as well as written speech, is normalized and regulated, but its norms differ from book speech. In the oral norm - this is what is not perceived as an error.

The oral form of speech is assigned to all functional styles of the Russian language, but it has an advantage in the colloquial everyday style of speech. Allocate: 1) oral journalistic speech; 2) in the field of official business communication; 3) oral scientific; 4) colloquial speech.

Spoken language affects all varieties of oral speech.

Written speech: an auxiliary sign system created by people that is used to fix sounding speech. At the same time, writing is an independent communication system that complements a number of specific functions. It makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by a person, expands the scope of human communication, breaks the boundaries of the immediate environment.

main function- fixation of oral speech, which has the goal of preserving the last in space and time.

Written speech unfolds not in time, but in a statistical space, which makes it possible to think over the speech, return to what has already been written, rebuild sentences, parts of the text, replace words, clarify.

Written speech uses bookish language, the use of which is strictly regulated. The word order is fixed, inversion is not typical, in some cases it is unacceptable.

Sentences, as a rule, express complex logical and semantic connections, therefore, logical and semantic connections are characteristic of it. It is focused on the perception of the organs of vision, so it has a clear structural and formal organization.

15.Text. Text features. Discourse.

Text is an ordered set of sentences designed to express some meaning.

Features of the text: 1) Communicative completeness; 2) Connectivity; 3) integrity (unity); 4) dynamism; 5) Compression and redundancy; 6) Imagery.

Discourse (French discours - speech, performance, words) - in a broad sense, it is a complex unity of language practice and extralingual factors (significant behavior that manifests itself in forms accessible to sensory perception) necessary for understanding the text, i.e. gives an idea of the participants in communication, their attitudes and goals, the conditions for the development and perception of the message. Traditionally, discourse had the meaning of an ordered written, but most often speech, message of an individual subject. In recent decades, the term has become widespread in the humanities and has acquired new shades of meaning. The frequent identification of text and discourse is connected, firstly, with the absence in some European languages of the term equivalent to French English, discours (e), and secondly, with the fact that earlier only language practice was included in the scope of the concept of discourse. With the development of discourse analysis as a special area of research, it became clear that the meaning of discourse is not limited to written and oral speech, but also denotes extralinguistic semiotic processes. The emphasis in the interpretation of discourse is placed on its interactional nature. Discourse is, first of all, a speech immersed in life, in a social context (for this reason, the concept of discourse is rarely used in relation to ancient texts).

16. Lexicography and speech culture.

A dictionary is a specific organization of collections of words, usually with comments that describe the structural features of the words. There are also dictionaries in which there are no special comments.

In another sense, the term dictionary denotes the entire set of a certain language and is opposed to the term grammar, which denotes a set of rules for constructing more complex language expressions from words.

A linguistic discipline that focuses on vocabulary-building techniques called lexicography.

Lexicography is one of the branches of lexicology.

Main task: development of general typologies of dictionaries and description of the main types of dictionaries of the Russian language.

Lexicography is both a science and an art.

The lexicographer is a scientist.

The scribe, having determined the meaning of an unfamiliar word, wrote it between the lines or in the margins (glosses).

The earliest glosses are known from the deepest antiquity.

Handwritten glossaries were in constant demand. With the advent of printing, books fell in price, and dictionaries were among the first printed products.

In the 16th century, new principles for compiling dictionaries were formed, in particular, the alphabetical principle of arrangement was gradually approved.

(Lexicography (ancient Greek λεξικόν, lexikon - “dictionary” and γράφω, grapho - “I write”) - a section of linguistics that deals with the compilation of dictionaries and their study; a science that studies the semantic structure of a word, features of words, their interpretation.

Practical lexicography performs socially important functions, providing language teaching, description and normalization of the language, interlingual communication, scientific study of the language. Lexicography seeks to find the most optimal and acceptable for perception ways of dictionary representation of the entire body of knowledge about the language.

Theoretical lexicography covers a complex of problems related to the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, the volume and nature of the dictionary, the principles of the arrangement of material) and the microstructure of the dictionary (the structure of the dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions, the ratio of different types of information about the word, types of language illustrations, etc.). ), the creation of a typology of dictionaries, with the history of lexicography.

Lexicography is a word in the totality of all its properties, so the dictionary is not only a unique and indispensable language tool, but also the most important tool for scientific research. The linguistic science of the 21st century strives to embody all aspects of the acquired knowledge in the dictionary form, therefore, in the latest dictionaries, not only words, but also other language units become the object of description.

Among the famous lexicographers are Pollux, C. Ducange, I.K. Adelung, I.G. Walter, V.I. Dal.

