1. Specificity of scientific knowledge.

2. Correlation between empirical and theoretical knowledge.

3. Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

When studying the first question "The specifics of scientific knowledge" it is necessary to understand the essence and significance of science as a phenomenon of spiritual culture.

The science, is a specific area of ​​human activity aimed at the production, systematization and verification of knowledge. Besides that the science – it is a knowledge system. It also represents - social institution and direct productive force.

Science is characterized by relative independence and the internal logic of development, ways (methods) of cognition and realization of ideas, as well as socio-psychological features of the objectively essential perception of reality, that is style of scientific thinking.

Most often, science is defined through its own foundation, namely: 1) the scientific picture of the world, 2) the ideals and norms of science, 3) philosophical principles and methods.

Under scientific picture of the world understand the system of theoretical ideas about reality, which is developed by summarizing the most important knowledge accumulated by the scientific community at a certain stage in the development of science.

To ideals and norms sciences refer to invariants (fr. invariant - unchanging) affecting the development of scientific knowledge, setting guidelines for scientific research. Such in science are the inherent value of truth and the value of novelty, the requirements of the inadmissibility of falsification and plagiarism.

The immediate goals of science are the study, description, explanation, prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality that make up the subject of its study.

It is customary to attribute myth to religion (in particular, Christianity) as the ideological origins of science. Her worldview basis serves: materialism, idealism, naturalism, sensationalism, rationalism, agnosticism.

Scientific problems are dictated by both the immediate and future needs of society, the political process, the interests of social groups, the economic situation, the level of spiritual needs of the people, and cultural traditions.

The specificity of scientific knowledge is characterized by the following components: objectivity; consistency; validity; empirical validity; a certain social orientation; close relationship with practice.

Science differs from all ways of mastering the world in the development of a special language for describing objects of research and in the procedure for proving the truth of the results of scientific research.

Scientific knowledge is a kind of subject-object relations, the main essential feature of which is scientific rationality. The rationality of the cognizing subject finds its expression in the appeal to the arguments of reason and experience, in the logical and methodological orderliness of the process of thinking, in the impact on scientific creativity of the existing ideals and norms of science.

As an integral part of spiritual production, science is associated with goal setting. It is able to turn into a direct productive force in the form of knowledge and new technologies, principles of labor organization, new materials and equipment.

In conclusion, the student should pay attention to one more feature of scientific knowledge. It acts as a measure of the development of a person's abilities for creative creation, for constructive-theoretical transformation of reality and oneself. In other words, scientific activity produces not only new technologies, creates materials, equipment and tools, but, being a part of spiritual production, allows people included in it to creatively self-realize, objectify ideas and hypotheses, thereby enriching culture.

Considering the second question « Crelationship between empirical and theoretical knowledge”, it should be remembered that knowledge in any field of science has two closely interrelated levels: empirical and theoretical. The unity of the two levels (layers) of scientific knowledge follows from the cognitive abilities of the cognizing subject. At the same time, it is predetermined by the two-level nature of the functioning of the object (phenomenon - essence). On the other hand, these levels are different from each other, and this difference is set by the way the object is reflected by the subject of scientific knowledge. Without experimental data, theoretical knowledge cannot have scientific force, just as empirical research cannot fail to take into account the path laid by theory.

Empirical level knowledge is the level of accumulation of knowledge and facts about the objects under study. At this level of cognition, the object is reflected from the side of connections and relations accessible to contemplation and observation.

On the theoretical level the synthesis of scientific knowledge in the form of a scientific theory is achieved. Theoretical, conceptual at its core, the level of scientific knowledge is designed to systematize, explain and predict the facts established in the course of empirical research.

Fact is fixed empirical knowledge and acts as a synonym for the concepts of "event", "result".

Facts in science perform not only the role of an information source and the empirical basis of theoretical reasoning, but also serve as a criterion for their reliability, truth. In turn, the theory forms the conceptual basis of the fact: highlights the studied aspect of reality, sets the language in which the facts are described, determines the means and methods of experimental research.

Scientific knowledge unfolds according to the scheme: problem - hypothesis - theory, each element of which reflects the degree of penetration of the cognizing subject into the essence of the objects of science.

Cognition begins with understanding or posing a problem. Problem – this is something that is still unknown, but needs to be known, this is the question of the researcher to the object. It represents: 1) difficulty, an obstacle in solving a cognitive task; 2) the contradictory condition of the question; 3) a task, a conscious formulation of the initial cognitive situation; 4) conceptual (idealized) object of scientific theory; 5) a question that arises in the course of cognition, a practical or theoretical interest that motivates scientific research.

Hypothesis – it is a scientific assumption or assumption about the essence of an object, formulated on the basis of a number of known facts. It goes through two stages: nomination and subsequent verification. As the hypothesis is tested and substantiated, it can be discarded as untenable, but it can also be "polished" to a true theory.

Theory - it is a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic display of the essential connections of the object under study. Theory as an integral developing system of knowledge has such structure: a) axioms, principles, laws, fundamental concepts; b) an idealized object, in the form of an abstract model of relations and properties of the object; c) logical tricks and methods; d) laws and statements derived from the main provisions of the theory.

Theory performs the following functions : descriptive, explanatory, prognostic (predictive), synthetic, methodological and practical.

Description there is an initial, not quite strict, approximate fixation, isolation and ordering of the features of the traits and properties of the object under study. The description of this or that phenomenon is resorted to in those cases when it is impossible to give a strictly scientific definition of the concept. Description plays an important role in the formation of a theory, especially at its initial stages.

Explanation is carried out in the form of a conclusion or a system of conclusions using those provisions that are already contained in the theory. This distinguishes a theoretical explanation from an ordinary explanation, which is based on ordinary, everyday experience.

