Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/
Plan
Introduction
1. Education system in the second half of the 18th century
2. Activities of I. I. Betsky
3. Activities of N. I. Novikov
4. Activities of A. N. Radishchev
List of used literature
Introduction
The period of the highest development of schooling in Russia in the 18th century. turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796). For the first time, a European-educated person turned out to be the head of state. Catherine showed a special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. In 1762, she wrote: "The passion of this year is to write about education ... the formation of an ideal person and a worthy citizen."
Russian politicians, scientists, teachers took part in the discussion of issues of upbringing and education within the framework of the pan-European Enlightenment movement. The works of Russian enlighteners proclaimed the ideas of the development of the national education system, public education, the expediency of studying and using Western pedagogy in compliance with their own traditions.
Russian educators got involved in the pan-European controversy about education. At the same time, they expressed their original opinions. In their writings, they carried out the idea of free development of the personality (E. R. Dashkova - "On the meaning of the word "education", A. A. Prokopovich-Antonsky - "On education", V. V. Krestinin - "Historical news about moral education. .. ", E. B. Syreyshchikov - "On the benefits of moralizing in the education of youth", Kh. A. Chebotarev - "A word about the methods and ways leading to enlightenment", M. M. Snegirev - "A word about the benefits of moral education" The authors rejected the thesis of J.-J. Rousseau's predominant "natural education" and insisted on the priority of public education. At the same time, they did not share the opinion of Helvetius about the omnipotence of social influence and the insignificance of the role of heredity in education.
The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment enjoyed the special attention of the Russian Empress. Catherine sought to use the achievements of European pedagogical thought in the implementation of her projects. She carefully studied "Thoughts on Education" by J. Locke, the pedagogical theories of M. Montaigne, F. Fenelon, J.-J. Rousseau. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the "Plan of the University for Russia". In the 1770s Catherine was especially interested in the teaching activities of I. B. Bazedov.
Over time, Catherine's pedagogical preferences have evolved. If at the beginning of her reign the empress demonstrated her commitment to the ideas of the French Enlightenment, then at the end of her life she moved away from liberal hobbies. When faced with a choice between the ideals of the Enlightenment and the elimination of danger to the throne, Catherine did not hesitate. Evidence of this is the fate of the outstanding Russian educators N. Novikov and A. Radishchev. The first, on suspicion of a Masonic conspiracy against the Empress, was thrown into the Peter and Paul Fortress. The second because he dared to publicly condemn the autocracy, was sent into exile in Siberia.
1. Education system in the second half of the 18th century
A kind of manifesto of Russian pedagogy of the late eighteenth century. became a collective treatise of professors of Moscow University "Method of teaching" (1771). The treatise proclaims important didactic ideas about active and conscious learning.
The priority of school policy in the second half of the XVIII century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. Having got rid of compulsory service, the nobility sought to fill their leisure time with familiarization with the cultural achievements of Europe. The craving for a new Western education intensified.
A very remarkable event was the dispute about the priority of Greek-Latin education. According to the testimony of the future US President J. Adams, who served in 1781-1783. in the American diplomatic mission in Russia, in St. Petersburg, "there was no good place to study Latin and Greek."
The stronghold of Greek-Latin education, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, is entering a new period of its development. The teaching of Russian and Greek is being strengthened; the teaching of Hebrew and new languages is introduced, as well as a number of educational subjects (philosophy, history, medicine). The Academy becomes exclusively a spiritual and educational institution and ceases to meet the requirements of the new time. Universities take its place.
If under Peter I there was a mandatory ("instruction") program, according to which the nobles had to acquire certain scientific and technical knowledge, now only children of small landed nobles studied in the corresponding schools. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy the theater and other arts.
Such a turn negatively affected the state of educational institutions, headed by St. Petersburg and Moscow universities. Thus, M. V. Lomonosov testifies that at the St. Petersburg Academic University "neither the image nor the likeness of the university is visible." Professors usually did not give lectures, students were recruited from other educational institutions as recruits; recruits most often "were not in a good condition to take lectures from professors." A similar picture was at Moscow University. When it opened it had 100 students; 30 years later - only 8. Classes were held on average 100 days a year.
This did not mean that scientific and pedagogical life froze at the universities. Foreign and domestic scientists were involved in lecturing. Among the latter are S. N. Kotelnikov (Professor of Mathematics), A. P. Protasov (Professor of Anatomy), N. V. Popov (Professor of Astronomy). Professors of Moscow University and the Academy of Sciences published Russian translations of the pedagogical works of J. Locke, J. A. Comenius, J.-J. Rousseau. They were the authors of manuals for schools and home teachers, as well as projects for school reforms. Thanks to their activities, original educational literature on various branches of knowledge (native language, mathematics, geography, natural science, etc.) was created. In the works of professors of Moscow University and scientists of the Academy of Sciences ("On the benefits of sciences ..." by A. N. Popovsky, "Word about ... human concepts" by D. S. Anichkov, etc.), important questions of moral, mental and physical education. Thus, the expediency of using Western pedagogical experience and Russian folk pedagogical traditions was emphasized.
Significant progress was made by special military educational institutions - land and sea cadet corps. The charter of 1766 divided the training program in the cadet corps into three groups of sciences: 1) leading to the knowledge of subjects necessary for civil rank; 2) useful or artistic; 3) "leading to the knowledge of other arts." The sciences of the first group included moralizing, jurisprudence, and economics. To the sciences of the second group - general and experimental physics, astronomy, general geography, navigation, natural science, military sciences, drawing, engraving, architecture, music, dancing, fencing, sculpture. To the sciences of the third group - logic, mathematics, eloquence, physics, sacred and secular world history, geography, chronology, Latin and French, mechanics. Such an extensive program was only partially implemented. A very significant number of hours were spent in French.
In the second half of the XVIII century. private educational institutions intended for the nobility were developed. They used the public school curriculum.
The higher nobility raised their children at home. At first, the Germans were educators, then the French began to replace them more and more often. The first foreign tutors in the majority turned out to be insolvent teachers. As stated in the decree of 1755, "many, having not found good teachers, take in people who have spent their whole lives as lackeys, hairdressers and other similar crafts."
There are two stages in the history of school projects and reforms of the Catherine era. At the first stage (1760s), the influence of the French pedagogical tradition is noticeable. At the second stage (from the beginning of the 1780s) - the influence of the German school and pedagogical experience.
In 1763, Catherine appointed Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704-1795) as her chief educational adviser. Betskoy was well acquainted with the pedagogical ideas of the West. He drew up reports and charters, first of all, "The General Plan of the Orphanage" (1764) and "A Brief Instruction ... on the Education of Children", where in the interpretation of issues of physical, mental and moral education, he follows Rousseau and Locke. Betsky owns projects for the education of "ideal nobles".
In addition to the plans of Betsky, in the 1760s. several more projects were put forward: on the establishment of various schools (1764), the organization of state gymnasiums (1767), the commission on schools (1768), etc.
Professor of Moscow University F. G. Dilthey also drew up a plan for the establishment of a system of primary (trivial) schools, gymnasiums, universities and institutions for the training of representatives of the serfs as educators for noble children ("slave" or "uncle" schools). It was planned to create two "uncle's schools" - in Moscow and St. Petersburg, more than 20 "trivial schools" for the nobility and free estates, where they would prepare for admission to the gymnasium, 9 four-year gymnasiums for the nobles and free commoners, 2 new universities.
The project of "state gymnasiums" or "children's educational academies", presented in 1767 by the Commission for drawing up a plan for educational reform, provided for the organization of closed state educational institutions for children from 5-6 years of age to 18 years of age "without distinction of rank" (excluding serfs). It was planned to open gymnasiums of 4 types: general education, civil, military and merchant. In all types of gymnasiums, it was proposed to pay special attention to the study of trade and industry, and foreign languages. The introduction of compulsory primary education for boys was also envisaged.
Several projects were prepared by the "Private Commission on Schools" created in 1768: 1) on lower village schools; 2) about the lower city schools; 3) about secondary schools; 4) about schools for non-believers. It was planned to establish elementary schools everywhere in villages and large villages - lower village schools; build buildings at the expense of parishioners; recruit teachers from local priests; pay for the work of teachers in kind and money at the expense of parents. Schools were for boys. At the request of parents, girls could be admitted to schools and taught for free. Religion and reading were to be compulsory subjects. The lower city schools were also arranged at the expense of the townspeople. Schools were for boys and girls. The program included religion, reading and writing. Schools for non-Christians were supposed to attend the population of the eastern outskirts. The programs were planned similar to those of the first two types of schools. It was proposed by teachers to make representatives of the respective confessions; training to be conducted in the native language for "gentiles".
Projects of the 1760s on the public education system, on the establishment and state support of urban and rural schools remained unfulfilled due to lack of funds. The government's interest in school reform was blunted by the peasant uprising and the wars that Russia waged in 1768-1774. But by the early 1780s. the question of school reform has again become topical.
In 1782, Catherine appointed a "Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools." In the same year, the Commission proposed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, which was used in the "Charter of the Public Schools of the Russian Empire" (1786). Serbo-Croatian thinker and teacher Fyodor Ivanovich Jankovich de Marijevo (1741-1814) took an active part in the development of these documents. Lomonosov's nephew M. E. Golovin (1756-1790), a graduate of St. Petersburg University F. V. Zuev (1754-1794), professor of Moscow University E. B. Syreyshchikov (d. 1790) and others worked with him.
The "Charter ..." proclaimed education as the "single means" of the public good. The document stated that education should begin from "infancy", so that "the seeds of necessary and useful knowledge in adolescence would grow, and in men's, when ripe, they would bear fruit for society." The compilers of the "Charter ..." positively resolved the extremely important issue of teaching in the "natural", i.e., Russian, language.
According to the "Charter ..." of 1786, small and main public schools were opened in the cities. These were free mixed schools for boys and girls, outside the control of the church. They could be used by the middle strata of the urban population. Small schools were supposed to prepare literate people who knew how to write and count well, who knew the basics of Orthodoxy and the rules of conduct. The main schools were obliged to give broader training on a multi-subject basis. Small schools were designed for two years of study. They taught reading, writing, numbering, sacred history, catechism, the beginnings of civics, arithmetic, Russian grammar, calligraphy and drawing. Schools were maintained at the expense of city governments.
Education in the main public schools lasted five years. In addition to the small school program, the curriculum included the gospel, history, geography, geometry, mechanics, physics, natural science, architecture; for those who wish - Latin and living foreign languages: Tatar, Persian, Chinese (teaching of Western European languages was not provided). In the main schools it was possible to acquire a pedagogical education.
Official representatives of the church were eliminated from the schools. Teaching (including catechism and sacred history) was entrusted to civilian teachers.
"Charter ..." approved the class-lesson system. The teacher was charged with the duty to work simultaneously with the whole class. After the presentation of the new material, it was necessary to conduct a "question". A rule was established for the students: the one who wanted to answer had to raise his left hand. The school has a timetable, a blackboard, chalk, a class journal of success and student attendance. Certain start and end dates were set.
The reform undertaken in accordance with the charter of 1786 was an important stage in the development of the school business. The number of public schools grew rapidly: by the end of the XVIII century. out of 500 cities, 254 had schools. They were attended by 22,000 students, including 1,800 girls. This accounted for a third of all students in educational institutions in Russia. However, in fact, the children of peasants could not use these schools. Due to the lack of teachers and insufficient state support, many schools gradually reduced the quality of education, and some, having barely opened, ceased to exist.
2. Activity I. And. Betsky
In 1764, Betskoy presented to Catherine II a report on the general reorganization of the education of children in Russia, which subsequently received the force of law and was published under the title “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth”. The report spoke of the need to educate in Russia “a new breed of people - educated nobles who are able to humanely treat the peasants and fairly manage the state, and raznochintsy - the “third rank of people” capable of developing industry, trade, craft. For this, it was necessary, Betskoy believed, to organize closed educational institutions in which children from the age of five or six should stay for 10-12 years. They should be isolated from others in order not to be subjected to “the corrupt influence of the environment.
From the Empress Betskaya he received the task of transforming the existing educational institutions and opening new ones. He changed the organization of teaching and educational work in the cadet corps and gymnasiums, lengthened the periods of stay of pupils in them. He also opened a number of new educational institutions for different classes, except for serfs, including the Institute for Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute) in St. Petersburg for noblewomen with a department for girls from the bourgeoisie.
I. I. Betskoy believed it possible to create a new breed of people through education. Overestimating the role of education in public life, he argued that "the root of all evil and good is education." He hoped that the first new people brought up in closed educational institutions would pass on the views and habits instilled in them to their children, who, in turn, to future generations, and so gradually, peacefully, the morality and actions of people would change, and consequently, society would improve. and public life. Class limitations made him believe in the omnipotence of education.
The main means of moral combat nutrition, "education of the heart", Betskoy considered "rooting the fear of God", isolating children from the environment, positive examples. He proposed to keep children prone to industriousness, to create in them the habit of avoiding idleness, to be always courteous and sympathetic to poverty and misfortune. One should also, he said, instill in children a tendency to neatness and frugality, teach them how to run a household.
Betskoy attached great importance to physical education, the main means of which he considered clean air, as well as “amusement with innocent fun and games, so that thoughts always lead to encouragement, eradicating everything that can be called boredom, thoughtfulness and sorrow.” He demanded that cleanliness be observed, physical exercises and labor activities were carried out, developing the physical strength of children. He compiled a manual on the physical education of children called “A Brief Instruction Selected from the Best Authors with Some Physical Notes on the Education of Children from Their Birth to Adolescence”, which, on the basis of a decree of the Senate, was sent to all educational institutions in the cities of Russia.
Concerning the issues of mental education, Betskoy pointed out that the process of learning should be pleasant for children, carried out without coercion, based on children's inclinations. The youth should be taught, in his opinion, "more from looking and listening than from rejecting lessons." Betskoy warned that forcing children to study could lead to a dulling of children's abilities, and insisted on a categorical prohibition of physical punishment. In the “General plan of the Moscow Orphanage” it was said on this occasion: “Introduce the law once and for all and strictly affirm that never and for no reason should children be beaten.”
Betskoy demanded to carefully choose the educators who should replace the parents of the children, demanded that the educators be Russian, “conscientious and worthy people of example”, he talked about creating a friendly family from all those living in the orphanage. But, proclaiming progressive ideas, Betskoy cared little about their implementation in the children's institutions created by the government.
Betsky's views had an imprint of class, noble narrowness. First of all, this was manifested in his demand that “the fear of God be rooted in the hearts of children”, in his illusory belief that it was possible to improve the estate-serf system through education, as well as in his demand to isolate children from the surrounding reality, placing them in closed educational institutions.
In 1763, the first educational house in Russia was opened in Moscow. Betskoy was appointed his trustee.
Pupils of the house were divided by age: from 2 to 7 years. from 7 to 11, from 11 to 14. Until the age of 2, children were in the hands of nurses, after which they were transferred to “common quarters”, where they were brought up in games and labor activities. Labor training continued throughout the entire stay of the child in the foster home. Boys were taught gardening and gardening, and crafts, girls - housekeeping, knitting, spinning, lace, sewing, ironing, cooking. From the age of 7 to 11, children attended school, where they studied for only one hour a day, learning to read and write. From 11 to 14 years old, children studied catechism, arithmetic, drawing and geography at school. They were given a very small amount of knowledge, with the exception of a few pupils who were considered especially gifted. Within each age group, the children were divided into three subgroups. The first included those who showed great ability to learn. They were supposed to be taught more academic subjects, and upon reaching the age of 14 they were sent to continue their studies at Moscow University or the Academy of Arts. Naturally, under the conditions of the serfdom, a very small number of children fell into this subgroup. Most of the pupils were waiting for hard physical work. The second subgroup included children who showed skill in handicrafts; of them trained skilled craftsmen. The third subgroup included children allegedly only capable of physical labor, who, at the end of their stay in the orphanage, were determined to be domestic servants for merchants and landowners. Their plight was to some extent mitigated by the decree by which young men and women were released from. educational houses. could not be made serfs. The decree stated that if a young pupil married a serf or a girl married a serf, they would have to bring freedom to those with whom they married and to their future children.
In 1770, a branch of the Moscow Orphanage was opened in St. Petersburg, which soon became an independent St. Petersburg Orphanage; later educational homes opened in provincial towns.
Institutions for the care of orphans and homeless children existed on charitable funds collected in various ways, including donations from rich people. In order to strengthen the exploitative system, the rich and noble sometimes resorted to handouts, bestowing their "alms" on the working masses exploited by them.
The creation of charitable philanthropic societies was caused by various considerations. Of greatest importance was the desire to eliminate the danger threatening the peace of the oppressors from the presence in the country of homeless people thrown out of the life of people who, due to their unsettled position, were in opposition to the existing system. The actions of other benefactors were driven by personal motives: some wanted to become famous during their lifetime, others, doing “good deeds on earth in accordance with the requirements of Christian morality, counted on the afterlife in “paradise”. The vanity of the tsarina and other members of the “educational societies” in charge of the orphanages was flattered by the statutes and documents regulating the work of the houses created by Betsky and Barsov, a professor at Moscow University. But the benefactors and “benefactors” did not mean to actually follow the requirements formulated in these documents.
The life of children in foster homes was very difficult. A lot of children were recruited in each house, sometimes up to 1000 people. A huge accumulation of children of pre-preschool and preschool age at a time when medicine did not yet have the means to combat infectious diseases led to horrific infant mortality. In the Petersburg House in 1764, out of 524 children, 424 died, sometimes out of 100 children 83-87 and even more than 90 died. and this event had a very hard effect on the fate of the pupils. The people called the royal charitable institutions for the charity of small children “angel factories”.
