For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before a vowel. Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake characterizing a consonant in a strong position: [dacha] - Yes´ cha,[t'l'iv'i´zar] - television´ zor,[s’ino´n’ima] - sino´ nims, [b'ir'o´zy] - birches, [karz "and´ny] - corzi´ us. All consonants in these examples are before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.
Strong positions in voicelessness:
before vowels: [there] - there, [ladies] - ladies,
before unpaired voiced [p], [p '], [l], [l '], [n], [n '], [m], [m '], [th ']: [dl'a] - for,[tl'a] - aphids,
Before [in], [in ']: [own'] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.
Remember:
In a strong position, voiced and deaf consonants do not change their quality.
Weak positions in deafness-voicedness:
in front of pairs for deafness-voicedness: [sla´tk’y] - sla´ dkiy, [zu´pk'i] - zu´ bki.
at the end of a word: [zoop] - tooth,
[dup]
- oak.
End of work -
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Phonetics. Graphic arts. Orthoepy. Accentology
Phonetics (Greek Phone - sound) is a section of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language: the sounds of human speech, the methods of their formation, acoustic properties,
Speech sounds
Speech sounds are the sounds that make up words. Speech sounds are the smallest sound unit that stands out during sequential sound division.
The following symbols are used to represent sounds.
1. To distinguish a sound from a letter, the sounds are enclosed in square brackets - . [a], [o], [l]. The entire transcription is enclosed in square brackets.
Vowels and consonants
Depending on the method of formation, sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. The vowel sounds consist only of the voice. When arr
Vowels and consonants
1. In the formation of each specific sound, the movement of the organs of speech is strictly individual. For example, when forming sounds [d], [t], the tip and front part
Consonants
There are 36 consonants in Russian, including 15 pairs of hardness-softness, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants.
Voiced and voiceless consonants
Depending on the presence of a voice, consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Sounds consisting of noise and voice are called calls and m and: [b], [c], [g
Hard and soft consonants
Consonants are divided into hard and soft sounds. The pronunciation of hard and soft sounds differs in the position of the tongue. Compare, for example
Speech sounds and letters. Alphabet
Sounding speech in a letter is transmitted using special graphic signs - letters. We pronounce and hear sounds, and we see and write letters. List of letters in specific order
Speech sounds and letters
1. In accordance with what sounds are indicated by letters, all letters are divided into vowels and consonants. Vowels 10:
Transcription
Transcription is a special recording system that displays the sound. The following symbols are accepted in transcription: - square brackets, which are the designation of transcription.
Vowels and consonants
Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. Vowels are sounds
Method of formation of consonants
Consonants are sounds, during the pronunciation of which the air meets an obstacle in its path. In Russian, there are two types of barriers: a gap and a bow - these are the two main ways of forming according to
Voiced and voiceless consonants
According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and deaf.
The designation of the softness of consonants in writing
Let's digress from pure phonetics. Consider a practically important question: how is the softness of consonants indicated in writing? There are 36 consonants in Russian, among which there are 15 pairs of hardness-m
Place of formation of consonants
Consonants differ not only in terms of signs already known to you: deafness-voicedness, hardness-softness, method of formation: bow-slit. The last one is important
Strong-weak positions for vowels. Positional vowel changes. Reduction
People do not use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it. Speech is a sound stream, but a stream organized in a certain way. The conditions in which one or another finds himself are important.
Positional changes of consonants according to deafness-voicedness
In weak positions, consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced ones become deaf, i.e. deafened, and the deaf - voiced, i.e. voiced. Positional changes of observations
Assimilation of consonants
The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by the likeness of sounds if they are similar in some way and at the same time are close. Learn the list: [c] and [w] → [w:] - stitch
Simplifying consonant clusters
Learn the list: vst - [stv]: hello, feel zdn - [zn]: late zdts - [sts]: under the bridle lnts - [nts]: sun
Letters and sounds
Letters and sounds have different purposes and different nature. But these are comparable systems. Poe
stress
Word stress is the emphasis on the greater power of the voice and the duration of the pronunciation of one of the syllables in the word. In Russian, stress is free (various
stress
Stress is the selection of a group of words, a single word or a syllable in a word. In Russian, the stressed element is pronounced with greater force, more distinctly and with more
Russian word stress (compared to other languages) has a number of features
1. In many languages, the stress is fixed, constant, that is, the stress is assigned to a certain syllable in a word. In French, the stress is always pa.