Forecast, foresight. Scientific theory allows you to see the trends in the further development of the object, to foresee what will happen to the object in the future. Those theories that differ in the breadth of coverage of a particular area of ​​reality, the depth of the formulation of problems and the paradigmality (ie, a set of new principles and scientific methods) of their solution have the greatest predictive capabilities.

synthesizing function. Scientific theory organizes vast empirical material, generalizes it, acts as a synthesis of this material on the basis of a certain unified principle. The synthesizing function of the theory is also manifested in the fact that it eliminates fragmentation, disunity, fragmentation of individual components of the theory, makes it possible to discover fundamentally new connections and systemic qualities between the structural components of the theoretical system.

methodological function. Scientific theory replenishes the methodological arsenal of science, acting as a certain method of cognition. The set of principles of formation and practical application of methods of cognition and transformation of reality is the methodology of human exploration of the world.

practical function. The creation of a theory is not an end in itself for scientific knowledge. Scientific theory would not be of great importance if it were not a powerful tool for the further improvement of scientific knowledge. In this regard, theory, on the one hand, arises and is formed in the process of people's practical activity, and on the other hand, practical activity itself is carried out on the basis of theory, illuminated and guided by theory.

Moving on to the third question Forms and methods of scientific knowledge», it is necessary to understand that scientific knowledge cannot do without methodology.

Method - is a system of principles, techniques and requirements that guide the process of scientific knowledge. A method is a way of reproducing the object under study in the mind.

Methods of scientific knowledge are divided into special (private scientific), general scientific and universal (philosophical). Depending on the role and place in scientific knowledge, formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical methods, research and presentation are fixed. In science, there is a division into the methods of the natural sciences and the humanities. The specificity of the first (methods of physics, chemistry, biology) is revealed through explanations of cause-and-effect relationships of phenomena and processes of nature, the second (methods of phenomenology, hermeneutics, structuralism) - through understanding the essence of man and his world.

The methods and techniques of scientific knowledge include:

observation- this is a systematic, purposeful perception of objects and phenomena, in order to familiarize themselves with the object. It may include a process measurements quantitative relations of the object under study;

experiment- method of research, in which the object is placed in precisely taken into account conditions or artificially reproduced in order to clarify certain properties;

analogy- establishing the similarity of some features, properties and relationships among objects, and on this basis - putting forward an assumption about the similarity of their other features;

modeling- a research method in which the object of research is replaced by another object (model) that is in a similarity relationship with the first one. The model is subjected to an experiment in order to obtain new knowledge, which, in turn, is evaluated and applied to the object under study. Computer modeling has acquired great importance in science, which allows modeling any processes and phenomena;

formalization- the study of the object from the side of the form with the aim of a deeper knowledge of the content, which allows you to operate with signs, formulas, diagrams, diagrams;

idealization- the ultimate distraction from the real properties of the object, when the subject mentally constructs an object, the prototype of which exists in the real world ("absolutely solid body", "ideal fluid");

analysis- dismemberment of the object under study into its constituent parts, sides, trends in order to consider the connections and relationships of individual elements;

synthesis- a method of research that combines the elements dissected by the analysis into a single whole in order to identify regular, significant connections and relations of the object;

induction- the movement of thought from the particular to the general, from isolated cases to general conclusions;

deduction- the movement of thought from the general to the particular, from general provisions to particular cases.

The above methods of scientific knowledge are widely used at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge. In contrast, the method ascending from the abstract to the concrete, as well as historical and logical methods are applied primarily at the theoretical level of knowledge.

Method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete- this is a method of theoretical research and presentation, consisting in the movement of scientific thought from the original abstraction ("beginning" - one-sided, incomplete knowledge) - to the reproduction in theory of a holistic image of the process or phenomenon being studied.

This method is also applicable in the knowledge of a particular scientific discipline, where they go from individual concepts (abstract) to multilateral knowledge (concrete).

historical method requires taking the subject in its development and change with all the smallest details and minor features, requires tracking the entire history of the development of this phenomenon (from its genesis to the present) in its entirety and diversity of its aspects.

Boolean Method is a reflection of the historical, but it does not repeat history in all details, but takes the main essential in it, reproducing the development of the object at the level of essence, i.e. no historical form.

Among the scientific methods of research, a special place is occupied by systems approach, which is a set of general scientific requirements (principles), with the help of which any objects can be considered as systems. System analysis implies: a) identifying the dependence of each element on its functions and place in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are not reducible to the sum of the properties of its elements; b) analysis of the behavior of the system in terms of the conditionality of its elements included in it, as well as the properties of its structure; c) study of the mechanism of interaction between the system and the environment in which it is “fitted”; d) study of the system as a dynamic, developing integrity.

The systems approach is of great heuristic value, since it is applicable to the analysis of natural-science, social and technical objects.

For a more detailed introduction to the topic in the reference literature, refer to the articles:

New philosophical encyclopedia. In 4 volumes - M., 2001. St.: "Method", "Science", "Intuition", "Empirical and Theoretical", "Knowledge", etc.

philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - K., 2002. Art.: "Methodology of science", "Science", "Intuition", "Empirical and theoretical" and others.

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

higher professional education

"Mordovia State Pedagogical Institute. M. V. Evsevyeva»

Faculty of Psychology and Defectology

Department of Psychology

Control work on discipline

"General and experimental psychology"

Option - 12

Completed by: student

groups DZP-114

Novichenkova N. A.

Checked by: teacher

departments of psychology

Lezhneva E. A.

