Course of the Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) is a war of two coalitions for hegemony in Europe, as well as for colonial possessions in North America and India.
general political situation. The reasons
One coalition included England and Prussia, the other - France, Austria and Russia. Between England and France there was a struggle for colonies in North America. Clashes there began as early as 1754, and in 1756 England declared war on France. 1756, January - Anglo-Prussian alliance was concluded. In response, Prussia's main rival, Austria, decided to make peace with its old enemy France.
The Austrians wanted to regain Silesia, while the Prussians hoped to conquer Saxony. Sweden joined the Austro-French defensive alliance, hoping to win Stettin and other territories from Prussia that were lost during the Great Northern War. By the end of the year, Russia joined the Anglo-French coalition, hoping to conquer East Prussia in order to transfer it to Poland later in exchange for Courland and Semigallia. Prussia was supported by Hanover and several small North German states.
The course of hostilities
1756 - invasion of Saxony
The King of Prussia had a well-trained army of 150,000, at that time the best in Europe. 1756, August - he invaded Saxony with an army of 95 thousand people and inflicted a number of defeats on the Austrian army, which came to the aid of the Saxon elector. On October 15, the 20,000-strong Saxon army capitulated at Pirna, and its soldiers joined the ranks of the Prussian army. After that, the 50,000th Austrian army left Saxony.
Attack on Bohemia, Silesia
1757, spring - the Prussian king invaded Bohemia with an army of 121.5 thousand people. At this time, the Russian army had not yet begun the invasion of East Prussia, and France was going to act against Magdeburg and Hanover. On May 6, near Prague, 64,000 Prussians defeated 61,000 Austrians. Both sides in this battle lost 31.5 thousand killed and wounded, and the Austrian troops also lost 60 guns. As a result, 50,000 Austrians were blocked in the capital of the Czech Republic by a 60,000-strong Prussian army. To unblock Prague, the Austrians gathered at Kolin the 54,000th army of General Down with 60 guns. She moved to Prague. Friedrich fielded 33 thousand people with 28 heavy guns against the Austrian troops.
Battles of Kolin, Rosbach and Leuthen
1757, June 17 - Prussian troops began to bypass the right flank of the Austrian position at Kolin from the north, but Daun was able to notice this maneuver in time and deployed his forces with a front to the north. When the next day the Prussians went on the attack, inflicting the main blow against the enemy's right flank, they were met with heavy fire. The Prussian infantry of General Gulsen was able to occupy the village of Krzegory, but the tactically important oak grove behind it remained in the hands of the Austrians.
Down moved his reserve here. Finally, the main forces of the Prussians, concentrated on the left flank, could not withstand the rapid fire of enemy artillery, which fired grapeshot, and fled. Here the Austrian troops of the left flank went on the attack. Down's cavalry pursued the defeated enemy for several kilometers. The remnants of the Prussian army retreated to Nimburg.
Down's victory was the result of a one-and-a-half superiority of the Austrians in people and a twofold advantage in artillery. Frederick's army lost 14 thousand killed, wounded and captured and almost all artillery, and the Austrians - 8 thousand people. The Prussian king was forced to lift the siege of Prague and retreat to the border of Prussia.
Clockwise from top left: Battle of Plasse (June 23, 1757); Battle of Carillon (July 6-8, 1758); Battle of Zorndorf (August 25, 1758); Battle of Kunersdorf (August 12, 1759)
The strategic position of Prussia seemed critical. Allied forces numbering up to 300 thousand people were deployed against the Prussian army. Frederick 2 decided to first defeat the French army, reinforced by the troops of the principalities allied with Austria, and then again invade Silesia.
The 45,000-strong allied army took up a position near Müheln. Frederick, who had only 24 thousand soldiers, was able to lure the enemy out of the fortifications with a false retreat to the village of Rossbach. The French hoped to cut off the Prussian army from crossings over the Saale River and defeat it.