The meager material resources allocated to orphanages made it impossible to organize the care of children and their upbringing in accordance with the requirements of medicine and pedagogy. In view of the widespread embezzlement and extortion on the part of employees and officials in feudal Russia, the pupils of the houses did not receive even the meager allowance that they were supposed to. Due to the government's lack of concern for the training of educators, the houses were staffed with unqualified personnel, in most cases ignorant people worked in them, receiving miserable remuneration for their work. “The educators were far from those humane requirements that I. I. Betskoy preached, they treated the children of the people rudely and cruelly, which was supported by the entire system of estate-serf relations.
3. Activity H. And. Novikov
A prominent place in the history of Russian education in the second half of the XVIII century. belongs to Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818). Novikov was educated at Moscow University, and an important period of his educational and book publishing activity is connected with the same outstanding educational institution in Russia, which ended with his arrest and imprisonment in the Shlisselburg Fortress for 15 years. (Condemned by Catherine II in 1792, four years later he was released by Paul I.)
During the St. Petersburg period of his activity, Novikov took an active part in the creation of public schools independent of the state, mobilized a public initiative to organize schools for the unprivileged class. In the satirical magazines “The Painter”, “Drone and “Purse” published by him, Novikov promoted the idea of equality of people, respect for human dignity, sharply criticized noble education.
From 1779 to 1789 Novikov was at the head of the largest book publishing and bookselling business in Russia based on the university printing house. Among the numerous publications, textbooks, alphabets, primers and other teaching aids for children occupied an important place. Novikov was the creator and editor of the first Russian magazine for children, Children's Reading for the Mind and Heart. This publication was actually the beginning of the publication of children's literature in Russia, and the published 20 books (issues) of the magazine were a window into the big world for several generations. The educational and educational value of this journal was highly appreciated by S. T. Aksakov, V. G. Belinsky, N. I. Pirogov.
The publications of N. I. Novikov contributed to the formation of progressive pedagogical thought in Russia. Thus, in the article “On the Socratic Method of Teaching,” the problem of creating pedagogy as a science was first put forward. In his other article “On Aesthetic Education”, for the first time, the task of aesthetic education of children was considered as part of a broad process covering all aspects of the formation of a child’s personality.
Of particular importance was the article “On the upbringing and instruction of children. For the dissemination of generally useful knowledge and general well-being”. This is, without a doubt, the most important pedagogical work of that time, in which the issues of physical, mental and moral education are deeply and thoroughly considered. In the section “On the Formation of the Mind,” Novikov formulated a number of important rules, the psychological and pedagogical value of which was not devalued by the subsequent development of pedagogical thought.
Rule one: do not extinguish the curiosity of your children or pets.
Rule Two: Exercise your children or pets in the use of the senses; teach them to feel right.
Rule three: beware of giving children false or not quite well-defined ideas about any thing, no matter how unimportant it may be. It is much better for them not to know very many things than it is unfair to imagine them; much. it is better for you to completely refuse to answer some of their questions than to give an ambiguous and insufficient answer.
Rule Four: Do not teach children anything that they cannot comprehend due to their age or due to the lack of other knowledge assumed at the same time.
Rule Five: Try not only to multiply and spread their knowledge, but also to make it solid and true.
All these rules were well substantiated in the article and were supported by many results of careful observation of the development of children.
The activities and views of N. I. Novikov were of great importance for the development of social and professional-pedagogical thought in Russia.
4. Activity A. H. Radishcheva
Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) is the founder of the Russian revolutionary enlightenment. He not only courageously stood up for the interests of the serf peasantry, but also rose to understand the need for a revolutionary struggle against tsarism. Radishchev justified the peasant war led by Pugachev, he developed the theory of the people's revolution and considered the uprising of the people the only way to liberate Russia from serfdom and autocracy. V. I. Lenin called Radishchev the pride of the Russian people.
A. N. Radishchev attached great importance to properly delivered education. In his book “Journey from St. Petersburg. to Moscow, Radishchev painted a painful picture of the suffering of peasant children. He showed how, due to serfdom, their abilities, cheerfulness, and sociability, characteristic of peasant children, are dulled. He passionately resented the existing inequality in Russia in the education and development of children.
Radishchev considered the goal of education to be the formation of a citizen capable of fighting for the happiness of his people and hating their oppressors. In his work “A Conversation about the Son of the Fatherland”, Radishchev said that the main task of education is to educate a person of high morality, who loves his homeland most of all, who devotes himself to the struggle for the good of the people. Radishchev believed that only a revolutionary fighting against the autocracy can be a true patriot.
Putting before education a revolutionary task - the formation of a “son of the fatherland”, Radishchev radically diverged from the official tsarist pedagogy in understanding patriotism. While in. state institutions (cadet corps, institutes, schools, educational homes) tried to train faithful servants of the autocracy from children, and the church, false patriots defending the exploitative system, Radishchev raised the question of educating a true patriot, fighting autocracy, not sparing his life in that case, if this sacrifice "brings strength and glory to the fatherland." A real son of the fatherland hates with all his heart servility, deceit, lies, treachery, avarice... atrocities and fights against the carriers of these vices.
Criticizing Russian (Betskoy) and Western European teachers (Rousseau and others), who at that time demanded that children be isolated from the surrounding life, the revolutionary Radishchev emphasized: “A person is born for a hostel ... He said that removing children from real life contributes to education of individualists, people who think only about their personal interests, who are not able to participate in the reorganization of society, to be ideological fighters.
A. N. Radishchev introduced revolutionism and materialism into pedagogical theory. He argued that man is a part of nature, a material being, that the mental development of the child occurs along with the growth of the child's body.
Pointing out that all children have natural gifts for development and upbringing, Radishchev at the same time believed that the formation of a person's personality is not determined by his nature; but the circumstances of life, the social conditions in which he is. Unlike Betsky, he did not believe that it was possible to change society through education. On the contrary, he argued that only in a reasonable society can education be properly organized.
Radishchev stood for such an organization of education that would contribute to the development in the child of public interests, aspirations for the common good; said that in the development of a full-fledged human personality, the active participation of the pupil in the fight against everything inert in the name of a better future plays an important role. He argued that the character of a person is formed by his activity for the common good, constant opposition to unjust laws, inert orders, ignorance of selfish people.
A. N. Radishchev was the initiator of a new, revolutionary morality based on hatred for the oppressors, the desire to fight them in the name of the happiness of the common people.
Insisting on the need to instill in children a true love for the motherland, for the people, A.N. Radishchev resolutely opposed the scornful attitude towards national culture characteristic of the nobles, against their excessive passion for the French language. He believed that a true patriot should know his native language perfectly, that the honor and dignity of a true citizen require him to fight decisively against those who do not believe in the strength of their people.
Outlining a wide range of general educational knowledge that a person should master, Radishchev pointedly kept silent about religion. He believed that the autocracy and the church together, "union", as he said, oppress society, that religion dulls human abilities, paralyzes people's will to fight.
The government of Catherine II took all measures to hide the works of Radishchev from society, to eradicate the memory of him in the minds of the Russian people. However, the angry voice of the great patriot, who courageously called for a revolutionary struggle against serfdom and autocracy, was heard by the progressive Russian people. His works, banned by the government, were secretly distributed in manuscript form.
A. N. Radishchev played an enormous role in the development of social thought and pedagogical theory in Russia, in the development of the Russian revolutionary movement and progressive pedagogy.
List of used literature
1. A. N. Dzhurinsky - History of Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for stud. pedagogical universities. - M.: Humanit. Ed. Center VLADOS, 2000. -432 p.
Peter I and his reforms widened the horizon of Russian life. During the reign of Catherine II, this process accelerated. Russia moved further and further away from its medieval culture, largely isolated from the rest of the world, and turned into an enlightened European state.
The ideas of European enlighteners, the state practice of enlightened monarchs became the property of not only the imperial court and the enlightened elite of Russia. They penetrated into wide circles of the population - the nobility, the growing middle class and even the peasantry. And if the previous major turns in the history of European civilization - the Renaissance and Reformation - passed by Russia in many respects, then the Age of Enlightenment became its own era. The attitude to man, his place in the system of society and nature, to the goals and objectives of society has changed.
But feudalism reigned in Russia, absolutism reached its peak, serfdom, class privileges and restrictions formed the unshakable basis of human relations. This led to sharp contradictions between the still powerful old world in Russia and new phenomena in culture. And yet the new stubbornly made its way.
One of the features of the development of Russian culture at that time was the interpenetration of the achievements of Russian culture of the 17th century. and new cultural trends.
The Christian worldview remained the main one for the Russian people. Both Peter I and Catherine II were deeply religious people, but they showed complete indifference to church rituals, traditions, and rules. Freed from this constant ecclesiastical influence and pressure, Russian culture in all its manifestations became more and more secular.
Culture contributed to the formation of Russian society, it brought people together as a nation, awakened national identity.
The members of this society and this nation were the empress, and nobles, and provincial nobles, and city dwellers, and the Cossacks, and the peasantry, including the serf intelligentsia (actors, musicians, painters). Of course, between the upper strata of society and its lower classes lay an insurmountable abyss, but culture imperceptibly threw bridges across this abyss. Only the knightly peasantry turned out to be rejected in this new advancing world.
The emergence of new cultural values also acquired an international character in the conditions of multinational Russia. New cultural values and educational ideas were superimposed on the cultural traditions and achievements of the six peoples of Russia and made them involved in the fate of the country's ethos. They began to feel like Russians, residents of a colossal and multinational power.
The bearer of new scientific and cultural traditions was primarily the nobility. But this did not mean that Russian culture was purely noble. The nobility created and nurtured a universal human culture in Russia.
The creators of Russian science and culture of the XVIII century. also came from abroad. Throughout the century, foreigners had a strong influence on the formation of Russian civilization. They participated in the creation of the education system, stood at the origins of the organization of the Academy of Sciences, made a huge contribution to the development of Russian architecture, sculpture, painting, theater and music. For the most part, they were talented and enthusiastic people who brought a lot of benefits to Russia, passing on their experience and skills to the Russian people. But gradually domestic talents gained strength and influence.
Education and enlightenment of the people
Education and enlightenment of the people by the end of the XVIII century. achieved significant success.
Education was mostly class-based. This meant that each estate had its own system of education, closed from others. And the higher and more privileged the class was, the higher was the level of education.
In the 1730s The land gentry corps was opened, and in the 1750s, the Naval gentry corps. Thus, the army and navy were replenished with highly qualified personnel, and at the same time, the children of the nobility were given the opportunity immediately after training to start serving in the rank of an officer, and not pull, as under Peter I, a soldier's strap. It was the privilege of the nobility.
Artillery and Engineering gentry corps became other closed educational institutions.
There were many private noble boarding houses in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. Noble children lived and studied in such boarding houses. At the same time, learning at home came into fashion.
However, education in boarding schools and at home needed to improve the professional and general humanitarian level. This could only be given by higher educational institutions of the civilian type. Due to the lack of higher educational institutions of a modern level in Russia, it was quite a natural step for the authorities to open two universities in Russia at once.
One, at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, trained Russian scientists. This goal limited the flow to the university of those who wanted to get a university degree, i.e. universal, general education. In addition, admission to the university was preceded by training in an academic gymnasium.
With the opening of Moscow University in 1755, the situation changed significantly. At first there were three faculties - philosophical, legal and medical. At the Faculty of Philosophy, they studied mathematics, mechanics, physics, geography, philology. At the Faculty of Medicine, a significant place was given to the study of chemistry and biology.
Moscow University became the first and only one in Europe in the 18th century. a university that did not have a theological faculty and did not teach theological sciences. The new educational institution in Russia rested entirely on secular principles of education.
It is not for nothing that Moscow University bears the name of the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765). He was the initiator of its creation, developed a university project, insisted that teaching in it be conducted in Russian, which was also unusual at the time of general use in teaching Latin. M. V. Lomonos caught the transformation of the university into a public, that is, inaccessible, educational institution.
It is no coincidence that within the walls of the university in the XVIII century. studied natives of families raznochintsev. They also formed the teaching staff. The charter of the university forbade corporal punishment of students. The university was an autonomous self-governing organization and did not depend on local authorities. He obeyed the Senate.
There was a gymnasium at the university. One of its networks was intended for the children of the nobility, the other for the children of the raznochintsy. A huge role in the creation of the university I.I. Shuvalov played the favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna - I. I. Shuvalov (1727-1797). It was with his active support that M. V. Lomonosov realized his plans.
Along with educational institutions for the nobility, the network of religious educational institutions expanded in the country.
The network of comprehensive schools gradually developed. In the 1780s For the first time in the history of the country, a public education system was introduced. In St. Petersburg province, and later in 25 other provinces of the country, two-class and four-class public schools were opened. In the first children were taught reading, writing, calligraphy, drawing, the Law of God. Secondly, the teaching of grammar, arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, physics, geography, history, natural science and architecture was added.
Catherine II sought to put the education system on a European level. She wanted broad-minded, humane, enlightened people to appear in the country. And not only among the nobles, but also among other classes. For this purpose, it was supposed to create closed educational institutions - separately for the nobility, merchants, and other inhabitants. Education there was thought to be carried out on the basis of the principles of education - by persuasion, without punishment and coercion.
Closed educational institutions appeared primarily in St. Petersburg. In 1767 the Institute for Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute) was opened. In separate groups, girls from the petty-bourgeois class studied in it.
The science
The Academy of Sciences with its three departments - philosophical, physical and historical - remained at the center of Russian science. At first, only scientists invited from abroad were members of the Academy. After the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna and the end of German dominance in many areas of the country's public life, the situation at the Academy began to change. Scientific research moved forward, Russian cadres appeared among scientists. In the 1740-1750s. the leading role in the Academy belonged to Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.
For Russian science, Lomonosov became a whole era. It seems that there was no branch of knowledge in which he would not penetrate and where he would not leave his remarkable mark. He created the first chemical laboratory in the history of Russia. It was during a series of chemical experiments that he came to the discovery of the law of conservation of matter and motion. He owns the development of the atomic-molecular theory of the structure of matter. He also explained the phenomenon of heating bodies: not mythical caloric, as was previously thought, but the movement of body particles causes this process. Astronomers call Lomonosov the father of their science. It is to him that the honor of discovering the atmosphere on the planet Venus belongs. Lomonosov did a lot in the field of geology, mineralogy, mining, and geography. He substantiated the great importance for Russia of the Northern Sea Route, along which to this day ships go to the northeastern ports of the country.
MV Lomonosov was never an armchair scientist. He achieved amazing results in many applied sciences, made a number of discoveries that were of practical importance. So, he owns the idea of lightning rods that protect people from atmospheric electricity, from lightning. He became the founder of domestic scientific meteorology. He worked a lot in the industrial sector - in the development of new types of porcelain, glass, paints, creating mosaics, from which he made magnificent paintings.
M. V. Lomonosov was a genius not only in the field of natural sciences, but also an outstanding humanitarian. He made a great contribution to the formation of the Russian literary language and became the author of the Russian grammar. His poetic writings, in particular the ode in honor of Elizabeth
11strovny, the victories of Russian weapons, were a model for G of many writers of the 18th century. Finally, M.V. Lomonosov showed himself as a brilliant historian. His Ancient Russian History is a work filled with pride in the history of the Slavic world.
In the second half of the XVIII century. stepped forward and technical thought. The heat engineer I. I. Polzunov (1728-1766) developed a project for a universal steam engine. The self-taught mechanic I.P. Kulibin (1735-1818) invented many different mechanisms, among them - an amazing clock. He proposed a project for a single-arch bridge across the Neva, almost 300 m long.
Research expeditions became an important part of scientific activity. If the 17th century was the century of great Russian discoveries in the east, then the XVIII century. became the time of their research and development. Everyone was interested - communication routes, climate, bowels, sea currents, the geographical outlines of the Eurasian continent, its population.
From 1733 to 1741, with the support of the Senate, the Admiralty, the Academy of Sciences, the Second Kamchatka Expedition of V. Bering and A. I. Chirikov took place, during which the strait separating America from Asia was discovered, and named after the discoverer - the Bering Strait. The expedition opened Northwest America to the world. Members of the expedition explored and described the shores of Kamchatka, the Kuril and Aleutian Islands, Northern Japan.
Expeditions were sent to South Siberia, the Lower Volga region, the Urals and the Urals, Bashkiria, the North Caucasus, the Crimea, to Lake Baikal.
A special research expedition set sail for Alaska. The materials of these expeditions were widely published in Russia and abroad.
Literature and art
Literature of the second half of the XVIII century. becomes more and more secular, goes out from under the influence of the Church. The Russian literary language is being formed, freed from the old church speech. The Church Slavonic language remained only in religious texts and in divine services. First, M.V. had a great influence on the reform of the language. Lomonosov, and later the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), whom Peter I. He creates prose and poetry, translates ancient and modern European classics into Russian. Among the works of classicism are the odes of M. V. Lomonosov and V. K. Trediakovsky (1706-1768), as well as the tragedies and comedies of A. P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), the father of Russian drama, according to his contemporaries.
Russian literature developed rapidly. And no sooner had classicism blossomed than it was replaced by a new style - sentimentalism, with its interest in the inner world, the experiences of not an outstanding hero, but ordinary townspeople, peasants. A prominent representative of this trend was N. M. Karamzin, whose story “Poor Lisa about the love experiences of a modest girl that ended in tragedy, was read by all literate Russia.
18th century does not end yet, and the beginnings of realism imperiously invade Russian literature, under the sign of which the literature of the entire 19th century existed.
Realistic motives are felt in the poetic works of G. R. Derzhavin (1743-1816), in the plays of D. I. Fonvizin (1745-1792). His comedy “Undergrowth” brings to the stage that part of the nobility that did not want any innovations, any progress and firmly held on to serfdom and its privileges.
An integral part of Russian culture was folk art. Folklore of the second half of the 18th century. the events and folk heroes of those years were reflected - Emelyan Pugachev and Salavat Yulaev, heroes of past glorious events, for example, Bogdap Khmelnitsky and Maxim Krivonos. The famous “Lament of serfs”, created among the people, told about the hatred of ordinary people for serfdom.