Saransk 2015

Introduction

Science was the main reason for such a rapidly flowing scientific and technological revolution, the transition to a post-industrial society, the widespread introduction of information technology, the beginning of the transfer of human knowledge into an electronic form, so convenient for storage, systematization, search, processing and much more.

All this convincingly proves that the main form of human knowledge is science. In our day to become more and more significant and essential part of reality.

However, science would not be so productive if it did not have such a developed system of methods, principles and forms of cognition so inherent in it.

Purpose: To study the forms and levels of scientific knowledge.

Learn what scientific knowledge is.

Consider the levels of scientific knowledge.

Consider the main forms of scientific knowledge: empirical facts, scientific problem, hypothesis, theory, concept.

1. Scientific knowledge

Scientific knowledge is objectively true knowledge about nature, society and man, obtained as a result of research activities and, as a rule, tested (proven) by practice.

Epistemology is the study of scientific knowledge.

Features of scientific knowledge:

To a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is focused on being put into practice.

Science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, schemes.

Scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.

Scientific knowledge is characterized by both strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.

Scientific knowledge needs and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, devices.

The area of ​​scientific knowledge is verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of life.

2. Levels of scientific knowledge

Natural science knowledge structurally consists of empirical and theoretical areas of scientific research. Each of them is characterized by special forms of organization of scientific knowledge and its methods.

The empirical level includes techniques, methods and forms of cognition associated with the direct reflection of an object, the material-sensory interaction of a person with it. At this level, there is an accumulation, fixation, grouping and generalization of the source material for the construction of indirect theoretical knowledge.

At the empirical level of knowledge, the main forms of knowledge are formed - a scientific fact and a law. Law - the highest goal of the empirical level of knowledge - is the result of mental activity to generalize, group, systematize facts, in which various methods of thinking are used (analytical and synthetic, inductive and deductive, etc.).

If at the empirical level of knowledge the laws of the object are singled out and stated, then at the theoretical level they are explained.

The theoretical level includes all those forms, methods and ways of organizing knowledge that are characterized by varying degrees of mediation and ensure the creation, construction and development of a scientific theory. This includes theory and its elements, constituent parts, as scientific abstractions, idealizations and mental models; scientific idea and hypothesis; various methods of operating with scientific abstractions and building theories, logical means of organizing knowledge, etc.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical one. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts, statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.) with which the empirical level of research deals.

In turn, the empirical level of scientific knowledge cannot exist without the achievements of the theoretical level. Empirical research is usually based on a certain theoretical structure that determines the direction of this research, determines and justifies the methods used in this.

The empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. Empirical research, revealing new data with the help of observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them), sets new, more complex tasks for it. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirical knowledge, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

3. Main forms of development of scientific knowledge

1 Empirical scientific fact

The foundation of all scientific knowledge is scientific facts, with the establishment of which scientific knowledge begins.

A scientific fact is the initial form in which empirical knowledge about the object under study is fixed. A scientific fact differs from the fact of reality, which is a real process, event, subject or object of knowledge. A scientific fact is a reflection in the consciousness of the cognizing subject of the fact of reality. At the same time, only that fact is considered scientific, which is correctly reflected by the subject, is verifiable and reverifiable, and is described using the language of science.

One of the most important properties of a scientific fact is its reliability, which is determined by the possibility of its reproduction using various experiments. In order for a fact to be considered reliable, it must be confirmed in the course of numerous observations or experiments.

Facts constitute the empirical, i.e. experienced, the foundation of science. As facts accumulate, they increasingly begin to depend on the choice of the theory within which they are considered.

Facts play a big role in science. Without them, it would be impossible to develop scientific knowledge about the world around us. "Facts," wrote the outstanding Russian scientist I.P. Pavlov, "is air for a scientist." At the same time, scientific knowledge is characterized by a strict attitude to facts. "Snatching" facts from the system of their interaction with reality, their superficial analysis, the use of unverified, random or biased facts can mislead the researcher. Therefore, a strict description, systematization and classification of facts is one of the main tasks of the empirical stage of scientific research. The study of facts leads to the formulation of a scientific problem.

2 Scientific problem

A scientific problem is a reflection in the mind of the subject of knowledge of the contradictions of the object under study and, above all, the contradictions between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. The theoretical stage of scientific research begins with the formulation of a scientific problem. A scientific problem can be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject is aware of the incompleteness and incompleteness of this or that knowledge about the object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap.

Any scientific research begins with the presentation of a problem, which indicates the emergence of difficulties in the development of science, when newly discovered facts cannot be explained by existing knowledge. Searching, formulating and solving problems is the main feature of scientific activity. Problems separate one science from another, set the nature of scientific activity as truly scientific or pseudoscientific.

There is a widespread opinion among scientists: "To formulate a scientific problem correctly means to half solve it." To correctly formulate a problem means to separate, "separate" the known and the unknown, to identify facts that contradict the existing theory, to formulate questions that require scientific explanation, to substantiate their importance and relevance for theory and practice, to determine the sequence of actions and the necessary means.

The concepts of question and task are close to this category. A question is usually more elementary than a problem, which usually consists of a series of interrelated questions. A task is a problem already prepared for a solution. The problem, correctly posed, formulates the problem situation in which this or that direction of research turned out to be.

The correct formulation of a scientific problem allows us to formulate a scientific hypothesis, and possibly several hypotheses.

3 Hypothesis

scientific knowledge problem empirical

The presence of a problem in comprehending inexplicable facts entails a preliminary conclusion that requires its experimental, theoretical and logical confirmation. This kind of conjectural knowledge, the truth or falsity of which has not yet been proven, is called a scientific hypothesis. Thus, a hypothesis is knowledge in the form of an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of reliable facts.