November 5, 1757, in the morning - the allies marched in three columns around the enemy left flank. This maneuver was covered by an 8,000-strong detachment, which started a skirmish with the Prussian vanguard. Friedrich was able to unravel the enemy's plan and at half past three in the afternoon he ordered to withdraw from the camp and simulate a withdrawal to Merseburg. The Allies attempted to intercept the escape route by sending their cavalry around Janus Hill. But she was unexpectedly attacked and defeated by the Prussian cavalry under the command of General Seidlitz.
At this time, under the cover of heavy fire from 18 artillery batteries, the Prussian infantry went on the offensive. The allied infantry had to line up in battle formation under enemy nuclei. Soon she was under the threat of a flank attack by the Seidlitz squadrons, faltered and ran. The French and their allies lost 7,000 killed, wounded and captured, and all their artillery - 67 guns and a convoy. The losses of the Prussian army were insignificant - only 540 killed and wounded. Here, both the qualitative superiority of the Prussian cavalry and artillery, and the mistakes of the allied command, affected. The French commander-in-chief started a complex maneuver, as a result, most of the army was in marching columns and was not able to take part in the battle. Friedrich got the opportunity to beat the enemy in parts.
Meanwhile, the Prussian army in Silesia was defeated. Frederick rushed to their aid with 21,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry, and 167 guns. The Austrians settled down near the village of Leiten on the banks of the Weistritsa River. They had 59 thousand infantry, 15 thousand cavalry and 300 guns. 1757, December 5, morning - the Prussian cavalry threw back the Austrian vanguard, depriving the enemy of the opportunity to observe Frederick's army. Therefore, the attack of the main forces of the Prussian army was a complete surprise for the Austrian commander-in-chief, Duke Charles of Lorraine.
The Prussian king, as always, delivered the main blow on his right flank, but by the actions of the avant-garde he drew the attention of the enemy to the opposite wing. When Karl realized the true intentions and began to rebuild his army, the Austrians' order of battle was broken. Frederick took advantage of this for a flank attack. The Prussian cavalry routed the Austrian cavalry on the right flank and put them to flight. Then Seydlitz also attacked the Austrian infantry, which had previously been pushed back behind Leithen by the Prussian infantry. Only darkness saved the remnants of the Austrian army from complete annihilation. The Austrians lost 6.5 thousand people killed and wounded and 21.5 thousand prisoners, as well as all artillery and convoy. The losses of the Prussian army did not exceed 6 thousand people. Silesia was again under Prussian control.
Frederick II the Great
East Prussia
Meanwhile, Russian troops began active hostilities. Back in the summer of 1757, the 65,000-strong Russian army under the command of Field Marshal S.F. Apraksin moved to Lithuania, intending to capture East Prussia. In August, the Russian army approached Koenigsberg.
On August 19, the 22,000th detachment of the Prussian General Lewald attacked the Russian army near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, having no idea either about the true number of the enemy, who was almost three times superior to him, or about his location. Instead of the left flank, Levald found himself in front of the center of the Russian position. The regrouping of the Prussian forces during the battle only exacerbated the situation. The right flank of Lewald turned out to be overturned, which could not be compensated for by the success of the left-flank Prussian troops, who captured the enemy battery, but did not have the opportunity to develop success. The losses of the Prussians amounted to 5 thousand killed and wounded and 29 guns, the losses of the Russians reached 5.5 thousand people. The Russian troops did not pursue the retreating enemy, and the battle at Gross-Egersdorf had no decisive significance.
Unexpectedly, Apraksin gave the order to retreat, citing the lack of supplies and the separation of the army from their bases. The field marshal was accused of treason and put on trial. The only success was the capture of Memel by 9,000 Russian troops. This port was turned into the main base of the Russian fleet for the duration of the war.
1758 - the new commander-in-chief, General-in-Chief Count V.V. Fermor, with a 70,000th army with 245 guns, was able to easily occupy East Prussia, captured Koenigsberg and continued the offensive to the west.