Vowel pronunciation
1. Vowels under stress are pronounced distinctly: boron - [boron], garden - [sat]. 2. In an unstressed position, vowel sounds, like
Pronunciation of consonants
1. Consonants, paired in deafness-voicedness, can change their quality depending on the position in the word. Voiced consonants at the end of a word and before deaf ones are stunned, i.e. pronunciation
Pronunciation of consonant combinations
1. The combinations of szh, zzh, ssh, zsh at the junction of the prefix and the root, the root and the suffix are pronounced like long hard consonants [g], [w]: compress - [g] at, carrying - ve [w] y, n
Pronunciation of the endings -th -th
In the endings of the -th, -of its genitive case of adjectives and participles of the masculine and neuter gender, in place of the letter g, the sound [v] is pronounced: good - good [in
Pronunciation of loanwords
1. Before the letter e in many borrowed words, the consonants [d], [t], [h], [s], [n], [p] are pronounced firmly: antenna - an [te] nna, model - mo [de]
Some accentological norms of the modern Russian language
1. For a number of feminine nouns of the 1st declension with an accent on the ending, the accent in the accusative case of the singular is transferred to the first syllable: head
When analyzing the position of a consonant phoneme, it should be remembered that strong position is a position of distinction, i.e. a position in which both phonemes, paired according to a certain feature, can be realized while maintaining their distinctive ability. Position<т>before<о>is a strong position on the participation of voice and noise, since in this position, a steam room can act for her in deafness / sonority<д>, for example:<то>m -<до>m. In the position of the absolute end of the word<т>will be in a weak position on this basis, tk. in this position it is impossible to contrast phonemes<д> - <т>. However, the phoneme<т>in the position of the absolute end of the word, it turns out to be in a strong position in terms of hardness / softness, tk. at the absolute end of the word can be realized as a solid phoneme<т 1 >, and its paired soft phoneme<т’ 1 >: <т 1 > <сут 1 >,<сут’ 1 >. The absence of one of the members of a pair of phonemes in a certain position allows us to consider the position as weak, since in it the phoneme loses its distinctive ability.
Note: Strong and weak positions are determined only for phonemes that are paired according to a certain feature.
A position that is weak on the basis of deafness / voicedness, but strong on the basis of the presence / absence of palatalization, is indicated by the index 1 .
A position that is weak on the basis of hardness / softness, but strong on the basis of the participation of voice and noise, is indicated by the index 2 .
The position of consonant phonemes, which is weak both in deafness/voicing and in hardness/softness, is indicated by the index 3 .
For deafness/voicedness
Paired deafness / voiced phonemes clearly differ in position before any vowel phoneme, before a sonorous phoneme and before strong phonemes<в> - <в’>. In these positions, paired consonant phonemes perform a significative function, i.e. retain the ability to distinguish between sound shells of words, word forms and morphemes, for example:
In the position of the absolute end of the word, phonemes that are paired in deafness/voicedness lose their distinctive ability, cease to perform a significative function, because voiced consonant phonemes cannot appear in this position, for example: dó<г>a - to<к>but to<к 1 >. The position of neutralization, i.e. indistinguishing noisy voiced / deaf, is also a position in front of any noisy phoneme, except<в> - <в’>. In a position in front of noisy voiced consonants, only noisy voiced sounds can appear, in a position in front of noisy deaf ones - only noisy deaf ones, for example: ú<з>ok - u<с 1 >to; sing<с>ok - poya<с 1 >ki. Therefore, phonemes<з>and<с>lose their distinctive ability, being replaced by one weak phoneme<с 1 >.
Information about the positions of phonemes will be summarized using a table.
Strong and weak positions of consonant phonemes
By hardness / softness
In a strong position, both phonemes can act, paired on the basis of hardness / softness, while maintaining the semantic ability. For example, in position before a vowel phoneme:<лу́к> - <л’у́к>. It should be noted that the position in front of<е>, because in this position, both soft and hard phonemes can appear in root morphemes, for example:<ме́>tr (teacher, mentor) -<м’е́>tr. In the position of the absolute end of the word, where deaf / voiced phonemes are not distinguished, both hard and soft phonemes can appear, paired according to this feature, for example: kroʹ<фı>-kro<ф’ı>. In front of the back lingual phoneme, the front lingual and labial phonemes retain their distinctive ability, having pairs of hardness / softness, for example: Ce<рг’>she - se<р’г’>e; ple<т 1 к>a - sya<т’ı-к>a; so<пı к>a - sy<п’ıк>a.
In a weak position in terms of hardness / softness, it is neutralized from the opposition of phonemes on this basis, phonemes lose their distinctive ability. For example, in a position in front of a dental or palatine-dental anterior-lingual phoneme, only a hard labial phoneme can appear:<п 2 р’>ivet; about<п 2 р>os. In a position in front of a hard front-lingual phoneme, only hard dental phonemes are realized:<з 2 на́л> - <с 2 -на́м’и>. In this position, hard and soft anterior lingual are not distinguished.