Many wonderful architectural monuments, a true decoration of Russian cities, were created in the 18th century. What are Petersburg, Tsarskoye Selo, Pavlovsk, Peterhof, which have become the pride of Russia and the world's architectural masterpieces worth!
The name of VV Rastrelli (1700-1771), an Italian sculptor who worked in Russia, is associated with the emergence of the Baroque style in our country. In this style, he created the famous Winter Palace, the equally famous Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the complex of buildings of the Smolny Monastery, the Stroganov Palace and other buildings in St. Petersburg.
Following the baroque, classicism came into the architecture of Russia with its strict proportions, slender colonnades, monumentality, and harmony. The court architect of Catherine II, the Scot C. Cameron (1730s - 1812), became a vivid exponent of this style. He is the author of the ensemble of the palace and park structures in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg, the gallery in Tsarskoye Selo, and other structures.
The famous Italian architect G. Quarenghi (1744-1817) left a noticeable mark on the architecture of the capital. It was he who created the Hermitage, the Smolny Institute, the Stock Exchange building, magnificent palaces in Peterhof (Great Palace) and Tsarskoe Selo (Alexander Palace). ). This is a creation of the remarkable Russian architect V.I. Bazhenov (1738-1799). He owns the projects of the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow and the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg, the imperial palace in the village of Tsaritsyn near Moscow, and other buildings. IN AND. Bazhenov was elected a professor at the Roman Academy and a full member of the Bologna and Florence Academies.
A rich architectural heritage was left by M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812). His main works are the building of Moscow University on Mokhovaya, the building of the Golitsyn Hospital in Moscow (now the 1st Gradskaya Hospital), the house of the Noble Assembly in Moscow (now the Column Hall of the House of Unions), other buildings in Moscow, Tver and other cities.
The pride of Russian architecture of the XVIII century. was the work of I. E. Starov (1745-1808). His best creations are the Tauride Palace of G. A. Potemkin and the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg.
In the last decades of the century, powerful manor construction unfolded in Russia. Wooden architecture continued to develop. A vivid example of it was the Sheremetev Palace in Ostankino, built by Russian masters P. I. Argunov, G. E. Dikushin and A. F. Mironov.
Experienced flourishing and Russian painting. This flourishing was expressed in an ever greater transition from the conventions of icon painting to realistic canvases. In the XVIII century. portraiture developed. The son of a soldier A.P. Antropov, serf artists I.P. Argunov and F.S. Rokotov, immigrants from Ukraine D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky created a brilliant gallery of portraits of Russian monarchs, nobles, statesmen, commanders.
Historical painting appeared on biblical and ancient Russian themes, as well as genre painting. The peasant theme has become a phenomenon of the times here. The artist I. A. Eremeev in his canvases showed the life of the common people, the peasants. Everyday paintings on a peasant theme were created by the serf artist M. Shibanov.
Sculpture and music became part of the general development of Russian art. It was in the second half of the XVIII century. in Russia, a transition is being made from applied, ornamental sculpture to monumental and portrait sculpture. An example of the first is the famous Bronze Horseman - a monument to Peter I, built at the direction of Catherine II by the French sculptor E.M. Falcone (1716-1791) in 1775, as well as a monument to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow, the author of which was the sculptor I.P. Martos (1754-1835).
Another direction in sculpture was demonstrated by F. I. Shubin (1740-1805). He came from Pomeranian peasants, was a friend of M. V. Lomonosov. His chisel owns the busts of Catherine II, Paul I, Lomonosov, Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin.
Among the remarkable cultural figures of the second half of the XVIII century. there is also an amazing figure of the founder of the Russian theater F. G. Volkov (1729-1763). The son of a Yaroslavl merchant, he became the first Russian actor and founder of the Russian national theater. At first he worked in Yaroslavl, then moved to St. Petersburg and founded the first professional theater here.
The musical art was still dominated by visiting opera and ballet troupes, but the time had already come for the establishment of original Russian talents. The composer I. E. Khandoshkin (1747-1804) wrote his music for folk instruments, whose works are still performed today. The creator of amazing church chorales was D. S. Bortnyansky (1751-1825).
Russian life
The most striking changes in the life of the population took place in St. Petersburg, Moscow and some other large cities of the country. Petersburg, on the Palace Embankment, Nevsky Prospekt, along the canals and rivers flowing into the Neva, the nobles built luxurious palaces for themselves. The banks of the Neva were dressed with granite embankments. This was done at the direction of Catherine I. She also owned the idea of building the famous lattice of the Summer Garden.
The palaces were rich and refined. Aristocrats tried to make them look like imperial ones. There were large halls, living rooms furnished with European furniture, and comfortable rooms. Tiled stoves in winter radiated even, dry heat throughout the room. Candles in chandeliers and candelabra perfectly illuminated rooms, corridors and passages.
In these palaces, balls thundered, high society receptions were held. What was the cost of the famous ball given by G. A. Potemkin in his Tauride Palace in honor of the Empress! Three thousand guests, a performance of the choir, ballet, pantomime, a reception in a hall turned into a garden with a fountain and bushes of flowering trees, with the singing of live nightingales and a temple with a statue of Catherine. Dinner until 2 am, dancing until the morning. 140 thousand lamps and 20 thousand candles illuminated this action.
By the end of the XVIII century. in St. Petersburg it became fashionable to keep aristocratic salons. French speech was heard here, disputes about politics, literature, and art were in full swing. Russian literary celebrities began to shine in such salons.
Dapper carriages drove by luxurious mansions along Nevsky Prospekt, guards officers and smartly dressed townsfolk strolled by.
Moscow has also changed. Although there was no such wealth and splendor here as in St. Petersburg, the Moscow nobility did not want to lag behind the demands of the time. Evidence leveled out. the chaotic development of the city has stopped, although it continues.
Wealthy nobles and merchants built, as a rule, two or three-story manor-type houses. Such a house was separated from the street by a garden, lawns, paths. It stood in the depths of the space, fenced off from the street by a cast-iron or iron grating, only the wings of the outbuilding went out onto the street. Such manor houses of the XVIII century. Until now, Moscow has preserved a lot.
Next to them were the houses of other rich people - stone, elegant buildings with columns. There were up to 7-8 rooms - living rooms, a sofa room, a bedroom, an office, a nursery, a dining room, a dance hall. Here, too, there were furniture sets that came into fashion at that time, sofas and sofas. Gone were the benches and the rough-hewn tables. There were chairs, armchairs, elegant tables with curved legs, shelves for books. The walls were covered with wallpaper.
In the evenings, many Russian cities were illuminated by lanterns in which hemp oil burned. In the center of cities, as in St. Petersburg, paving stones were laid, and more often - wooden pavements.
There were city hospitals. Medical personnel were trained in hospital schools and medical-surgical schools. By the end of the century, a unified system of medical institutions for the population was created. In each provincial city, one doctor was to be in the service, and in county towns, one doctor. Pharmacies have opened. Of course, this was negligible and small for a vast and multi-million country. Hospitals were also built with private funds. After some time, rich people passed them on to the city.
Small Russian towns were more like large villages. In addition to two or three stone buildings, the rest of the houses were wooden. Unpaved streets overgrown with grass, puddles after rains, mud in autumn and spring became an integral part of such cities.
On the outskirts there were workers' barracks, where the alien working people of local manufactories, various artisans, lived. These were cramped, dirty, stuffy rooms with bunks instead of beds. Several dozen people sometimes lived in such a barrack in a common room. Families also lived here. Only later did the interiors of the barracks begin to be separated by partitions.
Cities and urban life with its innovations, of course, were of great importance for the general civilizational development of the country. Here, like nowhere else, the latest European achievements in architecture, education, enlightenment, lifestyle, clothing, food, recreation, and entertainment took root. United with old Russian traditions, customs and habits, they determined the main directions of life of the Russian population of the 18th century.
But this did not mean at all that innovations captured the whole country. On the contrary, they only emphasized the general stagnation, traditionalism, and poverty of Russian life.
A huge area of Russian life remained outside the urban civilization - the village, the village, the rural population. Here, as in the cities, there were great fluctuations in the conditions of life, the peculiarities of life. On the one hand, part of the rural population was the nobility. After the decree on the freedom of the nobility and the Letter of Complaint to the nobility, which freed the nobles from compulsory state and military service, a significant part of the nobles settled on their estates, took up farming, and began to arrange their rural life.
Of course, there were big differences between the representatives of the rural nobility. It's one thing - rich landowners, owners of tens of thousands of serf souls. These rich people had luxurious estates with magnificent houses built according to the designs of famous architects. Another thing is the small landowners, who had a dozen and a half serfs.
And yet, the main part of the nobility were middle-class landlords, owners of rural estates. Such Chnoryane were not separated from peasant life by an insurmountable wall. They constantly communicated with the peasants, courtyard people lived in their estates, servants from those peasants. Masters and servants were side by side for years, came into contact with the origins of the same folk culture, traditions, customs, beliefs, were treated by the same healers, drank the same infusions and steamed in the bathhouse with the same birch brooms. In addition, a significant part of the nobility, like Fonvizin's Mrs. Prostakova, was illiterate or semi-literate. Rural estates of such nobles were an integral part of Russian rural life.
The latest innovations in everyday life bypassed peasant life. Only a small part of the peasants fought out among the people. They built good, clean huts with Dutch ovens in the villages, used new household items (utensils and furniture), bought good-quality clothes and shoes, and diversified food.
The strengthening of the economic and military power of Russia during the period of Peter I, the military victories of Russia during the reign of Catherine II, led to the growth of the national self-consciousness of the Russian people and, as a result, to the rise of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. The dominant trend in Russian culture in the second half of the XVIII century. - early 19th century becomes classicism
. Its ideological basis was the struggle for a powerful national statehood and national culture.
Education. In the second half of the XVIII century. Catherine II carried out reforms in the sphere of administration, economy, class organization, and education. But Catherine II attached particular importance to the reform of education, since she understood that the success of social transformations depends on the level of enlightenment of the people, on their ability and desire to perceive the new.
Carrying out reforms in the field of education Catherine II instructed I.I. Betsky, his personal secretary and president of the Academy of Arts. In 1763, he presented to Catherine II a plan for school reform - "The General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth", which was based on the idea, popular in Europe, of "educating a new breed of people" who are free from vices, who then, through the family, will spread the principles of the new education to the whole society. According to the author's idea, a network of closed schools should be created in Russia, where Russian youth from 4-6 to 18-28 years old would be brought up in complete isolation from the bad influence of society. Schools were supposed to be estates. For all new educational institutions I.I. Betskoy developed special charters, according to which it was forbidden to beat and scold children, and the development of their natural qualities and inclinations, interest in learning was supposed to be encouraged.
As early as 1752, the Naval Noble Corps was opened for the children of the nobles. In 1759, the Corps of Pages was opened, preparing the nobles for court service. In 1764, the "Educational Society for Noble Maidens" was opened in St. Petersburg at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute) for 200 girls. It was the first women's educational institution in Russia for girls from noble families. The Smolny Institute enjoyed the special patronage of Catherine II and I.I. Betsky, high society nobles. In 1766, a reformed land gentry corps was opened for noble children.
For children of other classes, vocational schools were created with a secondary special educational course. In 1772, in Moscow, at the Orphanage, a Commercial School for the children of merchants and townspeople was opened at the expense of P.A. Demidov. In Moscow, the Catherine Institute was opened for girls from the families of merchants and philistines. Pedagogical schools were opened at the Smolny Institute (1765), the land gentry corps (1766). Orphanages were opened in Moscow (1764), St. Petersburg (1770) and other cities. A special educational program was developed to turn orphans into people who absorbed the best ideas of the Enlightenment.
In the second half of the XVIII century. the opening of vocational art schools continues. In 1757, the Academy of Arts was founded in St. Petersburg. The Academy became the first higher art institution in Russia, within the walls of which highly professional architects, sculptors, painters and graphic artists grew up. In 1773, the Ballet School was opened at the Moscow Orphanage.
Of great importance for the spread of education in Russia was the opening in 1755 of the country's first higher civilian educational institution - Moscow University. Its curator was the influential nobleman I.I. Shuvalov, but M.V. played a huge role in the opening of the university. Lomonosov. He developed a project for the organization of the university, he sought to ensure that the university was a classless and secular educational institution. In the first year of opening, Moscow University admitted students to three faculties: philosophy, law and medicine. The first students were predominantly from the Raznochinsk milieu. A special gymnasium was created at the university with two departments - one for the children of the nobles, the other for the children of merchants and commoners. After 4 years, the same gymnasium was opened in Kazan.
A qualitatively new fact in the development of education in Russia was the emergence of a general education school. Separately created educational institutions have not yet formed a system of public education. In 1772, by decree of Catherine II, a Commission was created on the establishment of schools, which included prominent teachers from Europe specially invited to Russia. The commission developed a plan for the creation of four-class schools in provincial towns and two-class schools in county towns. The curriculum included mathematics, history, geography, physics, architecture, Russian and foreign languages. As a result, the general education school system began to take shape in Russia. In 25 provincial cities, the main four-year schools were opened, approaching the type of high school. Small two-class schools were opened in county towns. For the first time, unified curricula were introduced in schools, a class-lesson system, teaching methods and disciplines were developed. Continuity in education was achieved by the common curricula of small schools and the first two classes of main schools.
By the end of the XVIII century. there were 550 educational institutions in the country with the number of students in 60-70 thousand people. So, in the second half of the eighteenth century. In Russia, a system of public education was created.
The emergence of new textbooks was important for the development of education. Professors of Moscow University and scientists of the Academy of Sciences took an active part in their writing. In 1757, "Russian Grammar" was published by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the already outdated grammar of M. Smotritsky as the main textbook on the Russian language. The great Russian scientist also wrote a textbook on mining "The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Mining". In the 60s. D. Anichkov, a student of Moscow University, compiled a textbook on mathematics, which retained the value of the main textbook on mathematics in schools until the end of the 18th century. In 1776, Professor of Moscow University H.A. Chebotarev wrote a textbook on geography. For a long time, in all schools and gymnasiums, the book "On the Positions of a Man and a Citizen", compiled by Catherine II and I.I. Betsky. The book popularly outlined the views of Western European enlighteners on such concepts as "soul", "virtue", the duties of a person in relation to God, society, the state, and his neighbors.
Book business. In connection with the spread of education in the second half of the XVIII century. public interest in the book is growing. In order to satisfy the demand for printed materials, in 1783 Catherine II issued a decree "On free printing houses", which for the first time granted everyone the right to start printing houses. Private printing houses were opened not only in the capitals, but also in provincial cities, however, during the struggle of Catherine II and Paul I with the penetration of the ideas of the French Revolution into Russia, all private printing houses were closed.
The subject of books changed, the number of original scientific and artistic publications increased. In 1768, in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of Catherine II, an "Assembly, trying to translate foreign books" was created. It was engaged in the translation and publication of the works of ancient classics, French enlighteners and operated until 1783. In 1773, the famous educator N.I. Novikov organized in St. Petersburg a "Society that strives to print books", but his activity was short-lived, since N.I. Novikov encountered great difficulties, primarily with the weak development of the book trade, especially in the provinces.
The main centers for publishing books and journals were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. The academic printing house printed mainly educational and scientific literature. On the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, the first Russian literary and scientific journal, Monthly Works for the Benefit and Amusement of Employees, began to be published (1755). The academic printing house also printed the first private journal, The Hardworking Bee (1759), which was published by A.P. Sumarokov.
In the second half of the XVIII century. Periodicals appeared not only in the capital cities, but also in provincial towns. In 1786, the magazine "Solitary Poshekhonets" began to be published in Yaroslavl, in 1788 in Tambov - the weekly provincial newspaper "Tambov News". Since 1789, the magazine "The Irtysh Turning into Hippocrene" has been published in Tobolsk.
A special role in the publication and distribution of books belonged to the outstanding Russian educator and public figure N.I. Novikov (1744-1818). N.I. Novikov, like other Russian educators, considered enlightenment to be the basis of social change, therefore, in the dissemination of enlightenment, he saw service to society. From 1779 to 1789 he rented the printing house of Moscow University, in which he published about a third of all the books published at that time in Russia (about 1000 titles). These were textbooks, magazines, political and philosophical treatises of Western European thinkers, collected works of Russian writers, works of folk art, Masonic literature.
N.I. Novikov contributed to the development of the book trade, especially in the provinces. At the end of the XVIII century. there were about 40 bookstores in Moscow and St. Petersburg, bookstores already existed in 17 provincial towns.
In the second half of the XVIII century. the number of libraries at universities, gymnasiums, closed educational institutions is growing. The library of the Academy of Sciences continued to work. In 1758, the library of the Academy of Arts was opened, in which not only students of the Academy, but also everyone who wished, could work.
In the 80s - 90s. 18th century the first public libraries appeared in some provincial cities (Tula, Kaluga, Irkutsk). Paid libraries appeared at bookstores in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
The science. In the second half of the XVIII century. The largest scientific centers in Russia were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. Brilliant professors S.E. Desnitsky, D.S. Anichkov, N.N. Popovsky, A.A. Barsov and many others.
The spread of education in Russia, the rapid development of world natural science contributed to the formation and development of Russian science. But the invited Germans dominated the Academy of Sciences in those years. German scientists prevented the advancement of Russian scientists, so the Russians were practically absent from the Academy of Sciences.