Battle of Zorndorf
In August, a general battle took place between the Russian and Prussian troops near the village of Zorndorf. On the 14th, the Prussian king, who had 32,000 soldiers and 116 guns, attacked Fermor's army here, in which there were 42,000 people and 240 guns. The Prussians managed to press the Russian army, which had retreated to Kalisz. Fermor lost 7,000 killed, 10,000 wounded, 2,000 prisoners, and 60 guns. Friedrich's losses reached 4 thousand killed, more than 6 thousand wounded, 1.5 thousand prisoners. Frederick did not pursue the defeated army of Fermor, but headed for Saxony.
Map of the Seven Years' War
1759 - Battle of Kunersdorf
1759 - Fermor was replaced by Field Marshal Count P.S. Saltykov. By this time, the Allies had put up 440 thousand people against Prussia, whom the Prussian king could only oppose with 220 thousand. On June 26, the Russian army set out from Poznan to the Oder River. On July 23, at Frankfurt an der Oder, she joined the Austrian army. On July 31, the king of Prussia with a 48,000th army took up a position near the village of Kunersdorf, hoping to meet here the combined Austro-Russian forces, which largely outnumbered his troops.
Saltykov's army numbered 41 thousand people, and the Austrian army of General Down - 18.5 thousand people. On August 1, the Prussians attacked the left flank of the allied forces. The Prussian troops succeeded in capturing an important height here and placing a battery there, which brought down fire on the center of the Russian army. The Prussians pressed the center and the right flank of the Russians. But Saltykov was able to create a new front and go on a general counteroffensive. After a 7-hour battle, the Prussian army retreated behind the Oder in disarray. Immediately after the battle, Frederick had only 3,000 soldiers at hand, as the rest scattered around the surrounding villages, and they had to be gathered under the banners for several days.
Frederick's army lost 18 thousand people killed and wounded, the Russians - 13 thousand, and the Austrians - 2 thousand. Due to the heavy losses and fatigue of the soldiers, the Allies were unable to organize the pursuit, which saved the Prussians from the final defeat. After Kunersdorf, the Russian army, at the request of the Austrian emperor, was transferred to Silesia, where the Prussian army also suffered a number of defeats.
1760-1761
The campaign of 1760 proceeded sluggishly. Only at the end of September was a raid on Berlin undertaken. The first assault on the city, undertaken on the 22-23rd of the 5th thousand. detachment of General Totleben, ended in failure. Only with the approach of the 12,000th corps of General Chernyshev and the detachment of the Austrian General Lassi, the Prussian capital was besieged by the 38,000th allied army (of which 24,000 were Russians), 2.5 times greater than the number of the Prussian army concentrated near Berlin. The Prussians chose to leave the city without a fight. On September 28, the 4,000-strong garrison that covered the retreat capitulated. In the city, 57 guns were captured and gunpowder factories and an arsenal were blown up. Because Friedrich hurried to Berlin with the main forces of the army, Field Marshal Saltykov ordered Chernyshev's corps and other detachments to retreat. Berlin itself was not of strategic importance.
The campaign of 1761 proceeded as sluggishly as the previous one. In December, Rumyantsev's corps was taken by Kolberg.
The final stage. Results
The position of the Prussian king seemed hopeless, but the emperor, who replaced the Russian throne in early 1762, bowed to the military genius of Frederick II, stopped the war and even concluded an alliance with Prussia on May 5. At the same time, after the destruction of its fleet by the British, France withdrew from the war, having suffered a number of defeats from the British in North America and India. True, in July 1762, Peter was deposed on the orders of his wife. She terminated the Russo-Prussian alliance, but did not continue the war. An excessive weakening of Prussia was not in the interests of Russia, as it could lead to Austrian hegemony in Central Europe.
Austria was forced to make peace with Prussia on February 15, 1763. The King of Prussia was forced to renounce his claims to Saxony, but retained Silesia. Five days earlier, peace had been concluded in Paris between England and France. The French lost their possessions in Canada and India, retaining only 5 Indian cities in their hands. The left bank of the Mississippi also passed from France to England, and the French were forced to cede the right bank of this river to the Spaniards, and they also had to pay compensation to the latter for Florida ceded to the British.
