Abstract on the topic:

"WATER SHELL OF THE EARTH"

1. General information about water

2. World ocean

3. Groundwater

4. Rivers

5. Lakes and swamps

List of used literature

1. General information about water

Hydrosphere. The hydrosphere is called the water shell of the Earth. It consists of land waters - rivers, swamps, glaciers, groundwater and waters of the oceans.

The bulk of the water on Earth is in the seas and oceans - there it is almost 94%; 4.12% of water is contained in the earth's crust and 1.69% in the glaciers of Antarctica, the Arctic and in mountainous countries. Fresh water accounts for only 2% of its total reserves.

Water properties. Water is the most abundant mineral in nature. Pure water is clear, colorless and odorless. It has amazing properties that distinguish it from other natural bodies. This is the only mineral that exists in natural conditions in three states - liquid, solid and gaseous. Its transition from one state to another occurs constantly. The intensity of this process is determined primarily by the air temperature.

When water changes from a gaseous state to a liquid state, heat is released, and when liquid water evaporates, heat is absorbed. On sunny days and in summer, the water column warms up to a considerable depth and, as it were, condenses heat, and in the absence of sunlight or its decrease, heat is gradually released. For this reason, at night the water is warmer than the surrounding air.

When water freezes, it increases in volume, so an ice cube is lighter than a water cube of the same volume and does not sink, but floats.

The most dense and, accordingly, the most "heavy" water becomes at a temperature of +4 ° C. Water of this temperature sinks to the bottom of reservoirs, where such a temperature remains stable, which makes it possible for living organisms to exist in frozen reservoirs in winter.

Water is called the universal solvent. It dissolves almost all substances with which it comes into contact, except for fats and some minerals. As a result, pure water does not exist in nature. It is always found in the form of solutions of a greater or lesser degree of concentration.

Being a mobile (fluid) body, water penetrates into different media, moves in all directions and acts as a transporter of solutions. In this way, it ensures the exchange of substances in the geographical envelope, including between organisms and the environment.

Water has the ability to "stick" to the surface of other bodies and rise up through thin capillary vessels. This property is associated with the circulation of water in soils and rocks, the blood circulation of animals, the movement of plant juices up the stem.

Water is omnipresent. It fills large and small reservoirs, is contained in the bowels of the Earth, is present in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor, and serves as an indispensable component of all living organisms. So, the human body is 65%, and the bodies of the inhabitants of the seas and oceans are 80–90% water.

The value of water is not limited to the impact on life and economic activity. It has a huge impact on our entire planet. Academician V. I. Vernadsky wrote that “there is no natural body that could be compared with it (water) in terms of its influence on the course of the main, most vital geological processes.”

Origin of water. It would seem that mankind knows everything about water. Nevertheless, the question of the origin of water on Earth is still open. Some scientists believe that water was formed as a result of the synthesis of hydrogen and oxygen released from the bowels of the Earth, others, such as academician O. Yu. Schmidt, believe that water was brought to Earth from space during the formation of the planet.

Together with cosmic dust and mineral particles, pieces and blocks of cosmic ice fell on the nascent Earth. When the planet warmed up, the ice turned into water vapor and water.

2. World ocean

division of the oceans. The oceans are divided into four main parts - oceans- Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Arctic.

The waters of the oceans have a number of common features:

- all the waters of the oceans are interconnected;

- the level of the water surface in them is almost the same;

- The water of the World Ocean contains a significant amount of dissolved mineral salts and has a bitter-salty taste, which does not allow using this water for food purposes in natural conditions. The salinity of water is measured in ppm(%about). The ppm number shows how many grams of salt are contained in 1 liter of water. The average salinity of the World Ocean is 35%.

The waters of the World Ocean are unevenly distributed. In the Southern Hemisphere between 30–70 ° latitude, the ocean occupies more than 95%, and in the Northern - a little more than 44%, which made it possible to call the Southern Hemisphere oceanic, and the Northern - continental.

The waters of the World Ocean, going into the land, form seas and bays. The sea is a relatively isolated part of the ocean, differing from it in salinity and water temperature, and sometimes in the presence of a current. Thus, the salinity of the Baltic Sea ranges from 3 to 20%o, and the Red Sea - more than 40%o.

Bays are less isolated from the ocean, their waters differ little in properties from the waters of those oceans or seas to which they belong.

Historically, some typical seas have been referred to as bays. Such, for example, are the Bengal, the Hudson, the Gulf of Mexico. Some parts of the ocean are called seas conditionally in connection with the peculiarities of their nature. Such, for example, is the Sargasso Sea.

