As described, there are 10 different perspectives of early psychology. These perspectives are Structuralism, functionalism, Gestalt psychology, Behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, physiological, evolutionary, cognitive, and cultural and diversity. I will only be looking at three of these perspectives still in common use today here is a summary of each.
The behavioral perspective "focuses on the observable behaviors; thus it does not speculate about mental processes such as thinking.” Unlike the other approaches, the behavioral perspective accentuates how it is important to learn and understand and doesn’t focus on conscious. B. F. Skinner, a well-known psychologist, was a strong advocate of this thinking. He has since been called the "greatest contemporary psychologist". Skinner basically took an easy angle on his methods. “Behavior changes as a result of consequences. When it comes down to it, Skinner teaches basic skills.
When applying this type of psychology to young children you will have immediate results and these can be see long-standing results. However, in young children, this method will not give the parent ay idea of the motivations or thoughts behind that bad behavior. Only reinforcing the correct behaviors will do nothing to help parents or teachers better understand the feelings of the child or the internal factors that have contributed to this behavior. Behaviorism works well in conjunction with the other theories below to help parents and teachers gain a more complete understanding of not only their children’s behaviors but “why” they choose to behave in a certain way.
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The humanistic perspective "emphasizes free will and an individual's control of their own behavior". This was more of a human approach to psychology which was to look at and study humans by the choices they make. Laboratory specimens cannot possibly equate to what a human can achieve deeming any laboratory experiment illogical. Instead of developing principals about their theories, they conclude that each individual is their own being. Humanistic psychologists believe in the inherent "good" nature of all people.
The humanistic approach to psychology offers parents and many teachers ways to be non-judgmental when approaching children about incorrect or "bad" behaviors. Educator’s and parents need to be very careful, in my opinion, when using only this approach with their children. Humanists will not label any behavior as "bad" or "wrong" but instead, they will focus on the individuals right to choose what they will do or what decision they make on their own. In schools today I believe we place too much emphasis on making the child feel they have done well no matter the level of work they have produced or the actions they have chosen to take. The humanistic approach can work well when trying to improve a child’s self-esteem or cure shyness but, when a child is not told they are doing something wrong how will they then learn what is considered right and wrong in society? “We’ve got youngsters here now who… are under the authority of the school are being persuaded that there is a better way, and that way is to make their own decisions. They’re being induced to make decisions about activities that the citizenry of the state has decided are wrong.” When used in conjunction with behaviorism and cognitive psychology a child will gain a much better understanding of their place in the world as well as what is expected of them in regards to behavior.
"Many psychologists have accepted the cognitive perspective "where the focus is on how thought occurs, memory processes, and information storage and utilization" and currently conduct research in the area of cognitive processes." This focused more on the thinking remembering, and storing of information in the mind, unlike the behaviorists, who only focused on observational behaviors. For about a 40 year period, there was no attention being paid to this area. George Miller and Jerome Bruner established the "Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard University in 1960, and Ulrich Neisser published the book Cognitive Psychology in 1967".
“Many educational psychologists found the behavioral approach unsatisfying and the humanistic approach to soft. Many cognitive psychologists propose that children actively construct knowledge and this construction of knowledge happens in a social context.”
This approach to psychology offers teachers and parents several different views of how to get children to remember and apply the knowledge they have gained in any given situation. Instead of focusing on observable behaviors or feelings they can focus more on the actual thought process and use of memory in children. If we can understand how to make a child remember what he or she is doing is wrong or right then we have effectively taught them the "lesson" and they will apply it in the future to other situations.
In conclusion, and in my own opinion, I believe all of these, as well as the other theories used in psychology, are not correct or incorrect. All of the current schools of thought have some basis in fact and some basis in belief. If parents and educators can learn how to apply the best aspects of each theory they will be able to raise a good functional adult. In younger children, I have found the use of behaviorist's techniques will get real results when trying to curb bad behavior and teach the child to "choose" to do the right thing. When a child grows up a bit more of their own internal dialogue plays more of a role in what they choose to do. Using the humanistic approach to reinforce their own decision making can teach a child to make the correct decisions and also give a more positive view of those choices no matter what they are. At any age, the cognitive approach can be used to help children learn to recall information they have been taught or apply that "lesson" we are trying to get across.
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Internet Public Library. Internet Library of the University of Michigan (USA). Publications on various branches, including on the economy. English language.
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The Federal Reserve Board. Federal Reserve System (USA). Working papers on international finance since 1991. English language.
The Institute for Fiscal Studies. Institute for Financial Studies (Great Britain). Work documents. English language.
The law school. University of Chicago (USA). Working papers on law and economics. English language.
The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College. Section: Publications. Articles and working papers (1987-2009) on economics, business and finance.
Tinbergen Institute (Holland) . Economics working papers since 2001. English language.
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University of Oxford. About 800 working papers on economics. English language.