Information about the strong and weak positions of consonant phonemes, paired on the basis of hardness / softness, can be presented in the form of a table:
| Strong positions in hardness/softness | Weak positions in hardness/softness |
| 1. Before a vowel phoneme, including before a phoneme<е> <да́>ma -<д’а́>ya;<со́>to -<с’о́>to; inter<не́>t -<н’е́>t | 1. The position of any consonant phoneme in front of the phoneme |
| 2. At the absolute end of the word plo<т 1 >- plo<т’ 1 >; mo<л>- mo<л’> | 2. Lip phonemes before anterior lingual ones (only hard labials can appear)<п 2 р>avo;<п 2 р’>went |
| 3. Front lingual phonemes before back lingual steʹ<нк>a - Ste<н’к>a; wah<рк>a - wah<р’- к>a | 3. Anterior-lingual dental phonemes in front of dental and palatine-dental (only soft allophones of phonemes appear in front of soft phonemes, only hard allophones in front of hard phonemes):<з 2 л’и́т’>; < с 2 л’и́т’>; <з 2 ло́j>; <с 2 ло́j>. Exception: phonemes<л> - <л’>; <н> - <н’>(see: "Strong positions in hardness / softness", No. 6) |
| 4. Lip phonemes before posterior coʹ<п 1 к>a - sy<п’ 1 -к>a; hundred<ф 1 к>a - hundred<ф’ 1 -к>a | 4. Palatodental<р> - <р’>in front of the labio-dental and front-lingual (only solid allophones of phonemes can appear):<р 2 в’о́т 1 >; <р 2 ва́л> |
| 5. Front-lingual phonemes before lip-labial phonemes<см>oh - in<с’м>oh; then<рб>a - gu<р’б>a | 5. Labial consonant phonemes before labials:<р’и́ф 2 мα 1 >(Im.p.);<р’и́ф 2 м’α 1 >(L.p., E.p.) |
| 6. Phonemes<л>and<л’>before any consonant phoneme except | 6. Back-lingual phonemes before any consonant phoneme:<к 2 ну́т 1 >, <мок 2 н’ α 1 т 1 > |
| 7. Phonemes<н>and<н’>before phonemes<ж>and<ш>pla<нш>et - me<н’ш>e; ma<нж>em - de<н’ж>ata |
Note: For more information about the weak positions of consonants in terms of hardness / softness, see: Avanesov R.I. Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language. M., 1956, p. 175-182.
A phoneme can be in a strong position at the same time in terms of deafness/voicing and hardness/softness. This position is called absolutely strong, for example, the position before a vowel phoneme:<до́>m -<то́>m;<до́>m - and<д’о́>m. There are positions in which the deafness / voicedness of paired phonemes differs, but the hardness / softness does not differ, for example:<с 2 р>azu -<з 2 р>basics. In certain positions, the phoneme retains the ability to differentiate from paired ones in terms of hardness / softness, but appears in a weak position in terms of deafness / voicedness, for example, in the position of the absolute end of a word: kroʹ<ф ı >- kro<ф’ ı >, scale<ф ı >- ver<ф’ ı >. Absolutely weak phonemes appear in positions in which oppositions are lost both in deafness/voicedness and in hardness/softness. For example, noisy anterior-lingual dental in position in front of noisy anterior-lingual dental and palatine-dental ones do not differ from their paired phonemes in terms of deafness/voicedness and hardness/softness:<с 3 т>he. Phoneme<с 3 >is in an absolutely weak position, because before a noisy deaf consonant, only a noisy deaf consonant can appear, and before a hard dental consonant, only a hard dental one is used as part of the root, i.e. no distinction<с>- <з>; <с> - <с’>.
The composition of vowel phonemes in the system of the Russian language is determined on the basis of their meaningful role in a strong position. For the vowel phonemes of the Russian language, the position under stress not between soft consonants is absolutely strong (both perceptually and significatively). However, in a perceptually weak position, the phoneme does not enter into neutralization with other phonemes, therefore, to determine the composition of vowel phonemes, it is sufficient to take into account which position is significatively strong. For the vowel phonemes of the Russian language, this is the position under stress. In this position, six vowels are distinguished: [a] - [o] - [i] - [s] - [e] - [y]. But two vowels positionally alternate: [and] / [s]. Positionally alternating sounds are representatives of one phoneme. In a perceptually strong position - after and between solid consonants [s] appears, however, only [s] occurs at the beginning of a word, therefore it is considered to be the main version of the phoneme, and [s] only a variation of the phoneme<и>. So, the composition of the vowel phonemes of the Russian language is as follows:<а>– <о>–< and> –< e> –< y> (she – [ʌн a ], it – [ʌн about], they [ʌn’ and ], those - [t ' uh ], here at ]).