Depending on the geographical position, the seas are divided into mainland(Mediterranean, etc.) and inland(Baltic and others). According to the degree of isolation and features, they distinguish internal(Black, White, etc.), marginal(Barents, Okhotsk, etc.) and interisland(Javanese, Banda, etc.).

The seas and oceans are interconnected by straits - more or less narrow areas of water located between parts of the land. Straits usually have currents. Some straits are very extensive and carry huge masses of water (Drake Strait), others are narrow, winding and shallow (Bosphorus, Strait of Magellan).

In addition to salts, many gases are dissolved in ocean water, including oxygen, which is necessary for the respiration of living organisms. The cold waters of the polar seas contain more oxygen.

Marine animals use the carbon dioxide contained in the waters of the ocean to build skeletons and shells.

The water temperature in the oceans is not uniform and ranges from 27–28 °C at the equator to -20 °C at polar latitudes.

In temperate latitudes, there are seasonal temperature fluctuations from 0 to +20 °C.

The waters of the polar seas and oceans freeze. Ice sheet boundary runs from the shores of Newfoundland to the western coast of Greenland, then to the shores of Svalbard and the Kola Peninsula. In the Pacific Ocean, this boundary descends to the south and runs from the northern part of the Korean peninsula to the island of Hokkaido and further through the Kuril Islands to the shores of America.

In the Southern Hemisphere, the ice cover rises to 40–45°S. sh.

Traffic. The water in the oceans is in constant motion. There are three types of movements: wave, translational and mixed.

wave movements are generated by wind and cover only the surface of the ocean. Under the pressure of the wind in the upper part of the wave, water particles move in the direction of the wave, and in the lower part - in the opposite direction, making their way along circular orbits. For this reason, objects that are on the water and do not have windage do not move horizontally in the direction of the wind, but oscillate in place. It is no coincidence that these waves are called oscillatory.

Each wave has ridge, slope and sole(Fig. 30). The vertical distance between the crest and the sole is called the height, and between the two crests, the wavelength. The stronger the wind, the bigger the waves. In some cases, they reach a height of up to 20 m and even up to 1 km. Waves fade with depth.

Rice. thirty. wave structure

Under the pressure of the wind, the waves move faster towards the shore than away from the shore, as a result of which their foamy crests move forward, tilt and fall on the shore. Near the rocky shores, the force with which the wave beats against the coastal rocks reaches several tons per 1 m 2.

Underwater earthquakes generate waves tsunami, that cover the entire water column. The length of these waves is very large and amounts to several tens of kilometers. These waves are very gentle, and meeting them in the open ocean is not dangerous. The speed of the tsunami wave reaches 900 km/h. When approaching the coast, as a result of the friction of the wave on the ocean floor, its speed drops, the wave rapidly shortens, but at the same time grows in height, sometimes reaching 30 m. These waves produce devastating destruction in the coastal zone.

The translational movements of huge masses of ocean water lead to the appearance maritime or ocean currents. Such currents occur at different depths, as a result of which the water is mixed.

The main reason for the occurrence of currents is constant winds blowing in one direction. Such currents are called drift (surface). They involve in movement a mass of water up to 300 m deep and several hundred kilometers wide. This giant water stream - a river in the ocean - moves at a speed of 3 to 9-10 km / h. The length of such "rivers" can reach several thousand kilometers. For example, the Gulf Stream, starting in the Gulf of Mexico, has a length of more than 10 thousand km and reaches the island of Novaya Zemlya. This current carries 20 times more water than all the world's rivers combined.

Among the drift currents of the World Ocean, first of all, we should name the northern and southern trade wind currents, which have a general direction from east to west, caused by trade winds - constant winds blowing towards the equator at a speed of 30–40 km/h. Encountering an obstacle in the form of continents on its way, the currents change their direction of movement and move along the coasts of the continents to the south and north.

Depending on the temperature of the water, the currents are warm, cold and neutral.

The waters of warm currents have a higher temperature than the adjacent ocean water, cold waters have a lower temperature, and neutral ones have the same temperature. This is due to where the current brought water from - from low, high or the same latitudes.

The importance of currents on Earth is enormous. They serve either as “heating batteries” or as “refrigeration chambers” for the adjacent parts of the ocean and the mainland. The Gulf Stream, for example, has a temperature of 20-26 ° C, which is quite enough to "heat" Western Europe and warm the Barents Sea. At the same time, the cold Labrador Current causes the harsh, cold climate of the Labrador Peninsula, located at the latitude of France.