A hypothesis is a universal and necessary form of knowledge development for any cognitive process. Where there is a search for new ideas or facts, regular relationships or causal dependencies, there is always a hypothesis. It acts as a link between previously achieved knowledge and new truths and at the same time a cognitive tool that regulates the logical transition from the previous incomplete and inaccurate knowledge to a new, more complete and more accurate one. To turn into reliable knowledge, the hypothesis is subject to scientific and practical testing. The process of testing the hypothesis, proceeding with the use of various logical techniques, operations and forms of inference, ultimately leads to a refutation or confirmation and its further proof.

There are several types of hypotheses. According to their functions in the cognitive process, hypotheses are divided into descriptive and explanatory. A descriptive hypothesis is an assumption about the properties inherent in the object under study. She usually answers the question: What is this item? or What properties does this item have? . Descriptive hypotheses can be put forward in order to identify the composition or structure of an object, reveal the mechanism or procedural features of its activity, and determine the functional characteristics of an object. A special place among descriptive hypotheses is occupied by hypotheses about the existence of an object, which are called existential hypotheses. An explanatory hypothesis is an assumption about the causes of the object of research. Such hypotheses usually ask: “Why did this event happen? or What are the reasons for this item?

The history of science shows that in the process of knowledge development, existential hypotheses first arise, clarifying the fact of the existence of specific objects. Then there are descriptive hypotheses that clarify the properties of these objects. The last step is the construction of explanatory hypotheses that reveal the mechanism and causes of the emergence of the objects under study.

According to the object of study, general and particular hypotheses are distinguished. A general hypothesis is a reasonable assumption about regular relationships and empirical regularities. General hypotheses play the role of scaffolding in the development of scientific knowledge. Once proven, they become scientific theories and are a valuable contribution to the development of scientific knowledge. A private hypothesis is a reasonable assumption about the origin and properties of single facts, specific events and phenomena. If a single circumstance caused the emergence of other facts and if it is inaccessible to direct perception, then its knowledge takes the form of a hypothesis about the existence or properties of this circumstance.

Along with terms general and private hypothesis term used in science working hypothesis . A working hypothesis is an assumption put forward in the early stages of the study, which serves as a conditional assumption that allows you to group the results of observations and give them an initial explanation. The specificity of the working hypothesis lies in its conditional and thus temporary acceptance. It is extremely important for the researcher to systematize the available factual data at the very beginning of the investigation, rationally process them and outline the paths for further searches. The working hypothesis just performs the function of the first systematizer of facts in the process of research. The further fate of the working hypothesis is twofold. It is not excluded that it can turn from a working one into a stable fruitful hypothesis. At the same time, it can be replaced by other hypotheses if its incompatibility with new facts is established.

Generating hypotheses is one of the hardest things in science. After all, they are not directly related to previous experience, which only gives impetus to reflection. A huge role is played by intuition and talent, which distinguish real scientists. Intuition is as important as logic. After all, arguments in science are not proofs, they are only conclusions that testify to the truth of reasoning if the premises are correct, but they do not say anything about the truth of the premises themselves. The choice of premises is connected with the practical experience and intuition of the scientist, who, from a huge variety of empirical facts and generalizations, must choose the really important ones. Then the scientist must put forward a hypothesis that explains these facts, as well as a number of phenomena not yet recorded in observations, but belonging to the same class of events. When putting forward a hypothesis, not only its compliance with empirical data is taken into account, but also the requirements of simplicity, beauty and economy of thinking.

If confirmed, the hypothesis becomes a theory.

4 Theory and concept

Theory is a logically substantiated and practice-tested system of knowledge that provides a holistic display of regular and essential connections in a certain area of ​​objective reality.

The main elements of scientific theory are principles and laws. Principles are the most general and important fundamental provisions of the theory. In theory, principles play the role of initial, basic and primary assumptions that form the foundation of the theory. In turn, the content of each principle is revealed with the help of laws that concretize the principles, explain the mechanism of their action, the logic of the interconnection of the consequences arising from them. In practice, laws appear in the form of theoretical statements that reflect the general connections of the studied phenomena, objects, and processes.

Revealing the essence of objects, the laws of their existence, interaction, change and development, the theory makes it possible to explain the phenomena under study, to predict new, yet unknown facts and patterns characterizing them, to predict the behavior of the objects under study in the future. Thus, the theory performs two important functions: explanation and prediction, i.e. scientific foresight.

In the formation of a theory, a major role is played by the advancement of a scientific idea, which expresses a preliminary and abstract idea of ​​the possible content of the essence of the subject area of ​​the theory. Then hypotheses are formulated in which this abstract representation is concretized in a number of clear principles. The next stage in the formation of a theory is the empirical testing of hypotheses and the substantiation of one of them that most closely matches the empirical data. Only after that can we talk about the development of a successful hypothesis into a scientific theory. The creation of a theory is the highest and ultimate goal of fundamental science, the realization of which requires maximum effort and the highest rise of the scientist's creative powers.

Theory is the highest form of knowledge. Natural science theories are aimed at describing a certain integral subject area, explaining and systematizing its empirically revealed regularities and predicting new regularities. The theory has a special advantage - the ability to obtain knowledge about the object without entering into direct sensory contact with it.

A concept is a system of interconnected views on a particular understanding of phenomena and processes. Concepts are given different meanings in scientific discussions. In natural science, concepts generalize universal properties and relationships.

Most scientific concepts are born out of experiment or are related to experiment to some extent. Other areas of scientific thinking are purely speculative. However, in natural science they are useful and necessary in obtaining new knowledge.