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I think almost everyone has been ill at least once in his life, and even those lucky few who are never ill sometimes have to visit a doctor. So everyone shares this experience.When you are not well, you go to the doctor. For example, you do not sleep very well or you have a cough. You may have a pain in your chest, a headache, a stomachache, a sore throat, a cold or something more serious. The doctor usually says that you need an examination. He looks at your tongue. Doctors can see at once if something is wrong by your tongue. Then the doctor examines your throat. He says: "Open your mouth. Say "Ah". You say it two or tree times. The doctor feels your pulse. If your pulse is faster than normal it is another sign or, as doctors say, symptom that you are unwell. Sometimes the doctor wants to know your temperature. The normal temperaure is 36.6. A higher temperature indicates some disorder in your body. You take off your coat and unfasten your shirt and the doctor listens to your heart and chest. to say what is the matter with you.
In some cases there is nothing really serious wrong with you. Then the doctor just tells you to rest and stay at home for a day or two. In case of real trouble doctor prescribes some medicine.
Usually you take the prescription to a chemist's. Chemist's shops are also called pharmacies. In the United States people preparing and selling medical goods are called druggists. A chemist's shop in America is a drug-store. Chemists make up medicines according to the doctors' prescriptions, or sell ready-made medicines or drugs. You buy what has been prescribed by your doctor and the chemist usually tells you how to take your medicine. It can be a tablet or some tablets two or three times a day. Some medicines are taken before and after meals. With liquid medicines we usually take a spoonful before having a meal.
Sometimes you don't feel well enougth to go to the surgery. For example, people call a doctor when they have a very high temperature. In this case the doctor comes to your house and examines you there. He leaves some prescriptions for you and your relative or friend goes to the chemist's to buy the necessary medicines.
If it "s serious, for example a heart attack, or an accident, then it needs urgent medical assistance and you call an ambulance. The ambulance arrives with a doctor who examines the person and gives him the aid he needs. In most cases the person is taken to hospital for a more intensive examination and therapy.
I think that almost everyone has been sick at least once in their life, and even those lucky few who never get sick sometimes have to go to the doctor. Thus, everyone has a similar experience.
When you feel bad, you go to the doctor. For example, you do not sleep well, or you have a cough. You may have chest pain or headache, stomach pain, sore throat, cold or something more serious. The doctor usually says that you need to be examined. He looks at your tongue. By the language, doctors can immediately determine whether everything is in order. Then the doctor examines your throat. He says, “Open your mouth. Say "A". You say it two or three times. The doctor takes your pulse. If the pulse is faster than normal, this is another sign, or, as doctors say, a symptom, that you are unwell. Sometimes the doctor wants to know your temperature. Normal temperature is 36.6. A higher temperature means something is wrong with you. You take off your jacket, unbutton your shirt, and the doctor listens to your heart and lungs. Now he's ready to tell you what's wrong with you.
Sometimes it turns out that you have nothing serious. Then the doctor simply advises you to rest a little and stay at home for a day or two. If there is a real problem, the doctors will give you some medicine.
You usually take the prescription to the pharmacy. Pharmacies are also called "pharmacies". In the United States, people who make and sell medical supplies are called "druggists". A pharmacy in America is called a "drug-store". Pharmacists make medicines according to doctors' prescriptions or sell ready-made medicines. You buy what the doctor has prescribed for you, and the pharmacist usually tells you how to take the medicine. It can be one or more tablets two or three times a day. Some medications are taken before and some after meals. Liquid medicines are usually taken by spoon before meals.
Sometimes, when you are quite seriously ill and cannot go to the doctor, you call the clinic and say that you need help. For example, people call a doctor when they have a very high temperature. Then the doctor comes to your home and examines you. He leaves prescriptions for you, and relatives or friends go to the pharmacy to buy the medicines you need.
People who have a serious illness such as heart failure or are injured need urgent medical attention and they call an ambulance. A doctor comes to the ambulance, who examines the patient and provides him with the necessary assistance. In most cases, such patients are hospitalized for a more thorough examination and treatment. If surgery is needed, the surgeon does it.
Composition in English The most dangerous diseases / The Most Dangerous Illnesses with translation into Russian for free
In English. The Most Dangerous Illnesses
Every century has brought new illnesses and unknown infections. Whenever the cure is found for one disease, another one appears. For example, several centuries ago the smallpox was a deadly disease. Nowadays, there are enough medical supplies to fight against this disease. However, there aren't enough resources to fight AIDS. It is one of the most dangerous illnesses of the 20th century. AIDS is shortened from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It originated in Africa and became a global epidemic. The virus that leads to AIDS is called HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Although the treatment for this virus exists, it only slows the progress. Unfortunately, there is no cure. The human body is capable of many amazing things, but there are still many diseases which can weaken its force. Cancer is among those diseases. It is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth. Some forms of cancer can be cured by modern medicine but some are deadly. Every year thousands of people die from lung cancer, which can be the result of smoking. That's why doctors always advice not to smoke cigarettes. Surprisingly, the flu can be very dangerous for the human body. It is caused by certain viruses and usually starts with fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, weakness, sometimes coughing. There are lots of modern methods and drugs to fight influenza but in more serious cases it causes pneumonia, which is often fatal. Another dangerous illness is malaria. It is an infectious disease caused by parasites. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. There are many other unpleasant and dangerous diseases, however, most of them can be cured at early stages.
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