Russia had to enter into an armed struggle with Prussia in the years Seven Years' War(1756-1763). The Seven Years' War was all-European. According to the definition of one of its organizers, the head of the British government W. Pitt, she was supposed to "cut the Gordian knot of Anglo-French contradictions on the German" battlefield ". England and France fought for colonies in America and Asia and for dominance at sea. Strengthened England dealt crushing blows to the colonial possessions and maritime communications of France. The Anglo-French feuds were supplemented by the Austro-Prussian rivalry for hegemony in Germany and the aggressive policy of Frederick II. These three circumstances led to the conflict that resulted in the Seven Years' War.
Distribution of forces. On the eve of the Seven Years' War there was a regrouping of forces in Europe. England, striving for the complete isolation of France, at the beginning of 1756 concluded an agreement with Prussia, which stipulated mutual assistance of the two countries in the upcoming war. Such an unexpected turn of events posed before the Russian government the question of defining its relations with England and France. As a result, the line on the Russian-Austrian-French alliance prevailed at court, which was defended by the admirer of France, Vice-Chancellor M.I. Vorontsov, who to a certain extent diverged from Bestuzhev's guidelines for Russia's cooperation with England and Austria in curbing Prussian aggression. As a result, a coalition of states was formed consisting of Austria, France and Russia, which were later joined by Sweden and Saxony. England alone took the side of Prussia, supporting her ally with huge subsidies.
Move. In July 1757. the Russian army of S. F. Apraksin (80 thousand people) entered East Prussia, occupied Memel, Tilsit, approached Koenigsberg and August 19, 1757 defeated the Prussian corps of X. Lewald at Gross Jaegersdorfe. Apraksin, who was afraid of trouble in the event of the death of the often ill Elizabeth and the coming to power of an admirer of Prussia, Peter III, did not develop success, the officers refused to obey him, he was soon dismissed and arrested. His successor, VV Fermor, took Koenigsberg, East Prussia swore allegiance to the Russian Empress. AT August 1758. Frederick II attacked the Russian army under Zorndorf. During the battle, Fermor fled from the battlefield, confident in defeat; the enemy attacks were still repulsed, albeit at the cost of huge losses. Replaced Fermor P. S. Saltykov in June 1759 he took Brandenburg, and in July he defeated Wedel's Prussian corps near Padzig. Capturing Frankfurt on the Oder, he linked up with the Austrians and August 11759. defeated Frederick II Kunersdorf. As a result of the 1759 campaign, the Prussian front no longer existed. . The way to Berlin was free, but due to the inconsistency of the actions of the allies, the campaign against Berlin was postponed until 1760. September 1760 the detachment of Z. G. Chernyshev took 3 days Berlin. Arms factories, foundries and cannon yards, gunpowder stores were destroyed in the city. Berlin was forced to pay a large contribution, and the keys to it were sent to Elizaveta Petrovna. The capture of Berlin, according to the plan of the Russian command, was an operation aimed at disorganizing the economic and political center of Prussia. After this goal was achieved, the withdrawal of Russian troops began. However, the Seven Years' War was not over yet. 1761 troops of P. L. Rumyantsev took the fortress Kolberg.
Results. The position of Prussia was hopeless, but it was saved by a sharp turn in the foreign policy of Russia, caused by the accession to the throne of Peter III on December 25, 1761. On the very first day of his reign, he sent a letter to Frederick II, in which he announced his intention to establish with him "eternal friendship ". April 1762. was signed peace treatywith Prussia and Russia withdrew from the Seven Years' War. The new emperor broke off the military alliance with Austria, stopped hostilities against Prussia, returned East Prussia to Friedrich, and even offered him military assistance. Only the overthrow of Peter III prevented Russia's participation in the war against its former allies. However, Russia no longer provided assistance to Austria.
Catherine II, who came to power in June 1762, although she verbally condemned the foreign policy of her predecessor, nevertheless did not resume the war with Prussia and confirmed peace. So, the Seven Years' War did not give Russia any acquisitions. However, it confirmed the strength of the positions won by Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century in the Baltic, strengthened its international prestige, and provided valuable military experience.