The concepts of modern natural science are the basic patterns of rational connections of the surrounding world, obtained by the natural sciences over the past century. Modern natural science includes concepts that arose in the 20th century. But not only the latest scientific data can be considered modern, but all those that are part of the thickness of modern science, since science is a single whole, consisting of parts of different times in their origin.

Conclusion

So, scientific knowledge is a process, that is, a developing system of knowledge. It includes two main levels - empirical and theoretical. Although they are related, they differ from each other, each of them has its own specifics.

At the empirical level, living contemplation (sensory cognition) prevails, the rational moment and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate meaning.

The specificity of theoretical scientific knowledge is determined by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and "mental operations". Living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process.

Empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical becomes theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

Considering theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones are: empirical facts, problem, hypothesis and theory (“key points” of the construction and development of knowledge at its theoretical level), concept.

The traditional model of the structure of scientific knowledge involves the movement along the chain: the establishment of empirical facts - the primary empirical generalization - the discovery of facts that deviate from the rule - the invention of a theoretical hypothesis with a new explanation scheme - a logical conclusion (deduction) from the hypothesis of all observed facts, which is its test for truth .

Confirmation of a hypothesis constitutes it into a theoretical law. Such a model of scientific knowledge is called hypothetical-deductive. It is believed that much of modern scientific knowledge is built in this way.

Thus, the theoretical level of knowledge is a kind of pinnacle Everest science. Having reached such a peak, the scientist's thought sees better the new goals of its movement.

Terminological dictionary

Abstract - consider an object or phenomenon, highlighting their essential, regular features and distracting from their non-essential aspects, properties, connections.

2. Hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - foundation, assumption) - a scientific assumption put forward in the form of scientific concepts in order to fill in the gaps in empirical knowledge or link various empirical knowledge into a single whole, or put forward to explain a phenomenon, facts and requiring verification on experience and theoretical justification in order to become a valid scientific theory.

3. Task - the goal that they are striving for, that they want to achieve.

Law is an objectively existing necessary connection between phenomena, an internal essential connection between cause and effect.

Interpretation (from Latin interpretatio - mediation, interpretation, explanation) - interpretation, clarification of the meaning of any sign system (symbol, expression, text).

Concept (from lat. conceptio) - 1) a system of interconnected views on a particular understanding of phenomena, processes; 2) a single, defining idea, the leading thought of any work, scientific work, etc.; sudden birth of an idea, main thought, scientific or creative motive.

Science (Greek episteme, Latin scientia) - in the broad sense of the word, science, firstly, a form of social consciousness, secondly, the sphere of human activity, thirdly, a system of institutions. Its main function is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality; its result is the sum of knowledge underlying the scientific picture of the world.

8. Cognition - the process of assimilation of the sensory content of the experienced, or experienced, state of affairs, states, processes in order to find the truth.

9. Principle - the basic starting position of any scientific system, theory, political system, etc.

Problem (from the Greek. problema - task, task) - an unresolved task or (question) questions prepared for resolution. The situation that arises is connected with that view, with such knowledge of an object that is not known, but is knowledge about ignorance.

Theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research) - a system of basic ideas of a particular branch of knowledge. A form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic view of the patterns and existing relationships of reality. .

Fact (from lat. factum - done) - 1) event, phenomenon; firmly established knowledge, given in experience, the reliability of which has been proven; 2) reality, reality, that which objectively exists; 3) done, accomplished.

Bibliographic list

Gorelov A.A. Concepts of modern natural science. - M.: Center, 2012.

Kuznetsov V.I., Idlis G.M., Gutina V.N. Natural science. - M.: Agar, 2012.

Lakatos I. Methodology of scientific research programs. - M.: Vlados, 20013.

Concepts of modern natural science. / Ed. Prof. V. N. Lavrinenko, V. P. Ratnikova. - M.: UNITA-DANA, 2012.

Concepts of modern natural science. Ed. Lavrienko V.N. and Ratnikova V.P. M., 2013.

Petrov Yu. A. Theory of knowledge. M., 2012.

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Man from the very moment of his birth seeks to know the world. He does this in a variety of ways. One of the surest ways to make what is happening in the world understandable and open is scientific knowledge. Let's talk about how it differs, for example, from non-scientific knowledge.

The very first feature that scientific knowledge possesses is its objectivity. A person who adheres to scientific views understands that everything in the world is developing, whether we like it or not. Private opinions and authorities can't do anything about it. And this is wonderful, because it is impossible to imagine a different situation. The world would simply be in chaos and would hardly be able to exist.

Another difference of scientific knowledge is the orientation of its results into the future. Scientific discoveries do not always yield momentary results. Many of them are subject to doubt and persecution by individuals who do not want to recognize the objectivity of phenomena. It takes a huge amount of time until a true scientific discovery is recognized as valid. You don't have to go far for examples. Suffice it to recall the fate of the discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo Galilei regarding the bodies of the solar Galaxy.

Scientific and non-scientific knowledge has always been in confrontation and this has determined another one. It necessarily goes through such stages as observation, classification, description, experiment and explanation of the studied natural phenomena. In other species, these stages are not inherent at all, or they are present in them separately.

Scientific knowledge and have two levels: scientific knowledge consists in the study of facts and laws, established by generalizing and systematizing the results that are obtained through observations and experiments. Empirically, for example, Charles's law on the dependence of gas pressure and its temperature, Gay-Lussac's law on the dependence of gas volume and its temperature, Ohm's law on the dependence of current strength on its voltage and resistance have been revealed empirically.

And theoretical scientific knowledge considers natural phenomena more abstractly, because it deals with objects that cannot be observed and studied under normal conditions. In this way were discovered: the law of universal gravitation, the transformation of one into another and its preservation. This is how the electronic develops and this is based on the construction, in close connection with each other, of principles, concepts, theoretical schemes and logical consequences arising from the initial statements.