The first Russian scientist to become a full-fledged Russian professor at the Academy of Sciences was M.V. Lomonosov . He was born in 1711 in a remote Pomeranian village near Kholmogory. Already an adult young man, in 1730 Mikhail Lomonosov, having obtained an annual passport, went to distant Moscow with one of the fish convoys. There, hiding his origin, he enters the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Having successfully graduated from the Academy, Lomonosov, along with 11 other graduates, was sent in 1736 to take a course in science at the St. Petersburg Academy. Soon he was sent to Germany, to Marburg, to Professor Wolf, and then to Freiburg to the famous metallurgist, Professor Henkel. Five years spent abroad were for Lomonosov years of serious independent study. In June 1741 M.V. Lomonosov returns to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and becomes an associate professor of physics Kraft. In 1745 he was approved as a professor of chemistry and became a full member of the Academy. In 1748, overcoming the resistance of German scientists, he achieved the creation of a chemical laboratory. The circle of interests of M.V. Lomonosov as a scientist was enormous. He conducted research in the field of physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy and other sciences. M.V. Lomonosov was the creator of the atomic-molecular theory of the structure of matter, which served as a solid foundation for the further development of the fundamental natural sciences in the 18th century. In 1748, in a letter to L. Euler, he was the first in the world to formulate a general law of conservation of matter and motion, which is of great importance for understanding the entire process of the universe. In 1756, he carried out classical experiments that experimentally substantiated the law of conservation of matter, formulated an assumption that explained the phenomenon of heating of bodies as a consequence of the movement of particles. This ingenious conjecture was far ahead of its time. The great Russian scientist dealt a lot with issues related to the mysteries of the origin of the Universe, he owns the discovery of the atmosphere on Venus and a number of other important observations in the field of astronomy. He was a brilliant experimenter and inventor, an innovator in many areas of technology, mining, metallurgy, the production of porcelain and glass, salts and paints, construction equipment. His multifaceted talent also manifested itself in the humanitarian field. He was an outstanding poet and theoretician in matters of versification. His contribution to the formation of the Russian literary language is enormous. M.V. Lomonosov was fond of both the art of mosaics and the study of the history of the Motherland. The result of his works on history was the "Brief Russian Chronicler" and "Ancient Russian History" created by him. M.V. Lomonosov contributed to the promotion of national cadres of Russian science. The first professors of Moscow University N.N. Popovsky and A.A. Barsov were his students.
Academic expeditions of the 60s-70s were of great importance for the development of natural sciences. XVIII century. Academician P.S. Pallas undertook expeditions to the regions of the Volga, Urals, and Crimea. Academician I.I. Lepekhin explored the Ural region and the coast of the White Sea. Academician Falk studied the regions of Eastern Russia and the North Caucasus. Berdanes explored the Kyrgyz steppe, I.S. Georgi - Ural, Bashkiria, Altai, Baikal. Academician S.G. Gmelin studied the Don basin, the lower reaches of the Volga, and the shores of the Caspian. Scientist N.Ya. Ozertsovsky explored the north-west of Russia, V.F. Zuev - Black Sea and Crimea. The richest materials on zoology, botany, ethnography and archeology collected during these expeditions contributed to the scientific study of the nature and culture of the peoples of Russia. In 1745, the Atlas of the Russian Empire was published; this became a scientific event of world significance, since by the middle of the 18th century. only France had such an atlas. By the end of the century, the propaganda of geographical knowledge had increased significantly. In the 70s. The Geographical Lexicon of the Russian State was published, the first geographical dictionary in Russia. Geography has become a compulsory subject in all educational institutions.
The development of manufactory production contributed to the development of technical thought. In 1760, R. Glinkov invented a mechanical engine for spinning machines, which replaced the labor of 9 people. I.I. Polzunov(1728-1766) - a nugget, master of the Kolyvanovo - Voznesensky plant in Altai - for the first time put forward the idea of using steam power as an engine. In 1765 he designed the world's first universal steam engine. A few days before its launch, I.I. Polzunov died. The machine worked for several months, and only as a result of a minor breakdown it failed. Another self-taught mechanic - I.P. Kulibin(1735-1818) was an unsurpassed watchmaker. He created a clock that showed the seasons, months, hours, minutes, seconds, phases of the moon, sunrise and sunset times in St. Petersburg and Moscow. He also invented many original devices and instruments, improved glass polishing for optical instruments, and created a semaphore telegraph. But these inventions, like those of I.I. Kulibin, also did not have wide practical application.
Of the humanities, the greatest development in the XVIII century. received history. The main achievements of the historical thought of that time are associated with the activities of M.V. Lomonosov and V.N. Tatishchev. M.V. Lomonosov first raised the issue of the origin of the Slavs, highly appreciated their ancient culture. His "Brief Russian Chronicler" was the main textbook on history. Labor V.N. Tatishchev "Russian History" was the first experience of scientific coverage of national history. An important fact of Russian historiography of the XVIII century. were the historical works of M.M. Shcherbatov (1733-1790) and I.N. Boltin (1735-1792), which also attempted to give a general concept of Russian history. The increased attention to history was expressed in the spread of historical literature, the revival of interest in folk legends and songs, and the emergence of the historical theme in literature and art. This was an essential moment in the formation of national self-consciousness.
Journalism. The emergence of journalism is associated with Moscow University. Assessor of Moscow University, poet M.M. Kheraskov began to publish the first magazine in Russia, Useful Amusement. At the same time, professor of history of the university I. Reichel published the magazine "Collected Best Works", in which the talented playwright D.I. Fonvizin.
In the 60-70s of the XVIII century. in journalism, the satirical direction became widespread, to which Catherine II also contributed. In 1769, the Empress founded the satirical magazine Vsyakaya Vsyachina, the official editor of which was her Secretary of State G.V. Kozlovsky. She needed this publication in order to express her point of view on socially significant problems. In the journal, she published several articles in which she explained in an allegorical form the reason for the failures of the Legislative Commission. She also needed the magazine to ridicule various vices in the spirit of the ideas of the Enlightenment. This gave rise to a lively controversy in society about the role of satire in society - whether it should fight against abstract vices or against its specific carriers. The main opponent of the empress was N.I. Novikov. In the same years, he published his satirical publications Drone (1769-1770) and, especially, The Painter (1772-1773). In his satirical sketches, N.I. Novikov began to develop the peasant theme in Russian artistic culture, which turned out to be deep and fruitful. The pages of the magazines were full of sincere sympathy for the difficult and disenfranchised existence of the Russian peasant breadwinner. Even the epigraph to the magazine "Truten" - "They work, and you eat their work" - immediately attracted the attention of contemporaries. From now on, compassion for the poverty and distress of ordinary "village" will become the "eternal theme" of Russian journalism, as well as of all culture.
Socio-political thought. Second half of the 18th century characterized by the growth of Russian national identity. There is a growing interest in the society in the historical past of Russia, in the role and place of the Russian people in world history. Gradually, the main currents of Russian social and political thought began to take shape, finally formed in the 19th century.
Catherine II expressed an optimistic view of Russian history. In this matter, one of her main opponents was Prince M.M. Shcherbatov is a statesman and historian, the author of the multi-volume History of Russia and a number of journalistic works. He expressed his attitude to the surrounding reality in the pamphlet "On the Corruption of Morals in Russia", which was first published only in the middle of the 19th century. "Free Russian printing house" A.I. Herzen in London. For Shcherbatov XVIII century. - the time of a general decline in morals, to which he opposed the ideals of pre-Petrine Russia. In fact, M.M. Shcherbatov became the forerunner of the Slavophiles.
Another direction of Russian social thought in the second half of the XVIII century. became freemasonry- a religious and ethical movement that arose in England at the beginning of the 18th century. In Russia, the first Masonic lodges appeared in the 1730s. Freemasonry became most widespread in Russia in the middle of the 18th century, when the most prominent statesmen became members of Freemasonry - the Chernyshev brothers, the Panin brothers, R.I. Vorontsov and others. Masons were also the poets A.P. Sumarokov, M.M. Kheraskov, V.I. Maikov, architect V.I. Bazhenov and many others. Masons proclaimed the construction of a society of free people through self-purification and self-improvement, liberation from all class and national boundaries. In Russia, the practical activities of Freemasons were aimed at educating the people, which attracted famous people of that time to the ranks of Freemasons.
At first, Catherine II treated Freemasonry as a fashionable eccentricity that quickly passes. But in the 70s. Masons become disillusioned with the ideas of enlightenment, mystical knowledge begins to prevail in their spiritual quest; they believed that by discovering some mystical secret of the universe, it would be possible to accomplish what could not be done with the help of the mind. These new ideas, combined with the mysterious rites, attracted a fairly large number of adherents to Freemasonry. And then it became dangerous from the point of view of the authorities - after all, it was almost a new ideology with a religious connotation. After that, Catherine II decided to ban Masonic organizations in Russia.
An example for others was the fate of N.I. Novikov, who for many years in a leased by him since the late 70s. printing houses of Moscow University, in addition to books of an educational nature, printed a lot of Masonic publications. When in 1792 hundreds of copies of forbidden Masonic writings were found in his warehouses, N.I. Novikov was arrested and put on trial. Until the accession of Paul, he will be imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.
Another direction of Russian social thought of this time is associated with the name A. N. Radishcheva(1749-1802). It is generally accepted that the formation of a revolutionary ideology in Russia began with his socio-political views. Having been educated abroad and becoming a fan of the ideas of the Enlightenment, Radishchev gives them a radical character. Such views formed a resolute rejection of the existing order in the country and, above all, serfdom. In general, a critical attitude to reality, generated by the ideas of the Enlightenment, also developed in Europe, but there the bourgeoisie, fighting for its rights, became the bearer of the revolutionary ideology. Radishchev did not see differences in the historical development and position of Russia and Europe. It seemed to him that a revolutionary upheaval was able to solve all the problems of society and bring true freedom to the people. These ideas were expressed by Radishchev in his "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", published in "1790 (Radishchev printed the book in an edition of 600 copies, only 25 copies went on sale). The book aroused "great curiosity of the public." Catherine II , having familiarized herself with this work, she wrote on its margins: "... A rebel, worse than Pugachev. " The empress was outraged not by criticism of serfdom as such (she herself thought about its abolition), but precisely by a rebellion against the authorities, against her power. Radishchev argued, that things in the state are bad, that the people live much worse than she thought. Catherine was convinced that this was a lie and slander, and, no matter how bad serfdom was, her subjects simply could not be unhappy. By order of the empress, the edition of the book was confiscated, and its author was exiled to the Ilim jail (it was fully amnestied only in 1801 by Alexander I).
Thus, A.N. Radishchev was the first in Russia to connect the problem of the abolition of serfdom with the need to eliminate the autocracy.
Literature. Russian literature of the second half of the 18th century. was predominantly noble. Due to the specifics of working conditions, folk art was oral, it included such genres as songs, legends, satirical tales, humoresques. The satirical genre of folk art was extremely rich and varied. The stories "The Tale of the Princess Kiselikha", "The Tale of the Pakhrin Village of Kamkina", the soldier's satire "The Sad Tale", "The Petition of the Crimean Soldiers", etc., gained wide popularity among the people.
Noble literature developed in the genre of classicism. During this period, a new fiction was formed with a developed system of genres (ode, elegy, fable, tragedy, comedy, story, novel). The new system of versification and literary language became essential elements of this literature. First time principles syllabo-tonic versification formulated by the outstanding literary critic, historian, founder of Russian philology V.K. Trediakovsky (1703-1768). This system, which replaced the syllabic verse, is based on the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. It underlies Russian poetry to this day.
"The name of the founder and father of Russian literature", according to V.G. Belinsky, rightfully belongs to M.V. Lomonosov. Poetic creativity occupied a large place in the spiritual world of the great Russian scientist. As a result of the study of ancient, new Latin, German and French lyrics, M.V. Lomonosov approved in Russian poetry the poetic genres of European literature of that time: a religious-philosophical ode, solemn, etc.; an epic poem, a message, an idyll, an epigram, etc., as well as a variety of poetic meters. He created the theory of "three calms". M.V. Lomonosov taught Russian poets that "calm" can be "high, medium, low." In a high style should write speeches, odes, poems of heroic content. High syllable should be distinguished by pathos. Tragedies, satires, elegies are written in the "middle calm". In these genres M.V. Lomonosov allowed "sayings", common in the Russian language. Using such words, one should still "be careful not to sink into meanness." And, finally, in the works of the "low calm" - comedy, song, epigram, fable - "low common words" could be used "by consideration". In the original composition of the poem "Conversation with Anacreon" (late 50s - n. 60s of the XVIII century), the main features of Lomonosov's poetry are formulated: citizenship, patriotism, recognition of Russia's peaceful mission in modern politics, the poet's high self-esteem. Written in the spirit of the classic Roman tragedy Seneca, Lomonosov's plays "Tamira and Selim" and "Demofont" were an attempt to create a Russian tragedy. Lomonosov developed the four-foot and six-foot iambic verse, the classic ten-line odic stanza, precise and figurative language, which remained in Russian poetry for a long time. The personality of M.V. Lomonosov, his scientific and literary activities played a paramount role in the development of the consciousness of Russian society and left a deep mark on the history of Russian culture.
The founder of the new Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), poet and playwright. He came from an old noble family, studied at the land gentry corps, where he began to write poetry, imitating V.K. Trediakovsky. Poems by A.P. Sumarokov bear a strong stamp of M.V. Lomonosov, but soon the poet chooses a different genre that brought him popularity - love songs. From the songs of A.P. Sumarokov turned to love tragedies in verse. Before his first tragedies - "Khorev" (1747), "Hamlet" (1748), "Sinav and Truvor" (1750) - Russian dramaturgy lived in the traditions of the so-called. school drama of the 17th century. with its allegorical plots and conditionally mythological characters. A.P. Sumarokov, for the first time in the history of the Russian theater, combined love themes with social and philosophical issues. The appearance of tragedies served as a stimulus for the emergence of the Russian theater, the director of which was A.P. Sumarkov was in 1756-1761. In the late 50s - early 60s. Sumarokov writes fables directed against bureaucratic arbitrariness, bribery, and the inhuman treatment of landowners with serfs. In the 70s. he writes his best comedies - "Cuckold by Imagination", "Mother - Daughter's Companion", "Squawk" (all - 1772), and the tragedy "Dmitry the Pretender" (1771), "Mstislav" (1774). The works of Sumarokov contributed to the education of human dignity, humanism, high morality and honor. Being a supporter of serfdom, he criticized its extremes.
Creativity D.I. Fonvizin (1745-1792) laid the foundation for the accusatory-realistic direction of Russian literature. In his works, he criticized certain shortcomings of serfdom. In 1764 he composed his first comedy in verse, Korion. The action in it takes place in a village near Moscow and consists in presenting the sentimental story of lovers Korion and Xenovia, separated by misunderstanding and safely united in the finale. In the late 1760s, D.I. Fonvizin came up with the idea of the original Russian satirical comedy. The first example of this kind was his comedy "Foreman" (1766-69), in which ignorance, bribery, and servility to all foreign "noble class" were ridiculed. Fame and universal recognition Fonvizin brought the comedy "Undergrowth" (1779-1781). This is a "comedy of manners", depicting the domestic life of a wild and dark family of provincial landowners. In the center of the comedy is the image of Mrs. Prostakova, a tyrant and a despot in her own family and among her peasants. Her cruelty in dealing with others is compensated by unreasonable and ardent tenderness for her son Mitrofanushka, who, thanks to such maternal upbringing, grows up spoiled, rude, ignorant and completely unsuitable for any business. Prostakova is sure that she can do whatever she wants, because a decree was given on this "freedom of the nobility." Contrasted with her and her relatives, Starodum, Pravdin, Sofya and Milon believe that the freedom of a nobleman lies in the right to study and then serve society with his mind and knowledge, which justifies the nobility of the noble title. In the finale, retribution comes: Prostakova is estranged from her estate and abandoned by her own son.
The greatest poet of the end of the XVIII century. was G.R. Derzhavin(1743-1816). He created his own poetic style, which found the most vivid expression in the poems "Ode on the Death of Prince Meshchersky" (1779), "Ode to Felitsa" (1782), "God" (1784), "Autumn during the siege of Ochakov" (1788) , "Vision of Murza" (1789), "Waterfall" (1791-94), etc. The first "Ode to Felitsa", which established Derzhavin's poetic fame, evoked rave reviews from many contemporaries. It brilliantly reflected some of the important features that characterize the reign of Catherine II: the growth of Russian statehood, the heroism of military victories, national patriotism. Derzhavin's poetic innovation manifested itself in the destruction of the purity of the classic genre: he combined elements of ode and satire in one poem. The combination within one work of the themes of ode and satire led to a combination of "high" and "low" "calm". Derzhavin introduced elements of live colloquial speech into poetic language. He angrily condemned social vices, denounced high-ranking officials ("To the Rulers and Judges", 1780-87, "Velmozha", 1774-94). In the last years of his life, Derzhavin also turned to dramaturgy. Beginning in 1804, he wrote a number of tragedies and other plays ("Dobrynya", "Pozharsky", "Herod and Miriamne", "Evpraksia", etc.). From 1811 Derzhavin was a member of the literary society "Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word". Here he "noticed" the young A.S. Pushkin.
At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. in Russian literature is formed sentimentalism
,
marked by an emotional perception of the surrounding world, an increased interest in a particular person and his feelings. The hero of works of art was a simple man. The flowering of sentimentalism is associated with the work of N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) - Russian thinker, historian, poet. In 1792, his story "Poor Lisa" was published, which became one of the first works of Russian sentimental literature of the 18th century. The love story of the poor girl Lisa and the nobleman Erast found a wide response in the hearts of readers. For the first time in Russian literature, N.M. Karamzin showed a living person with his natural feelings and experiences. The expression "even peasant women know how to love" was perceived by the reader as the discovery of their own world of feelings and experiences, the ability to love and suffer.
Enlightenment at its core, the literature of the 18th century carried a humanistic and satirical beginning. But at the same time, meeting the requirements of the era, the literature of Russian classicism created the image of a new person - a patriot and citizen. It contributed to the assertion of the extra-class value of a person and resolutely fought against the cruelties of serfdom.