Seven Years' War 1756-1763 was provoked by the clash of interests of Russia, France and Austria on the one hand and Portugal, Prussia and England (in union with Hanover) on the other. Each of the states that entered the war, of course, pursued its own goals. Thus, Russia tried to increase its influence in the West.
The beginning of the war was laid by the battle of the fleets of England and France near the Balearic Islands on May 19, 1756. It ended with the victory of the French. Land operations began later - on August 28. The army under the command of the Prussian king Frederick 2 invaded the lands of Saxony, and later began the siege of Prague. At the same time, the French army occupied Hanover.
Russia entered the war in 1757. In August, the Russian army suffered heavy losses, but won the battle of Gross-Jägersdorf, opening the way to East Prussia. However, Field Marshal Apraksin, who commanded the troops, learned about the illness of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Believing that her heir, Pyotr Fedorovich, would soon take the throne, he began to withdraw troops to the Russian border. Later, announcing such actions as treason, the Empress brought Apraksin to court. Fremor took his place as commander. In 1758, the territory of East Prussia was annexed to Russia.
Further events of the seven-year war are brief: the victories won in 1757 by the Prussian army under the command of Friedrich 2 in 1769 were reduced to zero thanks to the successful actions of the Russian-Austrian troops during the Battle of Kunersdorf. By 1761 Prussia was on the brink of defeat. But in 1762 Empress Elizabeth died. Peter 3, who ascended the throne, was a supporter of rapprochement with Prussia. Preliminary peace negotiations held in the autumn of 1762 ended with the conclusion of the Paris Peace Treaty on January 30, 1763. This day is officially considered the date of the end of the seven-year war.
With the exception of the experience of military operations, Russia did not gain anything as a result of this war. France - lost Canada and most of its overseas possessions, Austria lost all rights to Silesia and the county of Galz. The balance of power in Europe has completely changed.
Brief biography of Catherine 2
The German Princess Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerptskaya was born on April 21, 1729. Her family was not rich and the princess received only a home education, which shaped the personality of Catherine 2, the future Russian Empress. In 1744, an event occurred that determined not only the further biography of Catherine 2, but also, in many respects, the fate of Russia. Princess Sophia Augusta was chosen as the bride of the heir to the Russian throne, Peter 3. By invitation Elizabeth Petrovna she arrived at the court. And, having treated Russia as her second homeland, she actively engaged in self-education, studying the language, culture, history of the country in which she was to live.
In 1744, on June 24, she was baptized into Orthodoxy under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. wedding ceremony with Peter 3 took place on August 21, 1745. But, the husband did not pay much attention to the young wife. And Catherine's only entertainment was balls, masquerades and hunting. In 1754, on September 20, Catherine had a son, the future emperor Pavel 1 but the child was immediately taken away from her. Relations with the Empress and Peter 3 deteriorated markedly. Peter 3 had mistresses, and Catherine herself entered into a relationship with the future Polish king Stanislav Poniatowski.
Daughter Anna, born on December 9, 1758, was not accepted by her husband, since Peter 3 had serious doubts about the paternity of the child. Empress Elizabeth by that time was seriously ill. Catherine's secret correspondence with the Austrian ambassador was also revealed. The fate of Catherine the Great could have turned out quite differently if it were not for the support of associates and favorites with whom the wife of Peter 3 surrounded herself.
Peter 3 ascended the throne in 1761 after the death of Elizabeth. Catherine was immediately resettled away from the matrimonial quarters, which were occupied by her mistress. Having become pregnant from G. Orlov, she was forced to hide her position. Her son Alexei was born in the strictest secrecy.
The domestic and foreign policy of Peter 3 caused growing discontent. Clever and active Catherine looked against the backdrop of such "acts" of Peter as the return of Prussia to the lands seized during the Seven Years' War, much more beneficial. In the environment of Peter 3, a conspiracy formed. Supporters of Catherine persuaded the guards to take part in the conspiracy. They took the oath to the future empress in St. Petersburg on June 28, 1762. The next day, Peter 3 was forced to abdicate in favor of his wife and arrested. Shortly thereafter, he was killed. Thus began the reign of Catherine II, called by historians the Golden Age of the Russian Empire.