A culture of speech…)

17. Linguistic dictionaries of the Russian language and their purpose.

A linguistic dictionary is a scientific reference publication where words are placed in alphabetical order and stable combinations, words with their interpretation, stress, grammatical, syntactic and other notes. Linguistic dictionaries describe words, their meaning, features of use, structural properties, compatibility, correlation with lexical systems of other languages.

Special attention deserves the distinction between linguistic (primarily explanatory) and encyclopedic dictionaries, which, first of all, consists in the fact that concepts are described in encyclopedic dictionaries (depending on the volume and addressee of the dictionary, more or less detailed scientific information is given), in explanatory - linguistic meanings. There are many entries in encyclopedic dictionaries in which proper names are the heading word.

An example of a dictionary entry from a linguistic dictionary:

Marmot, -r to a, m. A small rodent of the family. squirrel, living in burrows and hibernating in winter.

An example of a dictionary entry from an encyclopedic dictionary:

Marmots, a genus of mammals of the family. squirrels. Body length up to 60 cm, tail less than 1/2 body length. 13 species, in the North. hemispheres (excluding deserts and tundras); in Russia several types. Object of trade (fur, fat, meat). They may be carriers of the plague pathogen. Some species are rare and protected.

18. The concept of a typical text and its role in business communication.

Sample text- this is a sample text, on the basis of which texts of similar content are subsequently created.

19. Characteristics of the official business style.

The main sphere of functioning is administrative and legal activity. This style satisfies the need of society for documenting various acts, state, socio-political, economic life, business relations in organizations, as well as between members of society.

Style texts represent a huge variety of genres (documents, orders). The expression of legal will in documents determines the properties of business speech and the socially organizing uses of the language.

Functions of official business style: 1) informational; 2) prescriptive; 3) Ascertaining.

The form of implementation is written.

Two sub-styles are distinguished from the official business style: 1) Legislative (official documentary (language of legislative documents)); 2) Clerical (Everyday business (correspondence between institutions))

Style features: 1) Accuracy of presentation, which does not allow for the possibility of differences in interpretation.

2) Detailed presentation

3) Steriatypism (standardization)

4) Emotionlessness

5) Impersonality

6) objectivity

7) Consistency

Speech here has a dual nature, it is characterized by the abstractness of the means of expression and the concreteness of the content.

Language features of the official business style: Words and phrases that have a pronounced functional and stylistic coloring are used. Among them are a significant number of professional terms. The official business style is characterized by a tendency to reduce the number of words, to simplify their structure (narrow terminology).

Therefore, texts of this style often give precise definitions of the words and concepts used. Polysemy (polysemy), use in a figurative sense is unacceptable here, synonyms are used to a small extent. Compound words formed from two or more stems are typical for business language. This is a specific clerical vocabulary.

Ticket 1.

Types of speech culture:

3. Increasing personal bioavailability

4. Expanding scope spontaneous

Newspeak).

Ticket 2.

Communicative situation

AT
Communication event

Communication strategy

pronunciation,

accent,

lexical,

intonation,

Style (stylistic).

style,

contextual,

situational,

Personal-psychological.

Ticket 3.

Ticket 4.

Ticket 5.

language norm. Main characteristics. Types of the norm, variants of the norm.

Language norms are the rules for the use of language means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is an example of a uniform, generally recognized use of language elements. There are the following types of norms:
1) norms of written and oral forms of speech; 2) norms of written speech;
3) norms of oral speech.

· To the standards common to oral and written speeches are:
lexical norms(explanatory dictionary) these are the norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language; grammatical norms these are the rules for using forms of different parts of speech, as well as the rules for constructing a sentence. Are divided into derivational(determine the order of connecting parts of a word, the formation of new words), morphological(require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech. Morph dictionary) and syntactic; stylistic norms determine the use of language means in accordance with the laws of the genre, the features of the functional style

· special rules written speeches are:
spelling norms (orph dictionary); punctuation rules.

· Only to oral speeches are applicable:
orthoepic norms(include pronunciation, stress and intonation norms. Orthoep. Dictionary)

Ticket 6.

Ticket 7

Ticket 8

Ticket 9

Ticket 10

Ticket number 11

Ticket number 12

Ticket 13

Difficulties associated with word formation.

Word formation methods.

New words in Russian are formed on the basis of words, phrases, less often - sentences that are initial for a new word.
Words in Russian are formed in the following main ways: prefixed, suffixed, prefixed-suffixed, non-suffixed, addition, transition from one part of speech to another.

Attachment method.

When words are formed by the prefix method, the prefix is \u200b\u200battached to the original, already finished word. The new word refers to the same part of speech as the original word. This is how nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs.

suffix way.