Significatively weak for Russian phonemes is the position not under stress. However, for each phoneme it is individual. Yes, phoneme<у>does not enter into neutralization with any other phoneme. For<а>, <о>all unstressed positions are weak. In position, the first pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants, four vowel phonemes enter into neutralization<а> –< o> – < e> – < and>: h [and e] sy, m [and e] doc, r [and e] ka, l [and e] sa. Perceptually weak for Russian vowels are positions: after soft consonants mint[m'ˑat], before soft consonants mother[matˑt '] and between soft consonants knead [m'ät '].
STRONG AND WEAK POSITIONS OF CONSONANTS AND COMPOSITION OF CONSONANT PHONEMES OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
The composition of voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes is determined by strong positions for voiced and voiceless consonants. Strong positions are:
1) Before vowels: ko[z]a - ko[s]a (<з> – <с>);
2) Before sonorant consonants: [z'l ']it - [s'l']it (<з’> – <’с>);
3) Before / in /, / in ’/: in [s’v ’] ut - [s’v ’] ut (<з’>– <’с>).
Weak positions for voiced and voiceless noisy consonants:
1) At the end of the word: ro [d] a-ro [t], r [t] a - ro [t] (<д>neutralized with<т>in option [t]);
2) Before a voiced consonant: ko[s']it - ko[z'b]a (<с’>neutralized with<з’>in the variant [h ']);
3) Before deaf consonants: lo [d] points - lo [tk] a (<д>neutralized with<т>option [t]).
Sonorant consonants do not neutralize with any other consonant phonemes on the basis of voiced/deafness, so all positions for them are strong on this basis.
In terms of hardness-softness, strong positions for consonant phonemes of the Russian language are:
1) Before vowels<а>, <о>, <и>, <у>, <э>: garden - sit down (<д> – <д’>), nose - carried (<н> – <н’>), bow - hatch (<л> – <л’>), soap - mil (<м> – <м’>), pole - slot (<ш> –<ш’:>);
2) At the end of the word: horse - horse (<н> – <н’>), angle – coal (<л> – <л’>);
3) Before back-lingual consonants: hill - bitterly (<р> – <р’>), shelf - polka (<л> – <л’>).
However, weak positions in terms of hardness-softness are “individual”:
1) For dental consonants - before soft dental consonants: evil - anger (<з>neutralized with<з’>in the variant [h ’]), chant - song (<с>neutralized with<с’>in the variant [c']);
2) For dental consonants - before soft labial consonants: story - dawn (<с>neutralized with<с’>in the variant [c']);
3) For labial consonants - before soft labial consonants: again - together (<в>neutralized with<в’>in the variant [in ']);
4) For dental<н>- in front of the anterior<ч’>and<ш’:>: boar - boar (<н>neutralized with<н’>in the variant [n ']), deception is a deceiver (<н’>neutralized with<н’>in the variant [n ']).
Requires special comment position before a vowel<э>. For centuries, the Russian language had a law: a consonant, falling into a position before<э>, softened. Indeed, in native Russian words before<э>the consonant is always soft: forest, river, light, summer, wind. The exception is hard hissing (rustling, gesture), but they were originally soft. Therefore, the position before<э>for consonants it was weak in hardness-softness. In 20-30 years. XX century there have been changes in the phonetic system of the Russian language. On the one hand, abbreviations are actively formed, which become common words: NEP, DNEPROGES, power lines. On the other hand, many borrowings, passing into the category of mastered ones, bypass the stage of phonetic adaptation. So, the words in common use, without a doubt, include the words: antenna, atelier, stand, tennis, muffler. consonant before<э>these words are pronounced firmly. Thus before<э>in modern Russian, hard and soft consonants are possible. This means that the position has changed from weak to strong.
In fact, all positions are strong in hardness-softness, except for the weak ones listed above. The range of weak positions in terms of hardness-softness has narrowed over the past 50-80 years. The "destroyed" positional patterns include:
1) Softening consonants before
2) Softening of the labials in front of the soft posterior lingual: paws [lap'k'i], rags [tr'ap'k'i].
In fact, the positional patterns of softening of the labials before the soft labials and the teeth before the soft labials are also in the stage of destruction. The Russian Grammar indicates possible pronunciation options in these positions: [s'v'et] and [sv'et], [v'm'es't'] and [vm'es't']. The reasons for such changes in the phonetic system of the Russian language will be discussed in the next paragraph.