The domestic policy of Catherine II was determined by the commitment of the Russian Empress to the ideas of the Enlightenment. It was during the period called the enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2 that the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the management system was unified, and the autocracy was strengthened. In order to implement comprehensive and useful reforms for the country, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission, which included deputies from the nobility, townspeople and rural population. But it was not possible to avoid domestic political problems, and the largest of them was the peasant war led by Emeliana Pugacheva 1773 - 1775.
The foreign policy of Catherine II was quite energetic and very successful. The empress sought to secure the southern borders of the country from the claims of Turkey. Perhaps, it was in Turkish companies that the interests of the Russian Empire most sharply clashed with the interests of France and England. The second most important task for Empress Catherine 2 was the annexation of the lands of Belarus and Ukraine to the territory of the empire, which she achieved with the help of the partitions of Poland, carried out jointly by Austria and Prussia. Also, it is worth noting the decree of Catherine 2 on the liquidation of the Zaporizhzhya Sich.
The reign of Empress Catherine II the Great was long and lasted from 1762 to 1796. It was based on the philosophy of the Enlightenment. There is information that Catherine thought about the abolition of serfdom, but did not dare to make such large-scale changes. In the era of Catherine 2, the Hermitage and the Public Library, the Smolny Institute and pedagogical schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg were created. It was during this period that the foundations of civil society in Russia were laid. The death of Catherine 2 came from a cerebral hemorrhage that occurred on November 5, 1796. The Empress died the next day, November 6. Her son, Pavel 1, ascended the Russian throne.
One of the greatest Britons, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, called the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) the "first world war", as it took place on several continents and huge human resources were involved in it.
The Seven Years' War was also called the "first trench war", because it was then that rapidly erected fortifications, redoubts, etc. were involved on a large scale. During the conflict, artillery guns also began to be widely used - the number of artillery in the armies increased by 3 times.
Causes of the war
One of the main causes of the Seven Years' War is considered to be the Anglo-French conflicts in North America. There was a sharp colonial rivalry between the countries. In 1755, a war broke out between England and France in America, during which the indigenous tribes also took part. Officially, the British government declared war already in 1756.It was the conflict between the French and the British that broke all the alliances and agreements that had developed in Western Europe. Prussia, once a weak state, after coming to power of Frederick II, began to gain its power, thereby oppressing France and Austria.
After the war with France had already begun, the British entered into an alliance with a new powerful player in the political arena - with Prussia. Austria, which had previously lost the war to Prussia and ceded Silesia, entered into negotiations with France. In 1755, France and Austria signed a defensive alliance, and in 1756 the Russian Empire also joined this alliance. Thus, Frederick found himself embroiled in a conflict against three powerful states. England, which at that moment did not have a powerful land army, could only help Prussia with funding.
France, Austria and Russia were not interested in the complete destruction of Prussia, but each of them wanted to significantly weaken the country, and then use it in their own interests. Thus, we can say that France, Austria and Russia sought to restore the old political picture of Europe.
The balance of forces of opponents at the beginning of hostilities in Europe
Anglo-Prussian side:
Prussia - 200 thousand people;
England - 90 thousand people;
Hannover - 50 thousand people.
In total, the Anglo-Prussian coalition had 340 thousand fighters at its disposal.
Anti-Prussian coalition:
Spain - 25 thousand people;
Austria - 200 thousand people;
France - 200 thousand people;
Russia - 330 thousand people.
The opponents of the Anglo-Prussian side were able to assemble an army with a total strength of 750 thousand people, which was more than twice the strength of their enemies. Thus, we can see the complete superiority of the anti-Prussian coalition in manpower at the beginning of hostilities.
On August 28, 1756, the Emperor of Prussia, Frederick II the Great, started the war first, without waiting for the moment when his enemies would join forces and march on Prussia.