The suffix method consists in adding a suffix to the base of the original word. Thus, the words of all independent parts of speech are formed.
Words formed in a suffixal way are usually another part of speech.
The suffix method is the main one for the formation of nouns, adjectives and adverbs. It is more complex than the prefix method, since the suffix is added not to the whole word, but to its base, and the base of the word is sometimes modified: a part of the base is cut off, its sound composition changes, sounds alternate.

Non-suffix way.

consists in the fact that the ending is discarded from the word or the ending is discarded at the same time and the suffix is cut off.

Addition as a way of forming words.

Addition is the combination of two words in one word. As a result of the addition, Difficult words.
Compound words are words that have two (or more) roots. They are formed. as a rule, from independent parts of speech, keeping in its composition the whole word or part of it. In a compound word, there can be connecting vowels oi e between the roots.

Notes.

1. The following can also act as a connecting vowel: five-year.

2. Compound words can be without a connecting vowel.

Compound words are formed:

1. Addition of whole words: sofa bed, test pilot;

2. Adding the foundations of words without connecting vowels (wall newspaper, sports ground, car factory) or connecting vowels o and e (snowfall, diesel locomotive, digger);

3. With the help of connecting vowels o and e, connecting part of the stem of the word with the whole word: new building, reinforced concrete, grain procurement, decorative and applied;

4. Addition of foundations with the simultaneous addition of a suffix: agriculture, dizzying;

5. Merging words: evergreen, highly esteemed, daredevil, the undersigned.

Addition of abbreviated bases.

Many words are formed by addition of abbreviated stems of original words. As a result, compound words are formed.

Compound words are formed:

1. adding syllables or parts of words of the full name: collective farm (collective farm), educational program (liquidation of illiteracy), special correspondent (special correspondent);

2. adding the names of the initial letters: Central Committee (Central Committee), VDNH (Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy);

3. addition of initial sounds: university (higher educational institution), Moscow Art Theater (Moscow Art Academic Theater);

4. in a mixed way (addition of a syllable with a sound, a sound with a syllable, letters with a sound, etc.): glavk (main committee), district (district department of public education).

Complex and complex abbreviations words can serve as the basis for the formation of new words: university - university student; collective farm - collective farm - collective farmer.

Ticket 14.

Basic types of dictionaries

The department of linguistics that deals with the compilation of dictionaries and their study is called lexicography (Greek lexikos - dictionary and grapho - I write). There are two types of dictionaries: encyclopedic(for example, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, the Great Encyclopedic Dictionary, the Literary Encyclopedia, the Children's Encyclopedia, the philosophical dictionary, etc.) and philological (linguistic). First, concepts, phenomena are explained, information about various events is reported; secondly, words are explained, their meanings are interpreted. Linguistic dictionaries can also be encyclopedic, for example: "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" ed. V.N. Yartseva was published in 1990, and in 1997 published under the editorship of. Yu.N. Karaulov dictionary "Russian language: Encyclopedia".

Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types: dictionaries multilingual(most often bilingual, which we use when learning a foreign language, working on a translation, etc.) and monolingual in which words are explained by means of words of the same language.

Finally, among the monolingual dictionaries stand out:

1) dictionaries that include all the words of a given language (the so-called dictionaries thēsaurus (gr.) - treasury, repository);

2) dictionaries of the modern literary language (the most common type of explanatory dictionary, see below);

3) dictionaries of individual dialects or their groups (regional dictionaries, for example, the Don dictionary);

4) dictionaries of the language of a particular writer;

5) dictionaries of the language of a separate work;

6) historical dictionaries, including words of a certain period in the history of the language;

7) etymological dictionaries explaining the origin of individual words;

8) dictionaries of synonyms;

9) phraseological dictionaries;

10) dictionaries of irregularities, including words in the use, pronunciation or spelling of which deviations from the literary norm are often observed;

11) dictionaries of foreign words;

12) spelling dictionaries;

13) orthoepic dictionaries (dictionaries of literary pronunciation and stress);

14) word-building dictionaries;

15) reverse dictionaries;

16) frequency dictionaries;

17) dictionaries of abbreviations;

18) jargon dictionaries, etc.

From History (not necessary))

The first Russian dictionaries, which appeared at the end of the 13th century, were small lists of incomprehensible words (with their interpretation) found in the monuments of ancient Russian writing. In the XVI century. such dictionaries began to be compiled alphabetically, as a result of which they received the name "alphabets".