Theatre. Mid 18th century - an important stage in the development of the national theatre. In 1756, the first Russian professional drama theater was created in St. Petersburg, based on a troupe of Yaroslavl actors headed by F.G. Volkov(1729-1763). F.G. Volkov was born into a wealthy merchant family in Yaroslavl. The hopes of his relatives to involve him in the merchant business did not come true, since he lived from a young age with the idea of the theater. In 1750 F.G. in Yaroslavl, Volkov organized an amateur drama troupe. The performances of the troupe were so successful that the rumor about its success reached the capital. In 1752, Yaroslavl residents were summoned to St. Petersburg to organize a Russian public theater. In 1756, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna issued a decree on the creation of the Russian Public Theater, which included a significant part of the troupe of F.G. Volkov. In this theater F.G. Volkov held the position of the first tragedian. The famous poet and playwright A.P. became the first director of this theater. Sumarokov. Inspirational play by F.G. Volkova captivated the audience, but his life was short-lived: having caught a cold in the bitter February frost during a masquerade procession on the occasion of the coronation of Catherine II, he died in 1763 at the age of 34.
In the second half of the XVIII century. in St. Petersburg there were free, amateur and serf theaters. Widely known were the imperial theater, the theater of the "small court" (Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich), the school theater at the land gentry corps, the theaters of the Academy of Arts, the Institute of Noble Maidens. In 1779, a private theater arose on the Tsaritsyn meadow (Marsovo field), which was directed by the poet I.A. Dmitrievsky. On the stage of this theater, the plays of D.I. Fonvizin. The theater did not last long: in 1783 it was closed by decree of Catherine II. Italian, German and French troupes continued to flourish in the northern capital.
In Moscow, regular theatrical performances were performed at the university by the Italian troupe of D. Locatelli. The theater was run by the director of the Moscow University M. M. Kheraskov, who himself wrote plays for him. Russian actors were also invited to the theater; among them were university students. It was in this theater that he began his career as an actor (for acting in Russian plays they were recruited from students), later the famous playwright and writer D.I. Fonvizin. In 1780, the Petrovsky Theater was opened, the repertoire of which included drama, opera and ballet performances. Theater troupes existed in the capitals, some provincial cities.
A peculiar phenomenon of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. was fortress theater. Dramatic and opera performances were successfully staged in the serf theaters of A.L. Naryshkina, N.S. Titova, G.A. Potemkin, the Yusupovs, the Shuvalovs. Some of the fortress theaters, for example, Count N.P. Sheremetev in Ostankino, Prince N.B. Yusupov in Arkhangelsk, were widely known among theater lovers. Many talented actors and musicians performed on the fortress stage; P.I. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova (1768-1803).
Music. In the second half of the XVIII century. The musical life of Russia has changed dramatically. Having retained its original appearance, it has become more European. Choral partes singing is in decline. This was due to the appearance in Russia of highly educated Italian musicians who brought the genre of secular music to Russia.
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. in Russian song culture, a folk song has taken a firm place, having adherents in all sectors of society. About this time, the poet G.R. Derzhavin said: "The age was of songs." In everyday life, songs were sung "common people", "bookish", Russian, gypsy, peasant, urban, amateur and professional, "Russian" and imported from the West.
At the end of the XVIII century. a genre appeared chamber lyrical song (romance), the text of which is usually borrowed from Russian poetry. The heyday of this genre is associated with the work of two remarkable Russian musicians - F.M. Dubyansky and O.A. Kozlovsky. F.M. Dubyansky entered the history of Russian art as the author of only six romances, but which are the pinnacles of this genre. His romances are a world of intimate experiences, combining sophistication and open emotionality, which was then highly valued by song lovers. F.M. Dubyansky "woke up famous" after the sentimental romance he composed "The Dove Dove Moans" to the verses of I.I. Dmitrieva:
The blue dove groans;
He groans day and night;
His cute little friend
Flew away for a long time.
He no longer cries
And the wheat does not peck;
Everything is sad and sad
And quietly sheds tears.
"Dove Dove" is sung in Russia to this day.
O.A. Kozlovsky was the author of symphonic, theatrical, chamber music, marches. A Pole by nationality, he came to Russia as a young man, and in Russia his talent as a musician was fully revealed. The composer participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. and rose to the rank of prime minister. Loud fame O.A. Kozlovsky was brought a polonaise "The thunder of victory, resound!" to verses by G.R. Derzhavin dedicated to the capture of the Turkish fortress Izmail by Russian troops in 1789. Before the appearance of the official Russian national anthem "God Save the Tsar!" in 1833 the polonaise was sung as the national anthem. The composer also wrote music to poems by famous poets of that time - A.P. Sumarokova, Yu.A. Neleditsky-Meletsky, G.R. Derzhavin. Exaggerated pathos, excessive sentimentality of his music were in great demand at that time.
Opera becomes the leading musical genre. The theatrical repertoire was dominated by comic opera - a special genre, an opera with dialogue, where vocal numbers are interspersed with conversations of the characters. Serfs, offended by their landowners, evil and kind nobles, cunning millers, naive and beautiful girls acted in operas. The most beloved musical comedy of the 18th century. became the opera M.M. Sokolovsky on the text of the writer A.O. Ablesimov "Melnik - a sorcerer, a deceiver and a matchmaker" (posted in 1779 in Moscow, then in St. Petersburg). The plot of "The Miller ..." is entertaining and simple. The characters of the play are the clever and cunning miller Thaddeus, the naive girl Anyuta, the ever-quarreling peasant couple Ankudin and Fetinya, and the handsome country boy Filimon. Melnik - the main character of the opera - was really a rogue. He pretended to be an all-powerful sorcerer and completely confused the head of his ingenuous neighbors. But it all ends with a merry wedding of Anyuta and her fiancé Filimon. The music of the opera was composed by M. M. Sokolovsky from Russian songs; it is assumed that from 1792 the opera was performed with music by E. I. Fomin. Also popular was the opera by V.A. Pashkevich to the words of M.A. Matinsky "St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor, or As you live, so you will be known" (1792).
In the last third of the 18th century, the Russian composer school was born: Russian musicians created an independent professional tradition that became an integral part of European artistic culture. Its formation is associated with the names of M.S. Berezovsky, V.A. Pashkevich and I.E. Khandoshkin.
During the reign of Catherine II, Russian choral music began to develop in a secular direction. At the origins of the new style of choral music was M.S. Berezovsky(1745-1777). The pinnacle of his creative quest was the famous to this day concert "Do not reject me in old age", created in the second half of the 70s. The work was based on the text of the 70th Psalm of David from the Old Testament "Psalter": "Do not reject me in times of hardship; when my strength fails, do not leave me ... Let them be ashamed and disappear who are at war against my soul; let them be covered with shame and dishonor who seek I'm angry." The pathos of this psalm is timeless. The pathos of prayer found its perfect embodiment in the four movements of Berezovsky's concerto. The main feature of the concert is that in all four parts of the concert, the general thought is "do not reject me ..", a request is a prayer that appeals to the Almighty. And this was the enormous emotional power of the impact of this work. With the creation of this work, M.S. Berezovsky reached the pinnacle of perfection, knew success and glory. Among his other famous choral concerts are "The Lord reigns!", "In the beginning, you, Lord!", May God rise again!, etc.
V.A. Pashkevich(1742-1797) - one of the first Russian opera composers. His first Russian opera "Misfortune from the Carriage" to the text by Ya.B. Princess. The plot of the opera had an anti-serf meaning: in order to buy a fashionable carriage, the landowner wanted to sell his serf as a recruit. Composers of comic operas have always had a problem: which lines of the libretto should be set to music and which lines should be kept for the conversational dialogues of the characters. V.A. Pashkevich found a simple but effective principle of correlation between music and conversational genres. With this opera, the national musical theater was born. The best work of Pashkevich is the opera "St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor" (another name is "As you live, so you will be known", 1792) based on the comedy by M.M. Matinsky. This is the first opera in which the life of the merchants is shown. The mores of this environment did not cause much sympathy for Matinsky, who described such vices as greed, a tendency to deceive and cheat, malice and betrayal. The essence of the plot is as follows: the merchant Skvalygin marries his daughter Khavronya to the official Kryuchkodey. Together with his future son-in-law, he embarks on all sorts of fraud - forges business papers, deceives people. Negative characters are contrasted with positive ones: merchant Khvalimov, officer Pryamikov. In the end, the tricks of Skvalygin and Kryuchkodey are exposed, justice triumphs. V.A. Pashkevich also stood at the origins of the development of Russian national symphonic music. He was one of the first to try in the orchestral music of his operas to embody the original sound of Russian folk instruments - horns, pipes, balalaikas, gusli.
I.E. Khandoshkin(1747 - 1804) - "Russian Paganini" - known as a violinist with unique technical data, as an outstanding composer and teacher, as a conductor and collector of folk songs. His creative heritage includes dozens of works. His father was a serf, but, having received freedom, in 1740 he settled in St. Petersburg. At the age of 13, he was enrolled in the Oranienbaum orchestra as a violinist student, then transferred to the court troupe of musicians. Since 1762 I.E. Khandoshkin is appointed head of the court ballet orchestra. 70-80s — the period of the most intensive performing activity. All his life he was devoted to one instrument - the violin. During these years he wrote his first compositions. His performing technique was very high; there was no violinist equal to him at that time. I.E. Khandoshkin managed to bring elements of technology into his performance, coming from national instrumental traditions. He writes a grandiose cycle of 40 variations on the theme of the folk "Kalinushka", during the performance of which he shows a wide variety of performing techniques. In his music, for the first time, there was an organic fusion of the European instrumental language and Russian folklore.
Another major composer of the late XVIII - the first quarter of the XIX century. was D.S. Bortnyansky(1751-1825). The development of church music is associated with his name. He was born in the town of Glukhov, from where the court chapel drew young replenishment. At the age of 7 he came to St. Petersburg and was given up for education in the Court Singing Chapel. Empress Elizaveta Petrovna herself drew attention to the talented boy, and at the age of 17 he went as a pensioner to Italy, where he stayed for 10 years. He wrote operas, sonatas and cantatas. Upon arrival in Russia, he was appointed bandmaster of the court choir. 80s - genuine creativity. In the reign of Emperor Pavel Petrovich, in 1796, B. was made director of the court choir. The main achievements of D.S. Bortnyansky are associated with choral polyphonic church music. He went the way of musical classicism. The court chapel was staffed by the best voices of Russia, choral performance conducted by D.S. Bortnyansky was brought to the perfection of performance. The main thing is D.S. Bortnyansky vigorously opposed the licentiousness of singing that reigned in Orthodox churches, when arias from Italian operas were introduced into church singing. He established order in church singing. His music does not contain those spectacular and artificial devices that could entertain the worshiper.
The composer's musical legacy includes 35 concertos for four-part choirs and 10 concertos for two choirs. The composer's works amaze with a variety of feelings and moods. There are solemn, festive, majestic and epic concerts. The most poetic is concert N 25 "We will never be silent", concert N 32 "Tell me, Lord, my death", N 7 "Cherubic". He also writes the opera "The Feast of the Seigneur" to the libretto of Count G.I. Chernyshev, "The Falcon" to the libretto by Lafermière, his best opera "Rival Son, or New Stratonic" to the text by Lafermière. Widely known was his song "The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors" to the words of V.A. Zhukovsky.
Music D.S. Bortnyansky had a huge impact on the formation of the Russian musical school, on the work of composers throughout the 19th century.
One of the main signs of the musical life of Russia was public concerts. In St. Petersburg they have been held regularly since the 70s, and in the 80s the real flowering of concert life began. Virtuosi with well-known European names performed on the stage - Abbot Vogler, pianist I.V. Gesler, singer L.R. Toddy, harpsichordist J.G.W. Palshau and many other famous musicians.
And yet, the main source of the formation of the musical tastes of Russians was home music-making. They played a lot and willingly in country estates, in St. Petersburg high-society salons, and in modest city apartments.
Ballet. By the middle of the XVIII century. ballet won great fame in Europe. The ballet troupe of the French royal court was famous, the royal courts of Europe and the European aristocracy aspired to have ballet troupes. Numerous dancers and dance teachers easily found work. The women's ballet costume became much lighter and freer, the lines of the body were guessed under it. Dancers abandoned shoes with heels, replacing them with light heelless shoes. The men's costume also became less cumbersome: tight-fitting pantaloons to the knees and stockings also made it possible to see the figure of the dancer. Each innovation made dances more meaningful, and dance technique higher. By the middle of the XVIII century. in Europe, ballet gradually separated from opera and became an independent art. In Europe, the French ballet school was famous for its grace and plasticity, but it was characterized by a certain coldness, formality of performance. Therefore, choreographers and artists were looking for new means of expression.
In Russia since the first half of the XVIII century. ballet was inculcated by choreographers and dance teachers from Austria, Italy and France. In 1759-1764. the famous choreographers Austrian F. Hilferding (1710–1768) and Italian G. Angiolini (1731–1803) worked in Russia. They staged ballets on mythological subjects. In particular, in 1772 the ballet "Semira" was staged based on the tragedy of the Russian writer A.P. Sumarokov. Possessing its rich dance folklore, Russia turned out to be a very fertile ground for the development of the ballet theater. Comprehending the science taught by foreigners, the Russians, in turn, introduced their own intonations into the foreign dance. Interest in ballet was constantly growing. The first ballet school in Russia was opened in St. Petersburg in 1738. In 1773, a ballet department was opened in the Moscow Orphanage - the forerunner and foundation of the Moscow Choreographic School. One of his first teachers and choreographers was the Austrian L. Paradis. It should be noted that the Moscow troupe, created as a public one, was more democratic and independent than the official St. Petersburg troupe. Since then, two schools began to take shape in the fatherland of ballet art: Petersburg- imperial, strict, academic, and Moscow- more democratic, poetic, committed to comedy and genre ballets. These differences exist to this day. St. Petersburg ballet is distinguished by classical rigor and academicism, while Moscow ballet is distinguished by bravura, powerful leaps, and athleticism. In 1776, an opera and ballet entreprise (Petrovsky Theater) of Prince P. V. Urusov and his English companion M. G. Medox was opened in Moscow, which later became the basis for the creation of the ballet troupe of the Bolshoi Theater .
In St. Petersburg, the first public Bolshoi Theater (Stone), later the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, opened in 1783. In 1803, his ballet troupe separated from the opera, taking a privileged position among other theater genres.
In the second half of the XVIII century. Russian ballet developed in the general mainstream of the theater of classicism. The ideal of the aesthetics of classicism was "ennobled nature", and the norm of a work of art was strict proportion, expressed in the form of three unities - place, time and action. Within these normative requirements, the center of action became a person, his fate, his actions and experiences, dedicated to one goal, marked by a single all-consuming passion. The genre of heroic-tragedy ballet corresponded to the basic principles of classicism. In the second half of the XVIII century. in St. Petersburg, ballets were staged by the Austrian F. Hilferding, the Italians G. Canziani, G. Angiolini. These performances, with their sharp conflicts and detailed action, were
new on the Russian scene. But the most famous choreographer was the Italian J. Solomonini, who worked in Vienna with J. Nover himself - an innovative French choreographer who replaced the "divertissement" ballet with an "effective" ballet with a clearly defined plot, with specially written music, with a harmonious composition of dances . On the Russian stage, Solomonini promoted Nover's ballets. In particular, in 1800, at the Petrovsky Theater, he staged Nover's ballet Medea and Jason. In the same year, he staged his own production of "Vain Precaution" in the choreography of J. Dauberval (was called "The Deceived Old Woman", 1800).
By the end of the XVIII century. serf troupes appeared in the estates of the Sheremetevs (Kuskovo, Ostankino), Yusupovs (Arkhangelskoye) and others near Moscow. By that time, St. Petersburg and Moscow had court and public theaters. Major foreign composers, choreographers (the Italians F. Morelli, P. Pinyuchi, J. Solomoni, and others) and foreign performers worked in them. But there were already wonderful Russian dancers - A. S. Sergeeva, V. M. Mikhailova, T. S. Bublikov, G. I. Raikov, N. P. Berilova.
We invite you to read the article by Jan Kusber "What knowledge does a nobleman need for life? Provincial and metropolitan educational discourses of the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries." The article tells about the preferences of the capital and provincial Russian nobility in the field of education in the second half of the 18th century.
Jan Kusber. What knowledge does a nobleman need for life? Provincial and metropolitan educational discourses of the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries
The history of the Russian nobility has long been a description of its backwardness 1 . The executive editors of this collection refer to Mark Raeff, who more than four decades ago believed that the nobility of the Russian Empire was unable to form an estate that would define itself through common rights and group identity 2 . One might add: unable, unlike the noble societies in Western and Central Europe. Of course, in other regions and states of Europe, the nobility was diverse and heterogeneous. Nevertheless, the history of the nobility in the Russian Empire is described as a history of shortcomings. Research in line with this tradition is unlikely to bring new discoveries. The “path to the provinces” and the look at regional life-worlds (Lebenswelten) with their significant differences in the economic sphere, cultural practices, with ethnic striping, while simultaneously forming imperial identities, is undoubtedly an alternative to the often used interpretive clichés 3 .
Interest or immunity to education?
The view of M. Raeff, presented in his review work, was not focused on the "province". In turn, the concept of “province”, although associated with a certain image, is difficult to unambiguously define. Involuntarily, an idyll far from reality appears, called by Ivan Alexandrovich Goncharov Oblomovka, and in the novel Besy by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, it is a place of conflict, the deep roots of which Raeff also explored in his works. Nevertheless, we are dealing with an imaginary province of the 19th century, the image of which is transferred by Raeff to the 18th century. For the 18th century, "province" is an even more vague concept. At a time when, as a result of Peter the Great's reforms and the transfer of the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg, new values and norms were being established and a geographically new center of the empire was being created 4 , the problem of the "province" manifested itself more clearly 5 . At the end of the 18th century, a stay in Moscow for "nobles" could already be associated with a stay in the provinces 6 . However, with the help of the "center-periphery" model, it is hardly possible to get closer to understanding the phenomenon of the province, especially if it is viewed through the prism of life worlds.