A special position in the system for back-lingual consonants. Hard and soft back lingual consonants alternate positionally: soft back lingual consonants are possible only before front vowels<и>, <э>. In these positions, there are no hard back-lingual ones: ru [k] a - ru [k '] and, ru [k '] e; but [g] a - but [g '] and, but [g '] e; sti [x] a - sti [x '] and, o sti [x '] e. Consequently, hard and soft posterior linguals are representatives of the same phonemes. Since hard backlinguals are possible in most positions, they are considered the main variants of consonant phonemes -<г>, <к>, <х..
Thus, the composition of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language is as follows:<б> – <б’> – <п> – <п’> –<в> – <в’> – <ф> – <ф’> – <д> – <д’> – <т> – <т’> – <з> – <з’> – <с> – <с’> – <м> –<м’> – <н> – <н’> – <л> – <л’> – <р> – <р’> – <ж> – <ж’:> – <ш> – <ш’:> – <ч’> – <ц> –
PHONEMATIC TRANSCRIPTION
Phonetic transcription is used to accurately capture sounding speech. Phonemic transcription reflects the composition of phonemes. It is a record of abstract units of the language, not meant to be read.
The procedure for performing phonemic transcription:
1) Perform phonetic transcription;
2) Perform a morphemic analysis of the word (to determine which morpheme a particular phoneme belongs to);
3) Determine the nature of the position for each sound unit (strong position is indicated by "+", weak position - "-");
4) Select checks for all phonemes in weak positions: a) for phonemes in the root of a word - cognate words; b) for phonemes in prefixes - words of any part of speech with the same prefix (with the same meaning); c) for phonemes in suffixes - words with the same suffixes (checks "automatically" will belong to the same part of speech and the same grammatical category); d) for phonemes in endings - words of the same part of speech, the same grammatical category, in the same grammatical form.
5) Transfer the entry to phonemic transcription.
Note. Remember that it is necessary to check the positions of consonants by two parameters - by sonority-deafness and by hardness-softness.
Sample.
1) correspondence [p'yr'i e p'isk];
2) [p'yr'i e -p'is-k-b];
3) [p 'b r 'and e -p 'and s-k-b];
+ - + - + + - + - (for consonants by voicedness / deafness)
+ + + + + (for hardness/softness consonants)
4) Check for vowels in the prefix: P e rewriting, transˈ e abusive; for the root consonant [s], which is in a weak position in voicedness / deafness: rewrite; for an unstressed vowel [ъ] at the end: Spring(the ending of a feminine noun in the singular, nominative case).
5) After checks, we transfer the record to phonemic transcription:<п’эр’эп’иска>.
Performing phonemic transcription of different words, memorize checks for various prefixes, suffixes, endings of different parts of speech in different grammatical forms.
Since it is the phonemic principle that is the basis of Russian graphics and spelling, the recording of a word in phonemic transcription largely coincides with the spelling appearance of the word.
1) What does phonology study? Why is it also called functional phonetics?
2) Define a phoneme. Explain why the phoneme is considered the smallest sound unit of a language. What is the function of the phoneme? Illustrate your answer with examples.
3) What alternations are classified as phonetic positional? Give examples of phonetic positional alternations of vowels and consonants. What are the differences between phonetic non-positional (grammatical positional) alternations? In which case are the alternating sounds representative of one phoneme, in which case are they representative of different phonemes? How can a phoneme be defined in terms of positional alternations?
4) Give a definition of the strong and weak position of phonemes from the perceptual and significative points of view. In which case is the phoneme represented by its main variant? With your variations? Options? What are allophones?
5) Define a hyperphoneme and illustrate your answer with examples.
6) Name strong and weak positions for Russian vowels. What is the composition of the vowel phonemes of the Russian language?
7) Name the strong and weak positions of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language in terms of voicedness - deafness.
8) Name the strong and weak positions of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language in terms of hardness-softness.
9) What is the composition of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language?
Practical tasks
№1 . Write down the definition of the phoneme in your workbook. Justify each word in this definition.
№2 . Pick up rows of words in which vowels, voiced and deaf consonants, hard and soft consonants perform a semantic function. Prove that a semantic function can be performed by the order of sound units in a word.
№3. Determine what alternations are observed in the following cases: a) house - house a- domovik; b) traces - trace; c) play along - signature d) graze - pasture; e) evil - to anger; f) honor - honest; g) walk - I walk; h) frost - freeze; i) table - about the table. Which of these alternations are phonetic positional? Pick up similar examples of phonetic positional and phonetic non-positional alternations.