Scientific knowledge and scientific knowledge are obtained in the course of observation and experimentation. The experiment differs from observation in that the scientist has the opportunity to isolate the object under study from external influences, surrounding it with special, artificially created conditions. The experiment can also exist in a mental form. This happens when it is impossible to study the object due to the high cost and complexity of the required equipment. Here scientific modeling is used, the creative imagination of the scientist who puts forward hypotheses is used.

Scientific and non-scientific knowledge always walk side by side. And although they, most often, are in confrontation, it must be said that the first is impossible without the second. It is impossible to imagine modern science without an inquisitive folk mind that invented myths, studied phenomena in the course of life practice, left our generation an invaluable treasury of folk wisdom, which contains common sense that helps us to be guided in life. A large role in the knowledge of the world is given to art objects. How diverse life is, so diverse are its laws.

The core of science is the actual research activity aimed at developing new knowledge, their systematization and determining the areas of their application. In the course of time, the structure of scientific knowledge was determined, in which the levels and forms of scientific knowledge are distinguished.

Explanation and understanding are two complementary cognitive processes that are used in any field of scientific knowledge. Explanation is a transition from more general knowledge to more specific empirical knowledge. Explanation allows for the foresight and prediction of future processes.

From the point of view of the source, content and direction of cognitive interest, there are empirical and theoretical levels of research and organization of knowledge.

Empirical (from Latin empeiria - experience) knowledge directed directly at the object and is based on observational and experimental data. Historically and logically, this level of knowledge was the first and dominated in the experimental natural science of the 17th-18th centuries. The main means of formation and development of scientific knowledge at that time were empirical research and subsequent logical processing of their results through empirical laws, generalizations and classifications. Already at this stage, primary scientific abstractions arose, through the prism of which the ordering and classification of the empirical material delivered in the course of observations and experiments was carried out. In the future, such logical forms as typology, explanatory schemes, ideal models acted as transitional from the empirical level of scientific knowledge to the theoretical one.

Theoretical level science is characterized by the fact that its main task is not the description and systematization of the facts of reality, but a comprehensive knowledge of objective reality in its essential connections and patterns. In other words, at the theoretical level, the main purpose of science is realized - the discovery and description of the laws that govern the natural and social world. Theoretical research is connected with the creation and development of the conceptual apparatus, much attention is paid to the improvement of the principles and methods of cognition.

The empirical and theoretical levels are organically interconnected and complement each other in the integral structure of scientific knowledge. Empirical research, providing new data, stimulates the development of theory, which, in turn, opens up new perspectives for explaining and predicting facts, orienting and directing experimental science.

1. Forms of scientific knowledge

Under form of scientific knowledge understand the way of organizing the content and results of cognitive activity. For an empirical study, this form is a fact, and for a theoretical one, a hypothesis and a theory.

scientific fact- this is the result of observations and experiments, which establishes the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects. The work of a scientist is 80% in observations of an object of interest in order to establish its stable, repeating characteristics. When the researcher is convinced that, under appropriate conditions, the object always looks in a strictly defined way, he reinforces this result with the help of an experiment and, if confirmed, formulates a scientific fact. For example: a body, if it is heavier than air, being thrown up, will surely fall down.

In this way, scientific fact is something given, established by experience and fixing empirical knowledge. In science, the totality of facts forms the empirical basis for putting forward hypotheses and creating a theory. Cognition cannot be limited to fixing facts, because this does not make sense: any fact must be explained. And this is the task of theory.

The example of Newton's apple is widely known, the fall of which on the head of a famous scientist prompted the latter to explain this event and ultimately led to the creation of a theory of gravity.

The theoretical level of scientific research begins with the nomination hypotheses(gr. hypothesis is translated as an assumption). As a form of theoretical knowledge, a hypothesis is defined as conjectural knowledge that satisfactorily explains empirical facts and does not conflict with underlying scientific theories. A hypothesis is put forward to solve a specific scientific problem and must meet certain requirements. These requirements include relevance, verifiability, compatibility with existing scientific knowledge, explanatory and predictive capabilities, and simplicity.

Relevance (from the English relevant - relevant, relevant) of a hypothesis characterizes its relation to the facts, for the explanation of which it is created. If the facts support or disprove the hypothesis, it is considered relevant.

Verifiability hypothesis implies the possibility of comparing its results with observational and experimental data. This refers to the possibility of such a check, and not the requirement of its mandatory implementation. Many hypotheses of modern science operate with unobservable objects, which requires the improvement of experimental techniques to test them. Those hypotheses that cannot be tested at the present time may be tested later, with the advent of more advanced experimental tools and methods.

Compatibility hypotheses with existing scientific knowledge means that it should not contradict established facts and theories. This requirement applies to the normal period in the development of science and does not apply to periods of crises and scientific revolutions.

Explanatory power hypothesis consists in the number of deductive consequences that can be deduced from it. If two hypotheses, claiming to explain the same fact, derive a different number of consequences, then, accordingly, they have different explanatory possibilities. For example, Newton's hypothesis of universal gravitation not only explained the facts substantiated before by Galileo and Kepler, but also an additional number of new facts. In turn, those facts that remained outside the explanatory possibilities of the Newtonian theory of gravity were later explained in the general theory of relativity by A. Einstein.

predictive power hypothesis is the number of events, the probability of which it is able to predict.

Hypothesis simplicity criteria refer to situations where competing scientific hypotheses satisfy all of the above requirements and, nevertheless, a choice must be made in favor of one of them. Simplicity can serve as a serious argument. It assumes that one hypothesis contains fewer premises for deriving consequences than another.