Raeff connects the emergence of the so-called intelligentsia in Russia with the problem of a powerful state and a passive society. Its hallmarks were both erudition and opposition to the state. At the same time, Raeff speaks of a certain distancing of the nobility from education in the 18th century 7 . In order to fulfill its multiplying tasks in the second half of the century, the state needed officials integrated into the Table of Ranks. For their official and social promotion, as well as for the qualified performance of official duties, it was required, according to Catherine II and - in the reign of Alexander I - Mikhail Mikhailovich
Speransky 8, relevant education. The fact that the nobility, and especially the provincial nobility, even in the 19th century looked at it differently, or rather, had their own idea of what knowledge they need for service and what education corresponds to noble life, Susanne Schattenberg clearly showed in her recently published study. 9 .
Shattenberg analyzes the autobiographies of government officials of the first half of the 19th century, who felt their backwardness against the backdrop of the Great Reforms and felt the need to reflect on their service career. The researcher managed to create a collective biography by reconstructing the self-awareness of noble officials: the decisive role for them is played by the “sense of honor” of a representative of the authorities in the province, the chances of promotion, ideas about the need for education to perform the service. The generational factor was also of key importance: the earlier the memoirs were written, the more clearly they reflected the officials' satisfaction with their service. Shattenberg managed to revive the society of the Russian provinces of those years. The hopes and fears, the way of thinking and the life worlds of her protagonists become tangible.
Here one should return to the starting point - the era called by Reinhart Koselleck "the turning point" (Sattelzeit), the threshold of epochs, which fell on the century between 1750 and 1850 10 - and ask how the nobility imagined education in the second half of the 18th century . What knowledge, from his point of view, was necessary and how could it be acquired? In this case, one should take into account the difference between the benefits for the service and the ideas of the nobles about themselves. The fundamental interest of the state in the 18th century, especially in the context of the policy of Catherine II, was to attract the nobility to the service. Legislation went towards the nobility, whose fragmentation it had previously contributed to. On the one hand, compulsory service was abolished, and on the other hand, in the Letter of Complaint to the Nobility of 1785, the rights and privileges of the nobility were consolidated and expanded.
Thus, the state tried to support the interest of the nobles in voluntary service, which was an economic necessity for many of them. All this has repeatedly become the subject of research and discussion. For a long time in historiography, in relation to the province, the characterization of Dietrich Geier dominated, designating it with the formula "society as a state institution" 11 . Studies based on cultural-historical concepts and studying both the political sphere and the communicative spaces within which the search for compromises was made showed not only the simplification of Guyer's assessment, but also the futility of the search for a local society in the 18th century. These searches were concentrated in the sphere of meetings of the nobility or the work of orders of public charity 12, limited to a certain extent by descriptions of gaps and shortcomings that played into the hands of the old paradigm of backwardness. Nevertheless, it seems appropriate to me in this connection to refer to the "special temporal dimension" of Russian history 13 .
On the other hand, not only historians who studied the Russian nobility of the 18th century used diachronic and synchronous comparisons, but contemporaries themselves resorted to them. They looked at their life worlds and tried to determine what was required of them in changing conditions and what noble life should look like. In doing so, they turned their gaze back to the history of their families, to the region in which they lived and where their estates were located. Going to war or to the imperial court, they compared their former surroundings with the new spaces, landscapes and ways of life that they were introduced to in new circumstances. However, even knowing only by hearsay about the life of the nobility in St. Petersburg or Moscow, they compared information - rumors, orders, manifestos - in order to integrate them into their everyday life. Focusing on the theoretical provisions of cultural history, which emphasizes that communication is a process of finding a compromise and a form of representation, this process can be attributed to the fundamental constants of human activity.
Dialogue between the autocracy and the nobility about the benefits and needs of education
Historiographers have repeatedly addressed the problems of sustainability of traditions in the noble way of life throughout the 18th century. The challenge of the state to these traditions and the need to somehow respond to it, which arose among the provincial nobility, became apparent at the latest with the convening of Catherine's Legislative Commission. Now, unlike the time of Peter the Great, the nobles were gathered and listened to. The “dialogue” entered into by the empress 14 was by no means conducted by her unilaterally, and historians should be interested in the ways of representing noble self-consciousness presented in its course. The same applies to the discourses of education of the nobility, which were almost simultaneously formulated by the empress and the capital's nobles close to the imperial court 15 .
Nevertheless, if we ask ourselves what place education and training occupied in the reflections of the provincial nobility in the second half of the 18th century about what the personal education of a nobleman should look like, then, as a first approximation, the answer can be found in the instructions received by the deputies of the Commission on the drafting of a new Code. . The orders of the local elites were a reaction to the Great Order of Catherine II, and the issue of education, in comparison with other thematic complexes, was not central in them.
It is hardly possible to determine to what extent the elected deputies were familiar with the Great Order of Catherine II and who in general in the Russian Empire had an idea about it. Although in 1767 the Empress ordered that her Grand Order be sent to all the provinces and read aloud on certain days 16 (a procedure that was also practiced for other decrees), we do not know anything at the moment about the implementation of this order in the province. Nevertheless, it can be argued that a certain reception took place: the deputies sent to the Commission received instructions from their constituents, in which fears, complaints and wishes were formulated. Some of the orders contained direct references to certain sections from the Order of the Empress.
In general, the deputies of the Commission had more than 1,600 orders at their disposal - and these are only those that we know about. There is no complete critical edition of the orders. Education issues were closely considered in about 80 orders, which indicates the low importance of this topic compared to other problems. It is not surprising, given the numerical superiority of the nobles in the Commission, that the topic of upbringing and education figured primarily in the orders of the noble deputies. In total, 223 representatives of the nobility were elected to the Commission, followed by 168 representatives of the merchant class, 42 representatives of single-dvorets, 20 representatives of state peasants - the last two groups were given the right to represent more than 90 percent of the population of the Russian Empire belonging to the agrarian sector of the economy (excluding serfs ). The Commission also included 42 deputies from foreigners - non-Russian peoples of the Volga region and Siberia, 35 representatives from the Cossacks and 29 representatives from central state institutions. In addition, it is striking that 35 representatives from a large group of raznochintsy participated in the Commission. The clergy were represented by only two bishops who were members of the Synod 17 .
Along with the Commission itself, which received serious attention in the literature, deputy orders were often considered in historiography as sources on the social history and cultural history of the Russian Empire. The central themes of these studies were primarily questions about the role of the nobility and townspeople in the economy and public administration, as well as the relationship between landowners and peasants, considered mainly retrospectively in connection with the abolition of serfdom in 1861 18 . The Empress almost completely excluded the problems of serfdom from the Great Punishment, thus denoting the undesirability of discussing this topic within the framework of the Commission. However, the deputies constantly turned to her in their discussions. Against the background of other topics considered worthy of research, the issue of education has so far been touched upon only in an article by Maya Dmitrievna Kurmacheva 19 . Following the tradition of Soviet historiography, the author believes, in particular, that the nobility, as a reactionary ruling class, sought to block the discussion of the issue of access to education for the sake of their estate privileges.
Deputies sometimes received several mandates. However, the composition of the deputies clearly shows that the number of orders from the nobility significantly exceeded the number of orders from the townspeople, despite regional differences in the deputies.
Despite occasional references to the lack of educational facilities, the topic of education has been discussed in other contexts. 25 orders for noble deputies contain indications that some nobles could not even sign the order itself, since they could neither read nor write 20 . Even greater was probably the number of those for whom the commissioners signed, or the so-called functional illiterates, that is, those who could only write their own names 21 . At the same time, in the orders of the nobility, the importance of education, training and upbringing was not questioned, on the contrary, their necessity and validity were recognized. However, opinions differed on the question of the forms of future educational institutions and the content of education. The orders of the Pskov nobility expressed optimism with regard to education, which was not inferior in its pathos to the projects of the enlighteners and Ivan Ivanovich Betsky, who compiled for Catherine the most advanced training and education plans for that era, which were then published and accessible to contemporaries 22. The Pskov nobility expressed a desire to establish gymnasiums in every city at the expense of the nobles themselves. In such an institution, children of the nobility would receive, despite all the costs, education that would stimulate them to further military or civil service as "kind and enlightened people." As a result, "knowledge would develop in Russia in a very short time" 23 and would compensate for its backwardness in the field of education. The demand of the Pskov nobles to open gymnasiums as secondary schools can be explained by their proximity to the Baltic provinces, which, although they belonged to the Russian Empire after the Peace of Nystadt (1721), had different educational traditions. Gymnasiums already existed here in all the big cities, so the Baltic deputies, for example, the Livonian nobles, insisted on opening new ones.
On the whole, it can be confidently asserted that the cadet corps in St. Petersburg was the role model in the eyes of the nobility 25 . What was previously evidenced by the increased demand and the increase in the number of cadet pupils (also in comparison with other corps), was now expressed openly. So, for example, the Moscow nobility, instructing their deputy Pyotr Ivanovich Panin, announced their desire to have not only a cadet corps, as in St. Petersburg, but also a closed state educational institution for young noblewomen 26 following the example of the Smolny Institute. This order remained, however, the only one of its kind. If we trace how the nobility's mandates were territorially distributed, in which education was mentioned in one context or another, it turns out that Moscow and Little Russian provinces predominated among them 27 . In their orders, the nobles of these regions cited general arguments consistent with state interests, and also appealed to local traditions. The order from Sumy emphasized that the creation of educational institutions not only for children of the nobility, but also for children from other classes would benefit the fatherland: ignorance, moral corruption, superstition and schisms (!) - all these phenomena dangerous for people would disappear 28. Education for the benefit of the state as a whole and for the benefit of each individual person was intertwined into a single whole. The schism mentioned in the order, which, in all likelihood, meant confessional striped stripes in the Ukrainian regions, remained without explanation. Enlightenment rhetoric was accompanied by a condemnation of the negative qualities of an uneducated person. The compilers of the mandate from Akhtyrka demanded that the Kharkov collegium, which adopted the Jesuit-Latin educational tradition of the Kyiv Academy, not only teach the children of the local nobility, but also expand the educational disciplines at the expense of civil and military subjects 29 . Orders from the Ukrainian regions expressed not only the desire to have local schools for the nobles who did not have the means for expensive private or public education 30 , but also a demand to open a university. The nobility of Nezhin and Baturin suggested establishing a university in the very region where Kirill Grigoryevich Razumovsky and Grigory Nikolayevich Teplov were already planning to open it 31 . The need for higher education was justified by the need to apply the achievements of science in public administration. In modern terms, the nobles of Nizhyn and Baturin derived their argument from the fruitful combination of science and teaching. In addition, they used the key concepts of educational discourse: the need to improve morality and explain to the younger generation that without education there can be no brave soldier, wise state official, fair judge and prudent head of the family 32 .
Unequivocal in the orders of the nobility was the requirement to establish exclusive noble educational institutions not only in the form of buildings, but also in the form of local schools, which, as indicated in the order of the Kaluga nobility, should be subordinated to the noble courts 33 . Financing of education was proposed both at the expense of own funds and at the expense of the state 34 . The content of the proposed educational programs depended on the ideas of the compilers of orders. In cases where the authors were guided by the ideals of universal education, as can be seen, for example, in some orders from the Moscow province or Ukraine, preference (if the educational canon was signed at all) was given to a curriculum that was close to the program of the cadet corps and made it possible to study in it in further. It was about languages, arithmetic, geography and geometry, as well as fencing and dancing 35 . Other mandates included items needed to attend a university or study abroad 36 . Proposals were often made, according to which the acquired knowledge should have ensured immediate entry into the service, at least in the officer rank. Such proposals were taken into account by educational institutions already operating by that time. However, here education, intended, according to thought, to move up the social ladder 37, acquired, due to the class exclusivity of the proposed educational institutions, the function of a social barrier that protected the noble class from "upstarts".
The heterogeneity of ideas was manifested in the question of which groups of the population could, in the opinion of the nobility, have access to education. In the orders of the Serpukhov nobility, it was about schools for the nobility, as well as for clerks and merchant children, who were to be taught at least arithmetic, geometry, German and French 38 . The Sumy nobles mentioned above spoke in favor of creating separate educational institutions for children of non-noble origin, by analogy with schools that already existed in other cities. The educational institutions of Moscow University 39 were specially mentioned, which testifies to the recognition of the university and its gymnasium as educational institutions for children of non-noble origin.
Convinced supporters of the establishment of peasant schools in the ranks of the nobility of the Dmitrovsky district. Their order stated that it was necessary to convince the landlords to finance one teacher for every 100 households in order to teach peasant children to read, write and count, from which the landowners themselves would ultimately benefit - including in terms of social discipline 40 . The question of the social affiliation of teachers was not specifically discussed. It is obvious that the clergy were represented in their role, which was unequivocally mentioned in the order of the Yamburg nobility of the St. Petersburg province: it was proposed to organize schools for peasant children at churches 41 . I note that the establishment of such schools on a voluntary basis was already planned in the Spiritual Regulations of Peter I in 1721. Similar proposals were also contained in the orders of the Krapivensky and Pskov nobles, who at the same time paid attention to the fact that the representatives of the clergy did not have the prerequisites for giving a good education. Before the clergy begin to teach elementary knowledge to peasant children, they should become good teachers 42 . This "snapshot" shows that in most cases, the provincial nobility was interested in exclusive estate educational institutions.
If we take into account the number of orders of the nobility in which the issue of education (for one's own or other social groups) was not raised at all and where even general ideas about the school system did not appear, it becomes obvious that the government received from the nobility specific considerations and wishes for its legislative activities, but among them there were no innovative ideas.
Of course, this was due to the fact that at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, education and educational ideals as special topics were presented in provincial discourses to a lesser extent than in the capital. Initiatives have already arisen in the capitals that have become the result of the reception of enlightenment ideals and aimed at overcoming class barriers in education. Plan I.I. Betsky, which provided for the upbringing of "children of both sexes", was ambitious and utopian in its goals 43 . In practice, it turned out to be unrealizable, as the experience of the institutions of social security and education led by him showed. It can be assumed that by inviting the provincial nobility to participate in the work of the Commission, Catherine set the bar too high. The terminology, as the work of Ingrid Schirle 44 and others has shown, was new in many respects, and with it (even if not in all cases) the content was also new. In this regard, the work of the Commission also meant a search for mutual understanding as to who speaks about what and in what connection. Thus, in the dialogue between the empress and the noble society there were elements of misunderstanding and misunderstanding. However, in the voices of the nobility briefly presented above, the moment of establishing differences is clearly visible. The desire of the nobles to socially dissociate themselves from other classes of the empire was important for the self-perception of the nobles 45, regardless of whether it was intended to extend the privilege of education to other social groups in the empire or not. Consequently, Catherine II, as a legislator, should have known about the prejudices of the nobles regarding the secular education system, built on the principle of all estates.
Interest in education and forms of education in the province
An indicator of the interest of the nobility in the field of knowledge and erudition that was provided for it by the state was the support of the established schools by the upper class. As part of the provincial reform of 1775, public charity orders were allocated a start-up capital of 15,000 rubles, the proceeds from which were to be used for the construction and maintenance of schools to "stimulate the development of the local economy" and, as a result, only indirectly invested in the maintenance of schools and other institutions of public charity, contrary to the system of financing envisaged by the provincial reform 46 .
The exception from the very beginning was the capital St. Petersburg with its function as an "experimental laboratory". Here, Catherine personally contributed to the success in organizing schools, placing at the disposal of state secular schools part of the income received from port duties 47 . This example was paradigmatic in the sense that funding for small public schools was increasingly transferred to individual cities and their societies. Participation could be expected from both dumas and municipal self-government bodies, merchant guilds or local nobles, since small public schools were located directly on the ground, and not in a provincial city remote for several hundred kilometers. On the contrary, the financing of the main public schools was carried out primarily at the expense of public charity orders 48 . These funding models looked different, depending on the economic potential of the respective social groups and the size of the schools 49 . In the Tver province, for example, thanks to the rich order of public charity and the relatively wealthy nobility, the main public school with its small number of students did not experience financial needs. In 1800-1801, the nobility and merchants of the city of Tver collected 27,398 rubles in favor of state secular schools. The volume of collected sums exceeded almost twice the receipts from the Tver order of public charity (15,000 rubles) during the specified period 50 . According to the charter of the school, its budget provided for the allocation of 1,500 rubles for salaries, materials and current expenses for the main public school, 210 rubles for a one-class public school and 500 rubles for a two-class one. In 1801, in the Tver province, there was one main public school and 12 one-class public schools, the maintenance of which required, therefore, 4020 rubles a year. Accordingly, even from the sums of money allocated by the order, the necessary repairs could be carried out. Of course, the nobility and merchants did not show such generosity everywhere. In the Yekaterinoslav province (Novorossiya) in 1791, an order of public charity appealed to the local elites to donate to the establishment of schools. While the nobility of Poltava managed to collect 11,000 rubles, in the cities of Elizavetgrad and Yekaterinoslav the result was negative. The nobility of these cities referred to the impossibility of providing financial assistance, justifying their refusal by the economic damage inflicted on them by the war with the Ottoman Empire 51 . On the initiative of the order of public charity Vyatka, donations were collected in the amount of 3,000 rubles to buy a house for the main public school. A year later, only two-thirds of the necessary funds were collected, in connection with which the governor decided to introduce a special tax of 2 kopecks for each male revision soul. However, despite these additional measures, in 1794 the Vyatka order published a second appeal to the nobility, calling for donations to support schools 52 . As a rule, donations came from individuals 53 .
The exception was the noble assembly of the Kazan province, which assumed a voluntary obligation - to all landowners to donate 10 kopecks for each male soul from serfs in favor of provincial schools. As a result of this action, almost 3,000 rubles were collected 54 .