In addition, sea currents provide water exchange and mixing of equatorial, tropical, temperate and polar water masses, contribute to the redistribution of marine animals and plants. Where warm and cold currents meet, the organic world of the ocean is much richer and more productive.

In addition to drift currents, compensatory, runoff, and density currents are known.

Compensatory currents are caused by drift and are formed when winds from the mainland drive away surface waters. In place of these waters, compensating for their lack, water rises from the depths. She is always cold. For this reason, the cold Canary, California and Peruvian currents pass along the hot shores of Western Sahara, California, and Chile.

stock currents are formed due to the surge of water by drift currents, the removal of river waters or strong evaporation of water, as a result, leveling begins due to the runoff of adjacent waters. For example, due to runoff from the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf Stream appeared.

Density currents are formed when two sea basins, the water of which has a different density, are connected by a strait. For example, the more salty and denser water of the Mediterranean Sea flows into the Atlantic Ocean along the bottom of the Strait of Gibraltar, and towards this flow along the surface of the strait there is a runoff current from the ocean into the sea.

The mixed movements of ocean waters include tides and low tide, resulting from the attraction of the Moon on the water surface of the ocean and the rotation of the Earth around its axis.

During the day, high and low tides occur twice, every 6 hours. In the open ocean, tidal and ebb waves are invisible, since their height does not exceed 1.5 m, and their length is very large. Near the coast, especially rocky, the wavelength is reduced, and since the mass of water remains the same, the wave height is rapidly increasing. For example, in the Bay of Fundy (North America), the height of the tidal wave reaches 20 m, in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk (off the coast of Russia) it exceeds 13 m.

At high tide, large ocean-going vessels may enter seaports that are inaccessible to them at other times.

Tidal waves carry enormous energy, which is used to build tidal power plants (TPPs). In Russia, such a station has been created and is operating in Kislaya Bay on the Barents Sea. The value of TPPs is extremely high, primarily because they are environmentally friendly and do not require the creation of giant reservoirs occupying valuable land.

3. Groundwater

Underground waters are waters that are under the surface of the Earth in a liquid, solid and gaseous state. They accumulate in pores, cracks, voids of rocks.

Groundwater was formed as a result of seepage of water that fell to the surface of the Earth, condensation of water vapor that entered through the pores from the atmosphere, and also as a result of the formation of water vapor during cooling of magma at a depth and their condensation in the upper layers of the earth's crust. Of decisive importance in the formation of groundwater are the processes of seepage of water from the surface of the Earth. In some regions, for example, in sandy deserts, the main role is played by water coming from the atmosphere in the form of water vapor.

Water under the influence of gravity is called gravitational. It moves along the inclined surface of waterproof layers.

Water held together by molecular forces is called film. Water molecules that are in direct contact with rock grains form hygroscopic water. Film and hygroscopic water can be removed from the rock only by calcination. Therefore, plants do not use this water.

The root systems of plants absorb capillary water(located in the capillaries of the soil) and gravitational.

The rate of movement of groundwater is negligible and depends on the structure of the rocks. There are fine-grained rocks (clays, loams), granular (sands), fissured (limestones). Gravitational water flows freely through sands and along cracks at a rate of 0.5–2 m per day, in loams and loess - 0.1–0.3 mm per day.

Rocks, depending on their ability to pass water, are divided into permeable and waterproof. To permeable rocks sands belong to waterproof- clays and crystalline rocks. Water that has passed through permeable rocks accumulates at a depth above the impervious layer, forming aquifers. The upper level of the aquifer, called groundwater mirror, repeats the curves of the relief: above the hills it rises, under the basins it falls. In the spring, when the soil becomes very waterlogged when the snow melts, the groundwater level rises, and in winter it falls. The groundwater level also rises during heavy rains.

The outflow of an aquifer to the surface is called spring (source, key). Usually they are found in ravines, beams, river valleys. Sometimes springs can also be found on the plains - in small depressions or on the slopes of hills and hills (Fig. 31).

Rice. 31. descending (1) and ascending (2) sources

Groundwater enclosed between two waterproof layers is usually under pressure, so they are called pressure or artesian. Usually they are found at great depths - in the depressions of the bends of impervious layers (Fig. 32).

Rice. 32. Simple (1) , artesian (2) wells and spring (3)

Deep underground waters located near magma chambers give rise to hot springs. In Russia, they are found in Kamchatka, the North Caucasus and elsewhere. The water temperature in them reaches 70–95 °C. The gushing hot springs are called geysers. More than 20 large geysers have been discovered in the Valley of Geysers in Kamchatka, among them the Giant, which ejects water to a height of 30 m, as well as many small ones. Outside of our country, geysers are common in Iceland, New Zealand, USA (Yellowstone National Park).