The advancement of new hypotheses and their substantiation is a very complex creative process in which the intuition and scientific qualifications of the scientist play a decisive role. There is no specific algorithm in this case. It is well known that most of the science exists in the form of hypotheses.

Law- the next form of existence of scientific knowledge, into which hypotheses are transformed as a result of comprehensive justification and confirmation. The laws of science reflect stable, repetitive, essential connections between phenomena and processes in the real world. In accordance with the accepted two-stage structure of scientific knowledge, empirical and theoretical laws are distinguished.

At the empirical stage of the development of science, laws are established that fix the connections between the sensually perceived properties of objects. Such laws are called phenomenological(from Greek phainomenon - being). Examples of such laws are the laws of Archimedes, Boyle-Mariotte, Gay-Lussac and others, which express functional relationships between various properties of liquids and gases. But such laws do not explain much. The same Boyle-Mariotte law, which states that for a given mass of gas, at a constant temperature, the pressure on the volume is constant, does not explain why this is so. Such an explanation is achieved with the help of theoretical laws that reveal the deep internal connections of processes, the mechanism of their flow.

Empirical laws can be called quantitative, and theoretical - qualitative laws.

According to the degree of generality, laws are divided into universal and private. universal laws reflect the universal, necessary, recurring and stable connections between all phenomena and processes of the objective world. An example is the law of thermal expansion of bodies, expressed using the sentence: "All bodies expand when heated." private laws are either derived from universal laws or reflect the laws of a limited sphere of reality. An example is the laws of biology that describe the functioning and development of living organisms.

In terms of predictive accuracy, there are statistical and dynamic laws. Dynamic Laws have great predictive power, because they abstract from secondary and random factors. Predictions statistical laws are probabilistic. These are the laws of demography, population statistics, economics, and others that deal with many random and subjective factors. Some natural laws also have a probabilistic-statistical character, first of all, the laws of the microcosm described in quantum mechanics.

Theoretical Laws constitute the core of scientific theory - the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge. Theory is a system of basic, initial concepts, principles and laws, from which, according to certain rules, concepts and laws of a lesser degree of generality can be derived. It appears as a result of a long search for scientific facts, putting forward hypotheses, formulating first the simplest empirical, and then fundamental theoretical laws.

Science most often operates not with real objects, but with their theoretical models, which allow such cognitive procedures that are impossible with real objects.

Depending on the form of idealization, there are descriptive theories in which the description and systematization of extensive empirical material is carried out, mathematical theories, in which the object acts as a mathematical model and deductive theoretical models.

According to the degree of accuracy of predictions, theories are deterministic and stochastic. The former are distinguished by the accuracy and reliability of predictions, but due to the complexity of many phenomena and processes in the world and the presence of a significant amount of uncertainty, they are rarely used.

Stochastic theories give probable predictions based on the study of chance. Theories of the natural science type are called positive because their task is to explain the facts. If the theory aims not only to explain, but also to understand objects and events, it is called regulatory. It deals with values ​​that cannot be scientific facts in the classical sense of the word. Therefore, doubts are often expressed about the scientific status of philosophical, ethical, sociological theories.

Thus, all the listed norms and ideals of scientific knowledge clearly indicate that, unlike all other methods of extrascientific knowledge, science has a consciously organized and substantiated character.

is a system of knowledge obtained as a result of practice, which includes the study and development of processes and phenomena occurring in nature, society and human thinking.

The structure of science consists of the following blocks:

• empirical;
• theoretical;
• philosophical and ideological;
• practical.

empirical knowledge include information obtained with the help of both ordinary knowledge and empirically (through observation and experiment). theoretical knowledge- this is a level of development of science that allows, on the basis of knowledge of fundamental laws, to bring disparate facts, phenomena, processes and initial conclusions into a certain system.

AT practical The block of science includes tools, devices, technologies created and used by man to obtain new knowledge.

The methodology of science is a philosophical doctrine about the ways of transforming reality, applying the principles of the scientific worldview to the process of scientific knowledge, creativity and practice.

Means and methods of scientific knowledge

Of paramount importance in understanding the essence and purpose of science is the elucidation of the factors that played a decisive role in its emergence. The entire history of human life testifies that until now the main task of man remains struggle for existence. To be more specific, highlighting only the most essential, it is the use by man of the natural environment in order to provide himself with the most necessary: ​​food, warmth, housing, leisure; the creation of more advanced tools for the achievement of vital goals; and, finally, forecasting, foreseeing natural and social events and, if possible, in the event of adverse consequences for humanity, preventing them. In order to cope with the tasks set, it is necessary to know the cause-and-effect relationships, or the laws that operate in nature and society. It is out of this need—combined with human activity—that science emerges. There was no science in primitive society. Nevertheless, even then a person possessed certain knowledge that helped him to hunt and fish, build and save his home. With the accumulation of facts, the improvement of the tools of labor, the rudiments of knowledge begin to form among primitive people, which they used for practical purposes. So, for example, the change of seasons and the associated climatic changes forced primitive man to stock up on warm clothes and the necessary amount of food for the cold period.

In subsequent millennia, one might say, right up to the 20th century, the practical needs of man remained the main factor in the development of science, the true development of which, as noted earlier, begins in modern times - with the discovery, first of all, of the laws that operate in nature. The growth of scientific knowledge in the 16th-17th centuries was especially rapid; it was based on the increased demands of production, navigation, and trade. The progressive development of large-scale machine industry required the expansion of the sphere of knowledge and the conscious use of the laws of nature. Thus, the creation of a steam engine, and then internal combustion engines, became possible as a result of the use of new knowledge in various fields - mechanics, electrical engineering, metal science, which meant a sharp turning point not only in the development of science, but also led to a change in views on its role in society. One of the distinguishing features of the New Age, when it comes to science, is associated with its transition from the pre-scientific to the scientific stage. Since that time, science has become a branch of human activity, with the help of which a person can not only get answers to theoretical questions, but also achieve significant success in their practical application. Nevertheless, science remains relatively independent in relation to practical needs.