№4. Transcribe the text. Set possible phonetic positional and non-positional alternations: Snow fell until midnight, darkness fell over the gorges, and then it became quiet, and a young moon rose ... This world, it is driven and alive from time immemorial by transformations, sometimes invisible, sometimes obvious, countless of them(Yu. Levitansky).
№6 . Prove that for alternations [s’]/[w] and [d‘]/[w] in pairs wear - wear, walk - walk there are exceptions and, therefore, these alternations are phonetic non-positional.
№7 . Show what different sounds the phoneme /з/ can be represented (in the preposition without). Indicate the main variant of this phoneme, its variations, options.
№8. Transcribe the words and determine which row of positionally alternating sounds are represented by Phonemes<э>, <о>, <а>: running, running, running; walk, walked, walkers; thunderstorms, thunderstorm, thunderstorm; anger, wisdom; record, record, record.
№9. What phonemes and in what positions are neutralized in the examples of task 3?
№10. Select examples illustrating the neutralization of phonemes:<б> – <п>; <и> – <э>; <э> – <о>; <д> – <д’>.
№11. Transcribe the words. Designate strong and weak positions for vowel phonemes: domovik, honey plant, golden, groovy, subscription, story, kindness, youth, copier, cotton wool, field, strict. Pick up checks for vowels in weak position. Which vowel phonemes do they represent?
№12 . Transcribe the words. Indicate the strong and weak positions of consonant phonemes according to voiced-deafness. Pick up phonemic checks: crab, trace, thunderstorm, long, hawk, braid (short adjective), dexterous, cat, piece of wood, mowing, carving, interspersed, signature, echo, jump, heartless, soundless, laugh, break.
№13 . Write down the words in phonetic transcription, indicating strong and weak positions for consonant phonemes in terms of hardness-softness: elephant, horse, hill, bitterly, goat, song, together, with Vitya, racer, boar, cog, difference, removable, branching. Pick up checks for phonemes in a weak position.
№14 . What are the hyperphonemes in the following words: watercolor, crimson, left-handed, turquoise, wife, lean, suddenly, wax, becoming, light, everywhere?
№15. Give examples of words that have hyperphonemes:<а/о>; <и/э>; <а/о/э>; <а/о/э/и>; <с/з>; <г/к>; <с’/з’>; <т’/д’>; <с/c’/з/з’>.
№16. Perform phonemic transcription of words: young, flew, show, prose writer, stay, riddle, quiet, armchair, sea, play along, wash, kerosene, blind, furnish, closet, delight, asphalt, here.
№19. Using the materials of the paragraph and the completed exercises, write in a notebook and remember the checks for morphemes: a) prefixes on-, for-, under-, re-, roses-; b) suffixes
-ost-, -chik-, -from-, -out-; c) endings of nouns of different types of declension, adjectives, personal endings of verbs; d) infinitive suffix -th and postfix -ss reflexive verbs.
Speech sounds are studied in the section of linguistics called phonetics.
All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.
Vowels can be in strong and weak positions.
Strong position - a position under stress, in which the sound is pronounced clearly, for a long time, with greater force and does not require verification, for example: city, land, greatness.
In a weak position (without stress), the sound is pronounced indistinctly, briefly, with less force and requires verification, for example: head, forest, teacher.
All six vowels are distinguished under stress.
In an unstressed position, instead of [a], [o], [h], other vowels are pronounced in the same part of the word.
So, instead of [o], a slightly weakened sound [a] - [wad] a is pronounced, instead of [e] and [a] in unstressed syllables, [ie] is pronounced - a sound that is middle between [i] and [e], for example: [ m "iesta] , [h "iesy] , [n "iet" brka] , [s * ielo] .
The alternation of strong and weak positions of vowels in the same part of the word is called positional alternation of sounds. The pronunciation of vowel sounds depends on which syllable they are in relation to the stressed one.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, vowels change less, for example: st [o] l - st [a] la.
In the remaining unstressed syllables, the vowels change more, and some do not differ at all and in pronunciation approach zero sound, for example ^: transported - [n "riev" 6s], gardener - [sdavot], water carrier - [vdavbs] (here ъ to ь denote an obscure sound, zero sound).
The alternation of vowels in strong and weak positions is not reflected in the letter, for example: to be surprised is a miracle; in an unstressed position, the letter that denotes the stressed sound in this root is written: to be surprised means “to meet a diva (miracle)”.
This is the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, providing for the uniform spelling of significant parts of the word - root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of position. The morphological principle is subject to the designation of unstressed vowels, checked by stress.