The first printed dictionary, containing already 1061 words, appeared in 1596 as an appendix to the grammar of the famous philologist of that time, the priest Lavrenty Zizania. Mostly bookish Slavic words and a small number of foreign words were subjected to interpretation.

Ticket number 15

Ticket 16.

Ticket 17

Ticket 18

If the verb is in the form of the 1st person, then the speaker is the subject of the utterance: I am reading. If the verb is in the form of the 2nd person, then the subject of the utterance is the addressee (interlocutor): Will you go for a walk today? The 3rd person of the verb shows that the subject of the action does not participate in the current speech situation: He knows a lot! Difficulty in the formation of personal forms of the verb may arise due to the alternation of vowels and consonants in the roots of some verbs: to look - I look, to want - I want

The most common mistake in the formation of verb forms is due to the fact that some verbs, when conjugated, are not used in the form of the 1st, less often the 2nd person. Such verbs are called insufficient. The reasons for this are either in the structure or in the semantics of the verb. From the point of view of the structure (the appearance of combinations of sounds incompatible for the Russian language), verbs with a basis in -d, -t, -z, -s do not form the 1st person forms: watch, hang, clamor, dare, blow, protect, win, convince, make sure, manage, wonder, kink, feel, rustle. The semantic reasons that prevent the formation of forms of the 1st (and 2nd) person singular can be: we are talking about impersonal verbs: to get evening, to shiver, to be unwell, to dawn; incompatibility with human action: rust, turn green, warm; compatibility of action: stick, run, accumulate, crowd, scatter.

Also, the verbs do not have the forms of the 1st person: to eclipse, to build, to form, to find oneself, to shelter, to blaze, to blow, to be weird and others. There are verbs that have the form of the 1st person, but its use in the literary language is undesirable: vacuuming - vacuum cleaner (only in colloquial speech). Some verbs have become entrenched in the modern Russian language with shades of meaning, without receiving any special stylistic differences: splashes - splashes, moves - moves, drips - drops, throws - mosques.

Non-personal and non-conjugated forms of verbs are participle, participle, infinitive.

Ticket19.

Ticket 20.

Application alignment

1. Applications expressed by nicknames or conditional names do not agree with the words being defined, i.e., they retain the initial form in all cases, for example: Vsevolod the Big Nest

2. In type combinations booster, formed by combining an inanimate noun and an animate noun, the second part in the accusative case, for the purpose of agreement, takes the form of the nominative case, for example: watch the booster

3. Do not agree:

1) applications attached by words by name, surname, nickname etc., for example: signed by a correspondent named Yankovsky; an accident with some boy named Kolya;

2) nouns in combinations known as, needed as with the value "as", for example: Petrov, who was needed as a witness in this case, was summoned to court;

H) words after a combination whether, for example: Information is contained in various materials, whether it is correspondence, a selection of letters or a small note.;

4) bracketed insertion words related to the previous generalizing word, for example: Chekhov proved himself to be a brilliant master of the artistic word in a wide variety of genres (story, short story, humorous sketch, theatrical play).

4. Parts of compound names agree in case and number, for example: in a letter-postcard, by a ditch-digging machine, on showcases-stands. The same in the presence of numerals: two ice cream cakes, three boarding schools, four bathrobes(in these examples, the numeral is equally combined with each part of the complex name). In some cases, the second part is not consistent: at the hammerhead shark.

Ticket 22 . Rules for the use of participial, adverbial and nominal revolutions.

The use of participial phrases

The participle has: time, aspect, pledge, which correlate with the same meanings of the verb - the predicate.

For the correct formation of participles, you need to: take into account the order of words when using adverbs. Turnovers (you can’t put the word being defined inside the participial turnover, also the wrong word order can lead to ambiguity)

The participial turnover must completely stand either after the noun being defined (a book lying on the table), or before it (a book lying on the table), but should not be broken by the word being defined (a book lying on the table).

The heap of participles creates dissonance.

Incorrect word order in a sentence with a separate participial turnover:

A few days after the quarrel, Dubrovsky caught Troekurov's peasants in his forests stealing firewood.

The use of adverbial phrases

The adverbial phrase must refer to the same subject as the verb-predicate.

It is necessary to correctly form adverbial turnover

The tense of the verb must correspond to the type of gerund

It is necessary to observe the homogeneity of the participle about. with others

The adverbial turnover cannot be used if the sentence is expressed by a passive construction, because the producer of the action expressed by the predicate and the producer of the action expressed by the gerund do not match:

Having risen up the Volga, the barge will be unloaded at the Bykovo pier.

A heap of adverbs creates dissonance.

The use of nominal revolutions (verbal noun with dependent words)

Example: misuse. The formation of such nouns leads to the appearance of non-existent words (taking - giving). Avoid ambiguity (example: we discussed changing players)

Ticket 23.