This is manifested mainly in the prognostic and problem-staging function. Science not only fulfills the orders of production and society, but also sets itself very specific tasks and goals, models actual and possible situations both in nature and in society. In this regard, various models of behavior or activity are being developed. One of the most important internal sources of the development of science is the struggle of opposing ideas and trends. Scientific discussions and disputes, well-grounded and reasonable criticism are the most important conditions for the creative development of science, which does not allow it to stiffen in dogmatic schemes and stop there. Finally, one cannot fail to say that the progress of science today is possible only if there is a system for training scientific personnel and an extensive complex of research institutes. Science and its practical applications are very expensive. Gone are the days when scientific discoveries “lay” on the surface and, by and large, did not require large special expenses. A lot of funds are required for the activities of higher educational and scientific institutions. However, all this is justified, because. the future of humanity and every person largely depends on the development of science, which is becoming more and more immutable a productive force.

One of the most important principles that cannot be removed from scientific activity is the observance of ethical standards. This is due to the special role that science plays in society. Of course, we are not talking about well-known maxims such as: “do not steal”, “do not lie”, “do not kill”, etc. In principle, these ethical rules are universal and, according to the plan of their creators, people should always be guided in their relationships with each other. Consequently, these principles should apply to all spheres of human activity, including science. From the moment of the birth of science to the present time, every real scientist, like a kind of “Damocles” sword, faces the question of using the results of his activity. It seems that the famous Hippocratic “do no harm” should be fully attributed not only to physicians, but also to scientists. The moral aspect in the assessment of human activity already manifests itself in Socrates, who believed that a person by nature strives to do good deeds. If he does evil, it is only because he does not always know how to distinguish good from evil. The desire to understand this, one of the "eternal" issue is typical for many creative personalities. History knows and opposite views on science. So, J.-J. Rousseau, warning against excessive optimism associated with the rapid growth of scientific knowledge, believed that the development of science does not lead to an increase in morality in society. The French writer Francois Chateaubriand (1768-1848) expressed his attitude to science even more sharply.

He quite definitely stated that the idea of ​​destruction is a characteristic feature of science. Concerns about the use of scientific research results and the ethical position of scientists on this issue are not unfounded. Scientists, more than anyone else, are aware of the possibilities inherent in science for both creation and destruction. A particularly alarming situation with the use of the achievements of scientific research develops in the 20th century. It is known, for example, that after the possibility of a nuclear reaction was substantiated theoretically, the world's leading scientists, starting with A. Einstein (1879-1955), deeply realized the tragic consequences that the practical implementation of this discovery could lead to. But, even realizing the possibility of a disastrous outcome and, in principle, opposing it, they nevertheless blessed the US President to create an atomic bomb. There is no need to recall what a threat to humanity poses an atomic hydrogen weapon (not to mention its more modern modifications). In fact, for the first time in history, with the help of science, a weapon was created that can destroy not only humanity, but also its habitat. Meanwhile, science in the second half of the XX century. made such discoveries in the field of genetic engineering, biotechnology, the functioning of the body at the cellular level, that there was a threat of changing the human gene code, the prospects for psychotropic effects on Homo sapiens. In simpler terms, with the help of directed influence on the genes and nervous structures of a person, it is possible to turn him into a biorobot and force him to act in accordance with the given program. As some scientists note, with the help of science, it is now possible to create conditions for the emergence of such a form of life and such a type of biorobot that have never existed before. This can put an end to a long evolutionary stage in the development of life and lead to the disappearance of the current man and the biosphere.

Some idea of ​​what awaits a person if something like this happens is given by American “horror” films in which unimaginable vampires and monsters “rule the show”. The achievements of the human sciences, new discoveries made in this area, with all their severity raise the question of the freedom of scientific research and the conscious responsibility of scientists for their activities. This task is very, very complex, containing many unknowns. Let us point out only a few of them. First of all, it is not always possible, for various reasons, to fully appreciate the creative results and destructive effects of the discoveries made. Meanwhile, information about the possibility of their harmful effects becomes the property of many specialists and it becomes impossible to silence or hide them. Secondly, it is the prestige of a scientist. It happens that a researcher has been dealing with a particular problem for years, or even decades. And so, he gets a significant result, which can immediately put him among the famous scientists, but it is for moral reasons that he must “keep silent”, hide his discovery, including from his colleagues, in order to prevent the dissemination of the information received. In this case, the scientist finds himself in a difficult situation that requires a moral choice. It is exacerbated by the possibility that someone else may come to similar scientific results much later, make them public, and thereby declare their scientific priority.

Finally, one cannot ignore the nature of the social relations in which a scientist has to live and work. It is known that in the rivalry between states or social formations, which in the course of human history sought to subjugate other peoples and even to world domination, it is extremely difficult to observe moral norms. And yet, despite the complexity of this problem, the extraordinary dynamics of ethical norms and requirements, the priority areas in this regard are the formation of a high sense of personal responsibility among scientists, the public need for regulation of topics and, accordingly, the depth of development of scientific problems. Such an approach does not imply any discrimination or restriction of the freedom of creativity of scientists. The society and each scientist are simply offered new rules governing the permissible scientific problems, and such an attitude towards the study of scientific problems that would not pose a threat to the existence of mankind.