First of all, Frederick went to war with Saxony. Already on September 12, the Russian Empire reacted to the aggression of Prussia and declared war on that.
In October, an Austrian army was sent to help Saxony, but Frederick defeated it at the Battle of Lobositz. Thus, the Saxon army was left in a stalemate. On October 16, Saxony capitulated, and its fighting forces were forcibly driven into the ranks of the Prussian army.
European theater of operations in 1757
Frederick, again, decided not to wait for aggression from France and the Russian Empire, but planned to defeat Austria in the meantime and throw it out of the conflict.In 1757, the Prussian army enters the Austrian province of Bohemia. Austria sent 60,000 men to stop Frederick, but was defeated, as a result of which the Austrian army was blocked in Prague. In June 1757, Frederick lost the battle to the Austrians without taking Prague, after which he was forced to return to Saxony.
The initiative was intercepted by the Austrian troops and during 1757 they inflicted several defeats on the Prussian army, and in October of the same year they managed to capture the capital of Prussia - Berlin.
Meanwhile, Frederick with the army defended his borders from the West - from the aggression of the French. Upon learning of the fall of Berlin, Friedrich sends 40 thousand soldiers in order to regain the advantage and defeat the Austrians. December 5, leading the army personally, Frederick the Great inflicts a crushing defeat on the Austrians at Leuthen. Thus, the situation at the end of 1757 returned the opponents to the beginning of the year, and the military campaigns eventually ended in a “draw”.
European theater of operations in 1758
After an unsuccessful campaign in 1757, the Russian army under the command of Fermor occupies East Prussia. In 1758, Konigsberg also fell under the onslaught of the Russian army. In August 1858, the Russian army was already approaching Berlin. Frederick advances the Prussian army to meet. On August 14, a battle takes place near the village of Zorndorf. A bloody chaotic battle unleashed, and in the end both armies retreated. The Russian army returned to the Vistula. Frederick withdrew troops to Saxony.
Meanwhile, the Prussian army is fighting against the French. During 1758, Frederick inflicted three major defeats on the French, which also seriously weakened the Prussian army.
European theater of operations in 1759
On July 23, 1759, the Russian army under the command of Saltykov defeated the Prussian army in the Battle of Palzig. Friedrich moved on the Russian army from the south and on August 12, 1759, the battle of Kunersdofr began. With a numerical advantage, the Austrian-Russian army was able to deliver a crushing blow to Frederick. The king had only 3 thousand soldiers left and the road to Berlin was already open.Friedrich understood that the situation was hopeless. And yet, a miracle happened - due to disagreements, the allies left Prussia, not daring to go to Berlin.
In 1759, Friedrich asks for peace, but is refused. The Allies intend to completely defeat Prussia next year by taking Berlin.
Meanwhile, England inflicted a crushing defeat on the French at sea.
European theater of operations in 1760
Although the allies had a numerical advantage, they did not have an agreed plan of action, which Frederick II continued to use.
At the beginning of the year, Frederick with difficulty again gathered an army of 200 thousand people, and already in August 1760, not far from Liegnitz, he defeated the corps of the Austrian army.
Allies storm Berlin
In October 1760, the Allies storm Berlin, but the defenders repulse the attack. On October 8, seeing the advantage of the enemy, the Prussian army deliberately leaves the city. Already on October 9, the Russian army accepts the surrender of the capital of Prussia. Then information about the approach of Frederick reaches the Russian command, after which they leave the capital, and the king of Prussia, having heard about the retreat, deploys the army to Saxony.
On November 3, 1760, one of the largest battles of the war takes place - at Torgau, Frederick defeats the Allied armies.
European theater of operations in 1761-1763
In 1761, neither side was actively fighting. The Allies are sure that the defeat of Prussia cannot be avoided. Friedrich himself thought otherwise.
In 1762, the new ruler of the Russian Empire, Peter III, concludes the Peace of St. Petersburg with Frederick and thereby saves Prussia from defeat. The emperor renounces the occupied territories in East Prussia and sends an army to support Frederick.