Another, much more significant indicator compared to the financial support of schools was the actual attendance of educational institutions by noble children. The financing of schools by the nobility could directly depend on the expectations of Catherine, clearly indicated by the empress and brought to the attention of the nobles. Nevertheless, for a personal career or for self-awareness, the readiness of the nobility to teach their younger generation in class-mixed schools was the decisive factor. To a certain extent, this made it possible for the nobility to resist in the form common in the provinces of the Russian Empire - not to comply with decrees and act contrary to the expectations of the empress. For example, young men of the nobility, not to mention girls, rarely met in schools established by Catherine II after 1786 both in the capitals - Moscow and St. Petersburg - and in the provinces 55 . Their share during the existence of these schools even decreased and remained low until the next reforms under Alexander I, while the number of children of the merchant class, clergy and others increased. Only a certain (small) part of the imperial society considered these schools as an opportunity to move up the social ladder. The provincial nobility could hardly resist the creation of such schools and often acted as their sponsors 56 . However, the nobles did not consider these schools a proper place to raise their own children.
Publishing in 1786 the Charter of public schools 57 , Catherine personally made an addition to it, emphasizing the goals of this provision - universal education and all-class education. The empress made a fundamental change in the preliminary draft developed by the Commission, concerning the teaching of foreign languages. According to the amendment, the French language was assigned to the sphere of home education, since Catherine did not consider it mandatory for public service. If the nobles certainly wanted their children to master the French language, then they had to pay for education out of their own pocket.
In contrast to the French language, the empress attributed the consideration of the ethnic specifics of her multinational empire to state interests: Greek was to be taught in the Kyiv, Azov and Novorossiysk provinces, Chinese in the Irkutsk province, and Arabic and Tatar in the territories where Muslims lived. languages 58 . Schools established under the Charter of 1786, apart from their social and disciplinary aspect, were clearly not schools for the nobility.
The nobility, in turn, needed knowledge that would facilitate promotion in the provinces or, even better, in big cities. It also needed knowledge befitting its status and distinguishing it as such. These interpersonal skills, necessary for a noble lifestyle, took on new forms during the 18th century. The processes of the second half of the 18th century, during which court customs changed in the capitals and a complete reorientation to the French model took place, were also observed in the provinces. However, to some critics, the outdated customs of the ancestors seemed more appropriate than the way of life of the capital's nobility. Perhaps the most famous exposer of "damaged morals" was Mikhail Mikhailovich Shcherbatov 59 . However, even in the works of such statesmen as active in the literary field as Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin, one can catch changes in the life world of the nobility - with all the inherent elements of inertia and adaptation 60 . The life of "secular society" - St. Petersburg grandees or families from the ruling class (rulingfamilies) 61 - found a response in the provinces, they tried to copy it - at least partially - or to reject it.
Not only simple considerations of benefit for the service were decisive for the nobility in the matter of education. In their specific way of life, the provincial nobility was guided, on the one hand, by St. Petersburg, and, on the other hand, by a special regional and local self-consciousness. Certain aspects of this ambivalence also affected the work of the Commission.
However, where could a nobleman get an education that seemed to him consistent with his status and the spirit of the times? Here it is necessary to name first of all home education 62 . For a provincial nobleman, hiring a home tutor was often the only way to give his children a modern education. Andrey Timofeevich Bolotov vividly described this in his memoirs 63 . Remoteness from the capital, as well as the wealth of the family, affected the quality of education and the competence of the home teacher. Bolotov shows that in the middle of the 18th century his father's fortune was enough to hire a home teacher 64 . Both boys and girls were equally taught French, and in some cases German or English 65 . However, such subjects as geography and history were taught mainly to young men. Even if in Petersburg they laughed at the fact that applicants for the position of home teacher often did not have the necessary qualifications, the home education system could not do without this group, which supposedly numbered several thousand people. Historians are only approaching the study of this specific form of education, common among the provincial nobility, who certainly sought to use the acquired knowledge in their local life. An example of such studies is the monograph by Olga Yurievna Solodyankina 66 . If, however, we want to understand what kind of knowledge was considered necessary, then the instructions for home teachers 67, which were translated or compiled in the second half of the 18th century according to German or French models, can be of little help here. Much more important and informative sources are written contracts concluded with home teachers. In the examples of such contracts known to me, educational material was fixed, which was recognized as obligatory for study 68 .
Along with the already mentioned foreign languages, not only mythology, history, natural science, but also military science could be taught. In rare cases, dance and fencing teachers meet in large families. In addition, “moral teaching” was taught almost everywhere - lessons in good manners. At the end of the 18th century, a cheap version of this type of education also spread: both boys and girls were sent for several years to boarding schools, which seemed to be the best alternative to secular state school education 69 . Catherine's School Commission was aware of this problem and sought to regulate both the quality and content of education, conducting inspections of schools from time to time and closing certain poorly functioning institutions, which were usually headed by foreigners 70 . For home teachers, state examinations at Moscow University or the St. Petersburg Academy were provided as a condition for teaching. However, only a few of the home teachers had the appropriate certificate.
Only in the initial period of Catherine's school reform - in September 1784 - the school commission decided to systematically audit all private educational institutions in Moscow and St. Petersburg in order to prevent their uncontrolled growth 71 . An audit of 23 boarding houses with 720 students (501 male and 219 female) and 17 private schools with 159 students, undertaken in the same year in St. Petersburg, revealed serious shortcomings in the conditions of placement of pupils and the quality of teaching. As a result, all schools and boarding houses (in some cases, however, only temporarily) were closed 72 . A year later, an audit of all private educational boarding schools in Moscow was carried out. Although the commission set up for this purpose recommended first suspending all Russian-speaking private boarding houses and schools, only the French school boarding house was closed 73 . Tougher actions in St. Petersburg are explained, on the one hand, by the status of the metropolis, whose educational institutions served as a model for the provinces, and, on the other hand, by the clearly limited influence of the commission on the implementation of educational programs in the provinces 74 .
Summing up what has been said, we note that this educational sector, due to the fragility of boarding schools and rare inspections, was not amenable to state control. It could be assumed that noble children received exactly the education that their parents provided for them. However, this assumption should also be treated with caution. Parents, like state inspectors, were very rarely interested in the quality of education. Children "disappeared", as a rule, for several years in a boarding school in provincial towns, and little was known about their success in education.
Literacy was a prerequisite for a successful career in the service. Where, however, it was acquired, it was left to the nobleman to decide on his own. Catherine's public schools, with their standardized curricula, remained unattractive. All-class schools turned into schools without nobles, while the nobles preferred to educate their younger generation informally. As for women's education, Catherine's concept - to give general educational skills to children of both sexes - was not destined to come true. The nobility - and here one can refer to the example of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, which served as a model for the provinces - preferred to teach literature and needlework to future wives and mothers.
Cadet corps 76 were promising in terms of career and willingly visited. Their establishment was also envisaged in the provinces, which increased the chances of the younger generation from less wealthy noble families to receive an education. The land gentry cadet corps (established in 1732), as well as the Naval gentry corps (1752, since 1762 - the Naval cadet corps) and the Corps of Pages (1759) opened in the era of Elizabeth Petrovna, were followed by the foundation of additional cadet corps in provincial cities at the end of the 18th century. - the beginning of the 19th century 77 . The degree of popularity of these institutions even at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I is evidenced, in particular, by the history of the establishment of Kharkov University: Vasily Nazarovich Karazin managed to get donations from the Kharkov nobility for the new university in the amount of 100,000 rubles under the pretext of establishing a cadet corps in Kharkov 78 . Corps, despite the harsh atmosphere that reigned in them, were considered among the nobility as a suitable place to receive a proper education 79 . In turn, graduates of the corps largely contributed to the spread of the French "noble model": if in 1732 and a few years later, out of the first 245 Russian pupils of the cadet corps, 237 studied German and 51 - French, then soon this ratio became directly opposite 80 .
The reconstruction of the historical life-worlds of the provincial nobility in the Russian Empire of the 18th century remains a difficult undertaking, the success of which can only be ensured with the help of microhistorical research. The problem of the impact of education on the development of individualism among the provincial nobility at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries needs further study. The answer to the question of what kind of education was considered appropriate from the point of view of the nobility, who sought to position themselves in the imperial space of the 18th century, depends on various contexts. If a nobleman-landowner was looking for a worthy position for himself and his family within the framework of the county noble assembly, then his answer would certainly differ from those that would be given by the nobles revolving in the provincial city or striving to get into the service in St. Petersburg. All of them were guided by the situation and chose educational models taking into account the dignity, benefit, group social norms and requirements of the state, while following the logic of subjective rationality. The latter certainly did not coincide with the rationality of the enlighteners, headed by Catherine II in Russia. In turn, the adaptation of "Western" models of noble life and education of the nobility was not a straightforward and uniform process at the level of the entire empire 82 . Nevertheless, until the beginning of the 19th century, all this was of considerable importance for the stability and further development of the educational traditions of the nobility. In conclusion, I hope that my brief overview of the nobility's ideas about the models and significance of education in the 18th century will serve as an impetus for further research in these areas.
Translation by Natela Kopaliani-Schmunk
1 See, for example, a socio-historically oriented review by Manfred Hildermeier: Hildermeier M. Der russische Adel von 1700 bis 1917 // Wehler H.-U. (Hrsg.) Europäischer Adel 1750-1950. Göttingen, 1990, pp. 166-216.
2 See the introductory article in this volume.
3 Gerasimov I., Kusber J., Glebov S., Mogilner M., Semyonov A. New Imperial History and the Challenges of Empire // Gerasimov I., Kusber J., Semyonov A (Ed.)
Empire Speaks out? Languages of Rationalization and Self-Description in the Russian Empire. Leiden, 2009. P. 3-32; Vierhaus R. Die Rekonstruktion historischer Lebenswelten. Probleme moderner Kulturgeschichtsschreibung // Lehmann H (Hrsg.) Wege zu einer neuen Kulturgeschichte. Göttingen, 1995, pp. 7-25.
4 Raeff M. Transfiguration and Modernization: The Paradoxes of Social Disciplining, Paedagogical Leadership, and the Enlightenment in I8th Century Russia// Bödeker H.E. (Hrsg.) Alteuropa, Ancien regime und frühe Neuzeit. Probleme und Methoden der Forschung. Stuttgart, 1991. S. 99-116.
5 Hughes L. Russian Culture in the Eighteenth Century // Lieven D. (Ed.) The Cambridge History of Russia Vol. 2: Imperial Russia Cambridge, 2006. P. 67-91 here p. 88-90.
6 Lotman J. Rußlands Adel. Eine Kulturgeschichte von Peter I. bis Nikolaus I-Köln, 1997.
7 Raeff M. The Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia The Eighteenth Century Nobility. New Haven (Conn.), 1966.
8 Speransky M.M. Projects and notes. M., 1961. S. 274-279; Gooding J. The Liberalism of Michael Speransky // SEER. l. 64. 1986. P. 401-424.
9 Schattenberg S. Die korrupte Provinz? Russische Beamte im 19. Jahrhundert. Frankfurt a. M., 2008.
10 Koselleck R. Einleitung // Brunner O., Conze W., Koselleck R. (Hrsg.) Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. bd. 1. Stuttgart, 1972. S. 15.
11 Geyer D. Gesellschaft als staatliche Veranstaltung. Bemerkungen zur Sozialgeschichte der russischen Staatsverwaltung im 18. Jahrhundert // Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. bd. 14. 1966. S. 21-50.
12 For example: Hartley J. The Boards of Social Welfare and the Financing ol Catherine II "s State Schools // SEER. Vol. 67. 1989. P. 211-227; Eadem. Katharinas Reformen der Lokalverwaltung - die Schaffung städtischer Gesellschaft in der Provinz?, Scharf C. (Hrsg.) Katharina II., Rußland und Europa Beiträge zur internationalen Forschung, Mainz, 2001, pp. 457-477.
13 SchmidtChr. Russische Geschichte, 1547-1917. Munich, 2003. S. 2.
14 Isabelle de Madariaga speaks in her fundamental monograph about Catherine II about a “nationwide dialogue” - see: Madariaga I. de. Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great. New Haven (Conn.), 1981. P. 137 (Russian translation: Madariaga I. de. Russia in the era of Catherine the Great. M., 2002. P. 229). 8 In turn, Cynthia Whittaker, speaking of elites, uses the more cautious expression “political dialogue” in the title of her new book: Whittaker C. Russian Monarchy: Eighteenth-Century Rulers and Writers in Political dialogue. DeKalb (III.), 2003. On Catherine II, see: Ibid. P. 99-118.
15 Wed. about this: Marasinova E.H. Psychology of the elite of the Russian nobility in the 2nd third of the 18th century (based on correspondence). M., 1999; Kissel W.St. Europäische Bildung und aristokratische Distinktion: Zum Habitus des russischen Hochadels im 18. Jahrhundert // Lehmann-Carli G., Schippan M., Scholz B.. Brohm S. (Hrsg.) Russische Aufklärungs-Rezeption im Kontext offizieller Bildungskonzepte (1700-1825 ). Berlin, 2001. S. 365-383.
16 Chechulin N.D. (Ed.) Order of Empress Catherine II, given to the Commission on the drafting of a new code. M., 1907. S. CXLV1I.
17 For more details on the estate-legal composition and economic status of deputies, see: Belyavsky M.T. The peasant question in Russia on the eve of the uprising E.I. Pugachev (the formation of anti-serfdom thought). M., I S. 72-85.
18 A common place for research on the second half of the 18th century are references to the Legislative Commission. An example of an unsuccessful study is the monograph: Sacke G. Die gesetzgebende Kommission Katharinas II. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Absolutismus in Rußland. Breslau, 1940. Of the fundamental and interesting works, we should mention: Omey'chenko O.A. "Legitimate Monarchy" of Catherine II: Enlightened Absolutism in Russia. M., 1993. The influence of the work of the Commission on the formation of noble identity in Russia is considered in the article: Kamensky A. B. Russian nobility in 1767 (to the problem of consolidation) // History of the USSR. 1990. No. I. S. 58-87. On the nobility, see also: Dukes R. Catherine the Great and the Russian Nobility. Cambridge, 1967; Jones R.E. The Emancipation of the Russian Nobility, 1762-1785. Princeton (N.J.), 1973, pp. 123-163; and also a good overview: Madariaga I. de. Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great. P. 139-183 (Russian translation: Madariaga I. de. Russia in the era of Catherine the Great. S. 230-300). 19 Kurmacheva M.D. Problems of education in the Legislative Commission of 1767 // Nobility and serfdom in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. M., 1975. P. 240-264.
20 This was mentioned in orders from Kostroma, Sudislavl, Medyn, Kaluga, Lublin, Yuriev, Maloyaroslavets, Zaraisk, Serpukhov, Tarusa, Obolensk, Vereya, Suzdal. Mozhaisk, Vladimir, Beloozero, Dorogobuzh, Parfenyev, Galich, Arzamas, Akhtyrka, Usman, Kozlov, Insar, Kasimov. Temnikov, Rylsk and Ufa. Robert Jones pointed out this problem in his time, but he did not pay much attention to education, cf. Jones R. The Emancipation. P. 59.
21 Sat. RIO. T. 14. St. Petersburg, 1875. S. 253, 258. 443, 444, 466; T. 93. St. Petersburg, 1894. S. 10.
22 Kusber J. Eliten- und Volksbildung im Zarenreich Während des 18. und in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Studien zu Diskurs, Gesetzgebung und Umsetzung-Stuttgart, 2004, pp. 118-136; Eroshkina A.H. Administrator from culture (I.I. Betskoy) // Russian culture of the last third of the 18th century - the time of Catherine II. M., 1997. S. 71-90.
23 Sat. RIO. T. 14. S. 401. In the same vein, the argument was built in the order of the nobles of the Novgorod district (cf.: Ibid., p. 346).
24 Sat. RIO. T. 18. SPb., 1876. S. 257. It was about the need to establish "a larger number of socially useful gymnasiums" (Ibid. T. 68. SPb., 1889. P. 72). The orders of the citizens of the Baltic provinces contained a requirement to revive the gymnasiums and academies in the form in which they existed before the age of 21 (see: Rozhdestvensky S.V. Essays on the history of people's petition systems in the 18th-19th centuries. SPb., 1912. P. 287 ).
25 For example, in the orders of the nobles from Belev (Belgorod province), Dorogobuzh and Smolensk (Smolensk province), Kashin (Moscow province) and Ryazhsk (Voronezh province) - see: Sat. RIO. T. 8. St. Petersburg, 1871. S. 484; T.14 S. 327, 422, 433; T. 68. S. 388, 610.
26 Ibid. T. 4. St. Petersburg, 1869. S. 231.
27 Requests of the nobles for the establishment of schools and universities, see: Ibid. T. 68. C 130, 150, 176, 193.
28 Ibid. S. 276.
29 Sat. RIO. T. 8. St. Petersburg, 1871. S. 484; T. 14. S. 327, 422, 433; T. 68. S. 257
30 In particular, the Kursk (Ibid. p. 549) or Chernigov (Ibid. p. 236) nobility.
31 [Teplov G.N.] Project for the establishment of Baturin University // Readings in the Society of Russian History and Antiquities. M., 1863. Prince. 2. S. 67-68
32 Sat. RIO. T. 68. S. 137.
33 Ibid. T. 4. S. 289.
34 The decision proposed in one of the orders of the nobles of the Arkhangelsk province can be called almost Solomonic - to give the "high authorities" the right of final determination (see: Ibid. vol. 14. pp. 490, 495).
35 Sat. RIO. T. 4. S. 362-364; T. 14. S. 275, 346. The solution to the question of teachers was proposed only in one order: it was about “suitable personalities”, see: Ibid. T. 68. S. 549.