There are 36 consonants in Russian.
The consonant sounds of the Russian language are such sounds, during the formation of which the air meets some kind of barrier in the oral cavity, they consist of a voice and noise, or only of noise.
In the first case, voiced consonants are formed, in the second - deaf. Most often, voiced and deaf consonants form pairs according to voicing-deafness: [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t], [g] - [ w], [h] - [s].
However, some consonants are only deaf: [x] , [ts] , [h "], [w] or only voiced: [l] , [m] , [n] , [p] , [G] . There are also solid and soft consonants. Most of them form pairs: [b] - [b "], [c] - [c"], [g] - [g "], [d] - [d "], [h] - [h "], [k] - [k "], [l] - [l "], [m] - [m *], [n] - [n *], [n] - [n"], [p] - [p "], [s] - [s"], [t] - [t"], [f] - [f"], [x] - [x"]. Solid do not have paired sounds consonants [w], [w], [c] and soft consonants, [h "], [t"].
In a word, consonant sounds can occupy different positions, that is, the location of a sound among other sounds in a word.
The position in which the sound does not change is strong. For a consonant sound, this is the position before the vowel (weak), sonorant (true), before [in] and [in *] (twist). All other positions are weak for consonants.
At the same time, the consonant changes: the voiced before the deaf becomes deaf: hem - [patshyt "]; the deaf before the voiced becomes voiced: request - [prbz" ba]; voiced at the end of the word is stunned: oak - [dup]; the sound is not pronounced: holiday - [praz "n" ik]; hard before soft can become soft: power - [vlas "t"].
1) strong position- pronunciation conditions in which all the differential features of phonemes appear: for vowels under stress and in an open syllable; for consonants- intervocalic position, before vowels and sonorous consonants;
2) weak position- pronunciation conditions in which not all differential features of phonemes appear: for vowels- unstressed position, in a closed syllable; for consonants at the end of a word, before voiceless consonants.
Strong and weak phonemes
Strong phonemes are phonemes with the highest distinctiveness. Stressed vowels are strong phonemes.
Weak phonemes have less distinctiveness, because in a weak position, a phoneme is a substitute for two or even three strong phonemes. So [b] can replace<а>, <о>, <э>: [tantsy e va´t], [shulk/\v´i´ty], [myl/\ka´].
As noted earlier, each phoneme has a number of permanent, position-independent, constitutive features. Among the constitutive features, a differential feature stands out, which is both relevant (correlative) and constitutive at the same time. For<п>such a sign is deafness in relation to<б>: fell, ball. But deafness<п>eliminated in position before a voiced consonant.
If the feature of the phoneme is not relevant, then the constitutive feature is non-differentiating. For example, deafness<ц>- a constitutive irrelevant feature.
The concept of relevance is associated with two rows of phonemes: the first row consists of consonants, paired by deafness-voicedness, the second - consonants, paired by hardness-softness. A position that is strong for one member of the series is strong for all members of the series: h, s´║z´, w║zh, k║g, k´║g´].
Outside of this row, extra-pair consonants remain:<л>, <л´>, <р>, <р´>,m>,<м´>, <н>, <н´>, <ч´>, <х>, <х´>, <ц>, <ш´>,
Strong positions in deafness-voicedness:
1. position before vowels: [do´t] - [to´t];
2. position before sonorants: [gro´t] - [kro´t];
3. position before [j]: [bjo´t] - [pjo´t];
4. position before [in], [in´]: [dv´e´r´] - [tv´e´r´].
Weak positions are:
1. end of word : the code[cat] - cat[cat];
2. for the deaf, the position is in front of the voiced; for the voiced, the position is in front of the deaf: change[task], over the table[ntst/\lo´m].
The second row - phonemes paired in hardness-softness: [п║p´, b║b´, v║v´, f║f´, m║m´, s║s´, z║z´, t║t ´, d║d´, l║l´, n║n´, r║p´, g║g´, k║k´, x║x´].
Outside the pairs remain: consonants:<ц>, <ч>, <ж>, <ш>, <ш´>,
Strong positions in hardness-softness:
1. end of the word: [sta´n] - [sta´n´];
2. position before the vowels of the non-front row: [ma´l] - [m´a´l];
3. anterior lingual before posterior lingual [re´t´kj] - [re´dk] and hard labials [r´i e z´ba ´ ] - [hut ´ ] ;
4. sonorants (except [m]) before dental ones: [yi en nva ´ R ´ ] - [yi e nva´rsk´y].
5. <л>always in a strong position: [l´va ´ ] – [m/\lva´], the exception is the position before [j]: [l´ j y´].