Passing through various rocks, groundwater partially dissolves them - this is how mineral springs are formed. Depending on the chemical composition, sulfuric (Pyatigorsk), carbonic (Kislovodsk), alkaline-salt (Essentuki), ferruginous-alkaline (Zheleznovodsk) and other sources are distinguished. They are used for medicinal purposes. Resorts are being built at their exit points.

4. Rivers

flowing waters - temporary streams, streams and rivers that level the surface of the Earth; they destroy hills, mountains, carry away the products of destruction to lower places.

The importance of flowing waters in human economic activity is also great. Springs, rivers and streams are the main sources of water supply. Settlements are located along streams and rivers, rivers are used as communication routes, for the construction of hydroelectric power plants and for fishing. In arid regions, river water is used for irrigation.

Rivers - These are natural permanent watercourses flowing along a slope and enclosed in banks.

Rivers often originate from springs that come to the earth's surface. Many rivers originate in lakes, swamps, and mountain glaciers.

Each river has a source, upper, middle and lower reaches, tributaries, mouth. Source is the place where the river originates. mouth- a place where it flows into another river, lake or sea. In deserts, rivers are sometimes lost in the sands, their water being used for evaporation and filtration.

Rivers flowing through a region form river network, which consists of separate systems including the main river and its tributaries. Usually the main river is longer, full-flowing and occupies an axial position in the river system. As a rule, it is older than its tributaries. Sometimes the opposite happens. For example, the Volga carries less water than the Kama, but is considered the main river, since its basin was historically inhabited earlier. Some tributaries are longer than the main river (the Missouri is longer than the Mississippi, the Irtysh is longer than the Ob).

The tributaries of the main river are divided into tributaries of the first, second and subsequent orders.

river basin name the territory from which it receives food. The basin area can be determined from large-scale maps using a palette. The basins of the various rivers separate watersheds. They often pass through hills, in some cases through flat wetlands.

Density of the river network is the ratio of the total length of all rivers to the area of ​​the basin (km/km2). It depends on the relief, climate, local rocks. In places where there is more precipitation and evaporation is negligible, the river network is more dense. In the mountains, the density of the river network is greater than in the plains. So, on the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains, it is 0.49 km / km 2, and in Ciscaucasia - 0.05 km / km 2.

River nutrition. It is carried out by groundwater, as well as atmospheric precipitation in the form of rain and snow. Rainwater that falls on the surface partially evaporates, and part of it seeps into the depths of the earth or flows into rivers. Fallen snow melts in spring. Melt water flows down the slopes and eventually into the rivers. Thus, the permanent sources of river nutrition are groundwater, rain in summer and snowmelt in spring. In mountainous areas, rivers are fed by water from the melting of glaciers and snow.

The level of water in the rivers depends on the nature of food. The greatest rise in water in the territory of our country is observed in the spring, during the melting of snow. Rivers overflow their banks, flooding vast expanses. During spring floods, more than half of the annual volume of water flows down. In places where more precipitation falls in summer, rivers have a summer flood. For example, Amur has two floods: less powerful - in spring and more powerful - at the end of summer, during monsoon rains.

Observations of the level of rivers make it possible to distinguish periods of high and low water. They received the names "high water", "flood" and "low water".

high water- an annual recurring rise in water in the same season. In spring, when snow melts, a high water level is maintained in the rivers for 2-3 months. At this time, rivers flood.

high water- short-term non-periodic rise in water in rivers. For example, during heavy prolonged rains, some rivers of the East European Plain overflow their banks, flooding vast areas. On mountain rivers, floods occur in hot weather, when snow and glaciers melt intensively.

The height of the rise of water during floods is different (higher in mountainous countries, lower on the plains) and depends on the intensity of snow melting, rainfall, forest cover of the territory, the width of the floodplain and the nature of the ice drift. So, on large Siberian rivers, during the formation of ice jams, the rise of water reaches 20 m.

low water- the lowest water level in the river. At this time, the river is fed mainly by groundwater. In the central zone of our country, low water is observed at the end of summer, when water evaporates strongly and seeps into the ground, and also at the end of winter, when there is no surface nutrition.