Ticket 24.

Ticket 25.

Ticket 26.

Ticket 1.

Modern speech situation. Actual changes in the language and their assessment.

The modern speech situation represents a crisis transitional stage. But the language does not deteriorate, it develops. The question of changes in speech and in the language system becomes relevant. Features of the modern speech situation:
1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is expanding dramatically.
2. Censorship is loosened in the media.
3. The personal beginning in speech increases.

4. Scientific and technological progress introduces new words into our speech
5. Situations and genres of communication in the field of public and personal communication are changing.
6. There is a desire to develop new means of expression.

Types of speech culture:
1. Full featured. The most complete knowledge of all the possibilities of the national language. The attitude to one's own speech is critical.
2. Not fully functional. Incomplete measure of language proficiency.
3. Middle literary. A failed incomplete type. People have an idea about the norm, but do not own it.
4. Literary jargon. ignorance of euphemisms - more decent expressions. Demonstrative unwillingness to use them.
5. Everyday. Never think about their speech.

The freedom and emancipation of speech behavior entails the loosening of linguistic norms, the growth of linguistic variability. However, it is difficult to give an unambiguous assessment of the modern speech situation.

2. In the media, censorship and auto-censorship, which previously largely determined the nature of speech behavior, are sharply weakened.

3. Increasing personal start in speech. Faceless and unaddressed speech is replaced by personal speech, it acquires a specific addressee. Increasing bioavailability communication, both oral and written.

4. Expanding scope spontaneous communication not only personal, but also oral public. People no longer give or read pre-written speeches. They say.

7. The psychological rejection of the bureaucratic language of the past (the so-called Newspeak).

8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression, new forms of imagery, new types of appeals to strangers.

9. Along with the birth of the names of new phenomena, there is a revival of the names of those phenomena that return from the past, banned or rejected in the era of totalitarianism "(Russian language of the end of the 20th century. M., 1996).

Ticket 2.

Communicative situation, communicative event, communicative strategy. Communicative qualities of speech.

Communicative situation- this is a situation of verbal communication of two or more people. A communicative situation has a certain structure. It consists of the following components:

1) speaker (addresser); 2) listener (addressee); 3) the relationship between the speaker and the listener and related 4) the tone of communication (official - neutral - friendly); 5) purpose; 6) means of communication (language or its subsystem - dialect, style, as well as paralinguistic means - gestures, facial expressions); 7) method of communication (oral/written, contact/remote); 8) place of communication.

These are situational variables. Changing the values of each of these variables leads to a change in the communicative situation and, consequently, to a variation in the means used by the participants in the situation and their communicative behavior in general.

Thus, the communication of a judge and a witness in the courtroom is distinguished by a greater formality of the linguistic means used by both parties than the communication of the same persons outside the court session: the place changes, but the social roles (see about this concept below), like all other situational variables are kept unchanged.

AT communicative event involved specific members. Therefore, the same statements mean different things in different communicative events.
Communication event is an interaction (transaction) in which each of the parties in real time plays the role of both the Source and the Receiver. To interpret the message, i.e. to create mutually acceptable meaning, which requires cooperation.

Communication strategy is a part of a communicative behavior or communicative interaction in which a series of different verbal and non-verbal means is used to achieve a specific communicative goal;

a set of theoretical moves planned by the speaker in advance and implemented during the communicative act, aimed at achieving the communicative goal.

communicative qualities of speech, which have the best impact on the addressee, taking into account the specific situation and in accordance with the goals and objectives set :

1. Correctness (normativity) - compliance with literary norms.

2. Accuracy - correspondence of speech to reality:

Subject (knowledge of the subject of speech),

Conceptual (the ability to accurately select words to define the subject).

3. Logic - content, ratio of parts and components of speech, sequence of presentation:

Subject (correspondence of semantic connections and relations of language units in speech to connections and relations of objects and events of reality)

Conceptual (the structure of logical thought and its logical development in the semantic connections of language elements in speech).

4. Purity - freedom of speech from any elements that pollute it.

5. Wealth - the ability to use different linguistic means to determine the same objects of speech, phenomena, events.

6. Expressiveness - features that help maintain the attention and interest of the listener (pronunciation features, intonation, accents, etc.):

pronunciation,

accent,

lexical,

intonation,

Style (stylistic).

7. Relevance - compliance of speech with the topic of conversation and the selected audience:

style,

contextual,

situational,

Personal-psychological.

Portal for the student. Self-training

5. Modern speech situation: main characteristics and trends.

RELATED ARTICLES