Weak positions in terms of sonority-deafness appear very clearly, in terms of hardness-softness they are not so obvious.
Phonetic transcription conveys the sound composition of words, phonological (phonemic) transcription conveys the phonemic composition of words.
In phonological transcription, it is customary to designate:
α - all weak vowel phonemes,
α 1 - weak vowels 2 and 3 of prestressed and all stressed syllables:
index 1 - consonant phonemes weak in hardness-softness:
work<т 1 ру´т>, index 2 - consonants weak in deafness-voicedness:
allowance <нαт 2 ба´ф 2 кα 1 >,
index 3 - weak in hardness-softness and deafness-
voiced consonants: guarded <с 3 т´α 1 р´αгл´и´>.
If in phonological notation the same morpheme appears in different phonemic forms, determined by the phonological position in the word form, then in morphophonemic transcription, a generalized phonemic notation of the word form is used, abstracted from the types of morphemes that are determined by the phonological position. For example, the word stack in phonetic transcription - [with t o´k], in phonemic transcription -<с/з т о´ к 2 >, in morphophonemic transcription -<(с 3 т)ог>, where brackets indicate a combination of consonants with common phonetic features of deafness and hardness.
Allophone(Greek άλλος another and φωνή sound) - the realization of a phoneme, its variant, due to a specific phonetic environment. Unlike a phoneme, it is not an abstract concept, but a specific speech sound. The set of all possible positions in which allophones of one phoneme occur is called the distribution of the phoneme. Native speakers are good at recognizing phonemes, that is, semantic units of a language, and are not always able to recognize individual allophones of one phoneme. Phonemes in the minds of speakers are usually represented by basic allophones.
The main allophone is such an allophone, the properties of which are minimally dependent on the position and phonetic environment. The main allophones in Russian are:
- vowels in isolated pronunciation;
- hard consonants before stressed [a];
- soft consonants before stressed [and].
The main allophones are usually realized in a strong sound position. A strong position is a position in which the maximum number of phonemes of a given type is possible. In Russian, for vowels, a strong position is the position under stress, for consonants - before a non-front vowel.
Differ combinatorial and positional allophones.
Combinatorial allophones- implementations of phonemes associated with coarticulation under the influence of the phonetic environment of sounds.
Examples of combinatorial allophones in Russian can be:
- advanced forward back vowels [a], [o], [y] after soft consonants;
- labialized (rounded) consonants before vowels [o], [y];
- voiced affricates [dz], [d'zh "] in place of [c], [h] before voiced noisy ones.
Combinatorial allophones are also considered nasalized vowels before nasal [n], [m], [ŋ] in English. In some languages of the world, combinatorial features (for example, nasalization) can extend over several syllables.
Positional allophones- realizations of phonemes related to their phonetic position in a word or syllable. By phonetic position it is customary to understand:
- the position of the sound in relation to the absolute beginning of the word (after a pause);
- the position of the sound in relation to the absolute end of the word (before the pause);
- the position of the sound in relation to the stress.
The positional allophones of the vowels [а], [o] in Russian are the vowels [ъ], [ʌ] in unstressed syllables.
Obligatory and free allophones
Depending on the degree of predictability of implementation, allophones are divided into obligatory, that is, implemented in accordance with the rules of the grammar of the language, and free, that is, implemented in accordance with the preferences of the speakers.
Obligatory allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution relationships, when two different allophones of the same phoneme cannot exist in the same position. In Russian, rounded and unrounded consonants are in complementary distribution relations: rounded consonants are possible only before rounded vowels [o], [y], and unrounded consonants are pronounced in all other cases. The pronunciation of such an allophone in a different position is perceived by native speakers as an unnatural sound or a foreign accent.
Free allophones can be considered both facultative variants of phonemes that are widespread in various social and dialect groups (for example, fricative /g/ or hard /ш/ in certain Russian dialects), as well as individual phoneme variants that make up the pronunciation features of individual speakers (for example, non-syllabic [ w] in place of the trembling [r] in Russian).
Background, background in phonetics - a unit of the sound level of a language, distinguished in a speech stream regardless of its phonemic affiliation (that is, without attributing it to a particular phoneme) or as a specific implementation of a phoneme in speech.
Unlike phonemes and allophones that belong to a language, phonemes are speeches. By associating a background with an allophone and a phoneme, the phoneme is said to be "general" (or class), allophones are "special" (or subclasses), and backgrounds are said to be "singular". Every phoneme in speech appears in one of its allophones, which is realized as one or another background.
The mimic realization of a phoneme (background) is called viseme. Visemes are used in lip reading and computer speech recognition techniques.