36 Ibid. pp. 130, 150-153. The mandate of the Tula nobles spoke of the possibility of attending a university or academy (Ibid., vol. 4, p. 406).
37 The wishes of the officers of the Samara hussar regiment were similar: after graduating from the university or the cadet corps, their children should receive all the rights of hereditary nobility (Ibid. T. 93. P. 54).
38 Ibid. T. 4. S. 63.
39 Ibid. T. 68. S. 276.
40 Sat. RIO. T. 8. S. 500-507.
41 Ibid. T. 14. S. 244, 249. The establishment of schools was intended to improve the virtues and (which also corresponded to the interests of the landowners) to improve the knowledge of the laws.
42 Ibid. T. 8. S. 557; T. 14. S. 395.
43 Along with the Russian edition, there is a German translation by August Ludwig Schlözer, as well as a French edition: Les plans et les Statuts, des differents etablissements ordonnes par sa majeste imperiale Catherine II Pour l "education de lajeunesse. 2 vols. Amsterdam, 1775.
44 Schierle I. Zur politisch-sozialen Begriffssprache der Regierung Katharinas II. Gesellschaft und Gesellschaften: "obscestvo" // Scharf C. (Hrsg.) Katharina II., Rußland und Europa Beiträge zur internationalen Forschung. S. 275-306; Eadem. "Otecestvo" - Der russische Vaterlandsbegriff im 18. Jahrhundert // Pietrow-Ennker B. (Hrsg.) Kultur in der Geschichte Russlands. Räume, Medien, Identitäten, Lebenswelten. Göttingen, 2007. S. 143-162.
45 See: Lotman J.M., Uspenskij B.A. The Role of Dual Models in the Dynamics Russian Culture // Lotman J.M., Uspenskij B.A The Semiotics of Russian Culture. Ann Arbor (Mich.), 1984, pp. 3-35.
46 Hartley J. The Boards of Social Welfare and the Financing of Catherine II "s State Schools // SEER. Vbl. 67. 1989. P. 211-227, here p. 211-213, 215.
47 Ibid. P. 214, 217; Le Donne J. Absolutism and Ruling Class. The Formation of the Russian Political Order. New York, 1991. P. 249.
48 Collection of materials for the history of education in Russia, extracted from the archives of the Ministry of National Education. T. I. SPb., 1893. S. 255-278, 287-296, 299-310.
49 Data for 1802, see: Rozhdestvensky S. V. Essays. pp. 598-600.
50 Ibid. P. 602. The Tver society showed greater generosity than the Moscow society during the same period.
51 Cherniavsky I.M. Materials on the history of public education in the Yekaterinoslav governorship under Catherine II and Paul I, 1784-1805. Yekaterinoslav, 1895. S. 3.
52 Yuriev V.P. Public education in the Vyatka province in the reign of Empress Catherine II. Materials about his centenary (1786-1886). Vyatka, 1887. S. 17, 28-31.33, 36.
53 For example, the main public school in Voronezh received 100,000 rubles from the Crimean Khan Shagin Giray, who lived there in exile - see: Pylnev Yu.V., Rogachev S.A. Schools and education of the Voronezh region in the XVIII century. Voronezh, 1997. S. 36.
54 Unfortunately, we do not have data on whether all landowners participated in this action, see: Rozhdestvensky S.V. Essays. pp. 602-604.
55 For data on Moscow, see, for example: Lepskaya L.A. Composition of students in public schools in Moscow at the end of the 18th century. // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9. 1973. No. S. 88-96, here p. 92; Gobza G. Centenary of the Moscow First Gymnasium, 1804-1904. M., 1903. S. 12; RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. D. 101. L. 45.
56 Kusber J. Eliten- und Volksbildung. S. 239-275.
57 Charter of public schools in the Russian Empire, laid down in the reign of Empress Catherine II. St. Petersburg, 1786; RGIA. F. 730. Op. 1. D. 27 L. 1-67.
58 Ekaterina assigned 5,000 rubles for compiling appropriate teaching aids (cf. PSZ. Sobr. 1st. Vol. 21. No. 15523. P. 685).
59 Shcherbatov M.M. On the damage to morals in Russia. M., 1858; Raeff M. State aßnd Nobility in the Ideology of M.M. Shcherbatov // Slavic Review. Vol. 19. 1960. 363-379.
60 Derzhavin G.R. Notes. SPb., 1872; Bauer A. Dichtung and Politik. Gavriil Derzavin als Repräsentant der Aufklärung im Zarenreich an der Wende vom 18. zum 19. Jahrhundert: Magisterarbeit. Mainz, 2007.
61 Le Donne J. Ruling Families in the Russian Political Order // Cahiers du monds russe et sovietique. Vol. 28. 1987. P. 233-322. See also: Lotman Yu.M. Conversations about Russian culture. Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVII - the beginning of the XIX claim). SPb., 1994.
62 On this see first of all: Röbel G. Kärner der Aufklärung. Hauslehrer im Russland des 18. Jahrhunderts // Lehmann-Carli G., Schippan M., Scholz ß Brohm S. (Hrsg.) Russische Aufklärungs-Rezeption im Kontext offizieller Bildungs-konzepte. S. 325-343; Raeff M. Home, School and Service in the Life of an 18th Century Nobleman // SEER. Vol. 40. 1960. P. 295-307.
63 The life and adventures of Andrei Bolotov, described by himself for his descendants. 1738-1793: In 4 vols. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1870. Stb. 38.
64 Ibid. Stb. 55-56.
65 Röbel G. Kärner der Aufklärung. S. 330.
66 Solodyankina O.Yu. Foreign governesses in Russia (the second rug of the 18th - the first half of the 19th century). M., 2007. See also: Roosevelt P. Life on the Russian Country Estate: A Social and Cultural History. New Haven (Conn.), 1995 (Russian translation: Roosevelt P. Life in a Russian estate. Experience of social and cultural history / Translated from English. St. Petersburg, 2008).
67 See, for example: Büsching A.F. Unterricht für Informatoren und Hofmeister. 3- Aufl. Hamburg, 1773.
68 Bemerkungen über Esthland, Liefland, Rußland, Nebst einigen eiträgen zur Empörungs-Geschichte Pugatschews. Während eines achtjährigen Aufenthaltes gesammelt von einem Augenzeugen. Prag; Leipzig, 1792. S. 175; Juskeviu A.P. (Hrsg.) Der Briefwechsel Leonhard Eulers mit Gerhard Friedrich Müller, 1735-1767. Berlin, 1959. S. 277.
69 Sergeeva C.B. Formation and development of private school education in Russia (the last quarter of the 18th century - the first half of the 19th century): Dis. ... Dr. ped. Sciences. M., 2003. S. 233-323.
70 RGIA. F. 730. Op. 1. D. 70. L. 1-111; Op. 2. D. 3. L. 150-190; Otto N. Materials for the history of educational institutions of the Ministry of Public Education: Vologda Directorate of Schools until 1850. St. Petersburg, 1866. P. 15-18.
71 Rozhdestvensky S.V. Significance of the Commission on the Establishment of Public Schools in the History of Public Education Policy in the 18th-19th Centuries // Description of the Affairs of the Archive of the Ministry of Public Education. Pg., 1917. T. 1. S. XXXI-LI, here p. XLIX.
72 RGIA. F. 730. Op. 1. D. 70. L. 1-111; Op. 2. D. 3. L. 150-190. For a description of individual pensions, see: Stolpyansky P.N. Private schools and boarding houses of St. Petersburg in the second half of the 18th century // ZhMNP. 1912. Det. 3. S. 1-23
73 See instructions to Moscow Governor Ya.A. Bruce (PSZ. Collection. 1st. Vol. 22. No. 16275. P. 464). For a description of Moscow boarding houses, see: Sivkov K.V. Private pensions and schools in Moscow in the 80s of the XVIII century. // Historical archive. 1951. No. 6. S. 315-323.
74 For example, private schools financed by funds from subscriptions to the Morning Light magazine published by Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov and distributed in the provinces (for example, in Tver, Irkutsk and Kremenchug) were integrated as public schools into the public school system. At the same time, however, it was expected that private donors would continue to participate in the financing of these schools (see: Jones W.G. The Morning Light Charity Schools, 1777-80 // SEER Vol. 56. 1978. P. 47-67, here p. 65).
75 Likhacheva E. Materials for the history of women's education in Russia. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1890. S. 159, 171, 210; see also memoirs: Institutki. Memoirs of pupils of institutes of noble maidens. M., 2008. See also: Nash S. Educating New Mothers: Woman and Enlightenment in Russia // History of Education Quarterly. Vol. 21. 1981. P. 301-316; Eadem. Students and Rubles: The Society for the Education of Noble Girls (Smol "nyj) as a Charitable Institution // Bartlett R., Cross A.G., Rasmussen K. (Ed.) Russia and the World in the Eighteenth Century. Newtonville (Mass. ), 1988. P. 268-279.
76 Hoffmann P. Militärische Ausbildungsstätten in Russland als Zentren der Aufklärung // Lehmann-Carli G., Schippan M., Scholz B., Brohm S. (Hrsg.) Russische Aufklärungs-Rezeption im Kontext offizieller Bildungskonzepte. S. 249-260, here S. 256-259.
77 For example, in Grodno (1797/1800), in Tula (1801) and in Tambov (1802) - see: Krylov I.O. Cadet corps // Patriotic history. M., 1994. No. - S. 434-437.
78 Bagaley D.I. Educational activities of Vasily Nazarovich Karazin. Kharkov, 1891; Flynn J.T. V.N. Karazin, the Gentry, and Kharkov University// Slavic Review. Vol. 28. 1969. P. 209-220.
79 Aypopa H.H. Ideas of Enlightenment in the 1st Cadet Corps (late 18th - first quarter of the 19th century) // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 8. 1996. No. 1. S. 34-42; She is. The system of teaching in military schools in the XVIII century. // Studies in the history of Russia in the XVI-XVIII centuries. M., 2000. S. 105-114.
80 Beskrovny L.G. Military schools in Russia in the first half of the 18th century. FROM. T. 42. 1953. S. 285-300.
81 Marasinova E.H. Psychology of the elite of the Russian nobility. pp. 158-202 and others; She is. Power and Personality: Essays on Russian History of the 18th Century. M., 2008.
82 Doronin A.B. (Comp.) "Introducing European manners and customs in the European Genus", to the problem of adapting Western ideas and practices in the Russian Empire. M., 2008.
On the brink of the 19th century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. These figures show the rise in literacy in Russia and, at the same time, its lagging behind in comparison with Western Europe: in England at the end of the 18th century. there were more than 250 thousand students in Sunday schools alone, and in France the number of elementary schools in 1794 reached 8 thousand. In Russia, on average, only two people studied out of a thousand. The social composition of students in general education schools was extremely diverse. The children of artisans, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. predominated in public schools. The age composition of students was also different in the same classes, both toddlers and 22-year-old men studied.
In XVIII Russia there were 3 types of schools: soldiers' schools, closed noble schools, theological seminaries and schools. specialists were also trained through the universities Academic, established in 1725 at the Academy of Sciences and existing until 1765, Moscow, founded in 1755 on the initiative of Lomonosov, and Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, but actually operated as a university since the 80s of the XVIII century.
Under Elizabeth (), military schools were reorganized. In 1744, a decree was issued to expand the network of primary schools. The first gymnasiums were opened: in Moscow (1755) and in Kazan (1758). In 1755, on the initiative of I. I. Shuvalov, the Moscow University was founded, and in 1760 the Academy of Arts. In the second half of the 18th century, two trends in education can be traced: the expansion of the network of educational institutions and the strengthening of the principle of class. In the years school reform was carried out. In 1782, the Charter of public schools was approved. In each city, main schools with 4 classes were established, and in county towns small public schools with 2 classes. Subject teaching was introduced, unified dates for the beginning and end of classes, a classroom lesson system; teaching methods and unified curricula were developed. The Serbian educator F.I. Jankovic de Mirievo played an important role in carrying out this reform. By the end of the century, there were 550 educational institutions with thousands of students. The system of closed educational institutions was developed by Catherine II together with the president of the Academy of Arts and the chief of the Land Gentry Corps I. I. Betsky. Secondary educational institutions at that time included public schools, gentry corps, noble pensions and gymnasiums.
Moscow University An outstanding event in the life of the country was the creation in 1755 of the first Moscow University in Russia on the initiative and project of M. V. Lomonosov with the active support of the enlightened favorite of Empress Elizaveta Petrovna I. I. Shuvalov, who became its first curator. On the initiative of I. I. Shuvalov, in 1757 the Academy of Arts was created, which before moving to St. Petersburg in 1764 was attached to Moscow University. From the day of its foundation, Moscow University seemed to have risen above the class school. In accordance with the ideas of the creator of the university, education in it was classless (children of serfs could be admitted to the university, having received freedom from the landowner). MV Lomonosov wrote that "the university was created for the general education of raznochintsy." Lectures at the university were given in Russian. One of the most important tasks of the university, MV Lomonosov saw in the dissemination of scientific knowledge. In this matter, the printing house and library of the university, as well as public lectures of its professors, began to play a prominent role.
Brief biography Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov () - Russian scientist, chemist, physicist, artist, poet. Born in Denisovka, Arkhangelsk province. In the biography of Lomonosov, he managed to learn to read and write in childhood. Then, driven by the desire for knowledge, he comes to Moscow on foot, where he enters the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Lomonosov's life there is very difficult, poor. However, thanks to perseverance, he manages to complete the entire 12-year course of study in 5 years. Among the best students goes to study in Germany. For Lomonosov, the biography of those times was very rich. He studies many sciences, makes experiments, gives lectures. Even with such employment, Lomonosov still has time to compose poems. In 1741 he returned to his homeland, from that time in his biography M. Lomonosov was appointed an associate professor of physics at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. After 3 years he became a professor of chemistry. Lomonosov's contribution to such sciences as physics, chemistry, geography, astronomy, mineralogy, soil science, geology, cartography, geodesy, and meteorology are very great. Lomonosov's literary work contains works in different languages. These are “Russian History”, the tragedies “Tamara and Selim”, “Demofont”, many poems by Lomonosov. In 1754, he developed the project of Moscow University, later named Lomonosov University in his honor. In addition, in the biography of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, the law of conservation of matter was discovered, works on color theory were written, and many optical instruments were built.
Soldiers' schools Soldiers' schools are general education schools for soldiers' children, successors and successors of digital schools of the time of Peter the Great. Soldiers' children made up the bulk of the students of Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. The national military schools, opened in the second half of the 18th century, also belonged to the soldier type. in the North Caucasus (Kizlyar, Mozdok and Ekaterinograd).
Closed noble educational institutions Closed noble educational institutions are private boarding houses, gentry corps, institutes for noble maidens, etc. in total, more than 60 educational institutions, where about 4.5 thousand noble children studied. Class educational institutions were both private and state noble boarding schools: the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Noble Boarding School at Moscow University, etc. These educational institutions enjoyed the greatest financial support from the government.
Theological seminaries and schools There were 66 of them, a person studied in them. These were also estate schools intended for the children of the clergy; they did not accept raznochintsy. The main task of these schools was to train priests devoted to the church and the king, but students of seminaries also received a general education and often became literate guides in their parishes.
Natural sciences M. V. Lomonosov created the Geographical Department in 1739, and under Catherine II he compiled the first cadastre of land use. In addition, he proposed ideas about the continuous change in the face of the Earth under the influence of internal and external forces, about the movement of air masses, about the layers of the earth, etc. Geographical science received materials from many expeditions, which made it possible to publish the Atlas of the Russian Empire in 1745. Geology. In this area, rich materials about the deposit of coal, ore, oil, etc. were accumulated. At the end of the century, the first geological maps of various regions appeared.
Medicine Noticeable progress can be traced in the development of medicine. If at the time of Peter I in Russia there was a single medical school, then by the end of the century there were three of them. In addition, the Medico-Surgical Academy was opened in the capital, and the Faculty of Medicine was opened at Moscow University. Particularly acute in Russia was the fight against epidemics of plague and smallpox. In 1768, Catherine invited an English physician to Russia and was the first to be vaccinated against smallpox herself. Smallpox vaccination of that time (variolation), although it did not eliminate the disease, significantly reduced the number of deaths. Works on the plague by D.S. Samoilovich, which were the result of studying the epidemic that raged in Russia in the years. His conclusion that the plague is not transmitted through the air but from contact was of great practical importance, since it made it possible to identify effective means of combating the epidemic.
Academic Expeditions The study of the country's natural resources received close attention. A systematic scientific study of the country's natural conditions, organized by the state, began already under Peter I. For this purpose, the practice of organizing complex expeditions that explored various regions of Russia was resumed. There was an exploration of the wealth and the European center of the country, the Pechora basin, Yakutia and other regions. In total, 5 expeditions were sent, united by a common goal and plan. Among them, the expedition led by the soldier's son Academician I.I. Lepekhin. Her route ran from Moscow to Astrakhan, and from there through Guryev and Orenburg to the mining plants of the Urals and the shores of the White Sea. A wealth of material was collected by Professor N.Ya. Ozeretskovsky, who traveled through the north of the country and the region of Lake Ladoga. The published reports of the expedition leaders contain the richest material on flora and fauna, rivers and lakes, relief, descriptions of cities and towns with their sights, economic characteristics of regions and industrial enterprises. Ethnographic material, including those related to the peoples of the North, Siberia, the Caucasus and other regions, is of great scientific value: information about clothing, dwellings, rituals, tools, etc. Academic expeditions are joined by expeditions of industrial people who went to explore the islands of the Pacific Ocean, as well as the coasts of America. Along with the economic development of new lands and the ghost of the Russian citizenship of the local population, the expeditions compiled more advanced maps of the islands and a detailed description of their flora and fauna. G.I. Shelikhov occupies an outstanding place among researchers, who compiled in the 80s. XVIII century description of the Aleutian Islands and organized the development of Russian America (Alaska).