Peter's actions caused discontent, as a result of which the emperor was thrown off the throne and he died under strange circumstances. Catherine takes the throne of the Russian Empire. After the empress recalls the army sent to help Prussia, but does not declare war, adhering to the peace agreement of 1762.
In 1762, the Prussian army, taking advantage of the situation, won four big battles against the Austrians and the French, completely returning the initiative to Prussia.
In parallel with the fighting in Europe, a war was going on between the French and the British in North America.
On September 13, 1759, the British won a brilliant victory over the French at Quebec, despite being outnumbered by the enemy. In the same year, the French withdraw to Montreal, and the British take Quebec - Canada was lost to France.
Fighting in Asia
In 1757-1761, the war continues between France and England in India. During the fighting, the French suffered a series of crushing defeats. As a result, in 1861 the capital of the French possessions in India surrendered under the onslaught of the British army.After the victory in India, the British faced a war with the Spaniards in the Philippines. In 1762, the British sent a large fleet to the Philippines and captured Manila, which was defended by a Spanish garrison. And yet, the British did not manage to gain a foothold here completely. After 1763, English troops began to gradually leave the Philippines.
The reason for the end of the war was the complete exhaustion of the warring parties. On May 22, 1762, Prussia and France signed a peace treaty. On November 24, Prussia and Austria abandoned hostilities.
On February 10, 1763, Great Britain and France signed a peace treaty.
The war ended with a complete victory for the Anglo-Prussian side. As a result, Prussia significantly strengthened its position in Europe and became an important player in the international arena.
France lost control of India and Canada during the war. Russia, on the other hand, gained nothing during the war but military experience. England got India and Canada.
Approximately 1.5 million people died during the hostilities, including civilians. Prussian and Austrian sources speak of a figure of 2 million people.
Seven Years' War 1756-1763
The outcome of the war Austrian inheritance(1740–1748) turned Prussia into a great European power.
The main causes of the war:
1) the aggressive plans of Frederick II to gain political hegemony in Central Europe and acquire neighboring territories;
2) the clash of the aggressive policy of Prussia with the interests of Austria, France and Russia; they wanted the weakening of Prussia, its return to the borders that existed before the Silesian wars. Thus, the participants in the coalition waged a war for the restoration of the old system of political relations on the continent, violated by the results of the War of the Austrian Succession;
3) the aggravation of the Anglo-French struggle for colonies.
Opposing sides:
1) anti-Prussian coalition– Austria, France, Russia, Spain, Saxony, Sweden;
2) Prussian supporters- UK and Portugal.
Frederick II started a preventive war with an attack August 29, 1756 to Saxony, occupied and ruined it. Thus began the second largest war of the era - Seven Years' War 1756–1763 The victories of the Prussian army of Frederick II in 1757 at Rosbach and Leuten were nullified by the victory of the Russian-Austrian troops in the Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759. Frederick II even intended to abdicate, but the situation changed dramatically due to the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna (1762) . Her successor was Peter III, an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick II, who renounced all claims to Prussia. In 1762 he concluded an alliance with Prussia and withdrew from the war. Catherine II terminated it, but resumed the war. The two main conflict lines of the Seven Years' War - colonial and European- corresponded to the two peace treaties concluded in 1763. On February 15, 1763, the Peace of Hubertusburg was concluded Austria and Saxony with Prussia based on the status quo. The borders of states in Europe remained unchanged. On November 10, 1763, the Peace of Paris was concluded at Versailles. between England on the one hand, and France and Spain on the other. The Peace of Paris confirmed all treaties between countries since the Peace of Westphalia. The Peace of Paris, along with the Treaty of Hubertusburg, ended the Seven Years' War.
The main results of the war:
1. The victory of Great Britain over France, because. across the ocean, England took possession of the richest colonies of France and became the largest colonial power.
2. Falling prestige and the actual role of France in European affairs, which led to its complete disregard in deciding the fate of one of its main satellites – Poland.