According to the method of feeding, all rivers can be divided into the following groups:

– rain fed rivers(in the equatorial, tropical and subtropical zones - the Amazon, Congo, Nile, Yangtze, etc.);

- rivers receiving powered by melting snow and glaciers(rivers of mountain regions and the Far North - Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Kuban, Yukon);

– underground feeding rivers(rivers of mountain slopes in the arid zone, for example, small rivers of the northern slope of the Tien Shan);

– mixed-feed rivers(rivers of the temperate zone with a pronounced stable snow cover - Volga, Dnieper, Ob, Yenisei, etc.).

River work. Rivers are constantly producing work, which manifests itself in erosion, transport and accumulation of material.

Under erosion understand the destruction of rocks. Distinguish between deep erosion, aimed at deepening the channel, and lateral, aimed at destroying the banks. On the rivers you can see the bends, which are called meanders. One side of the river is usually washed away, the other is washed out. The washed-up material can be carried and deposited by the river. Deposition begins when the current slows down. First, larger material settles (stones, pebbles, coarse sand), then fine sand, etc.

The accumulation of the brought material is especially active in the mouths of the rivers. Islands and shoals are formed there with channels between them. Such formations are called deltas.

On the map you can see large quantities about rivers that form deltas. But there are rivers, such as the Pechora, whose mouths look like an expanding wedge. Such mouths are called estuaries. The shape of the mouth usually depends on the stability of the seabed in the area where the river enters. Where it is constantly decreasing as a result of secular movements of the earth's crust, estuaries. In places where the bottom of the sea rises, deltas form. Rivers may not have deltas if a strong current passes into the sea in the area where the river flows, carrying river sediments far into the sea.

The structure of the river valley. River valleys have the following elements: channel, floodplain, terraces, slopes, bedrock banks. channel called the lower part of the valley through which the river flows. The channel has two banks: right and left. Usually one coast is gentle, the other is steep. The bed of a flat river often has a winding shape, since, in addition to gravity and friction, the nature of the flow is also influenced by the centrifugal force that occurs at the turns of the river, as well as the deflecting force of the Earth's rotation. Under the action of this force, at the turn, the flow is pressed against the concave bank, and the jets of water destroy it. The direction of the current changes, the flow is directed to the opposite, gently sloping shore. The deflecting force of the Earth's rotation causes the flow to press against the right bank (in the Northern Hemisphere). It collapses, the riverbed moves.

The process of formation of bends (meanders) is continuous. Sometimes the meander loops approach each other to such a distance that they connect, and the water begins to flow along a new channel, and part of the former channel becomes old woman, sickle-shaped lake.

In the course of lowland rivers, stretches and rifts usually alternate. stretches- the deepest sections of the river with a slow current. They are formed on its bends. rifts- small parts of the river with a fast current. They form in flat areas. The stretches and rifts are gradually shifting along the river.

The river constantly deepens the channel, but deep erosion stops when the water level in the river drops to the same level as at the confluence of the river into another river, lake, sea. This level is called erosion basis. The final basis of erosion for all rivers is the level of the World Ocean. With a decrease in the erosion base, the river erodes more strongly, deepens the channel; with an increase, this process slows down, sedimentation occurs.

floodplain called the part of the valley flooded with spring waters. Its surface is uneven: extensive elongated depressions alternate with small elevations. The highest areas coastal swells located along the coast. Usually they are covered with vegetation. Terraces are leveled platforms stretching along the slopes in the form of steps. On large rivers, several terraces are observed, they are counted from the floodplain upwards (first, second, etc.). There are from four to seven terraces near the Volga, and up to 20 on the rivers of Eastern Siberia.

slopes limit the valley from the sides. Often one slope is steep, the other is gentle. For example, the right slope of the Volga is steep, the left slope is gentle. The slopes end with bedrock banks, usually not affected by erosion.

Young rivers in the longitudinal profile often have areas with rapids(places with fast currents and rocky ground on the surface of the water) and waterfalls(areas where water falls from steep ledges). Waterfalls are found on many mountain rivers, as well as on such plains, in the valleys of which hard rocks come to the surface.

One of the largest waterfalls in the world - Victoria on the Zambezi River - falls from a height of 120 m with a width of 1800 m. The noise of falling water can be heard for tens of kilometers, and the waterfall is always shrouded in a cloud of spray - mist.

The waters of Niagara Falls (North America) fall from a height of 51 m, the width of the stream is 1237 m.

Many mountain waterfalls are even higher. The highest of them is Angel on the Orinoco River. Its water falls from a height of 1054 m.

When building settlements, it is very important to know whether there is enough water in the river, whether it can provide water to the population and enterprises. For this purpose, define consumption, i.e., the amount of water (in m 3) passing through the living section of the river in 1 s.

For example, the speed of the river flow is 1 m / s, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bliving section is 10 m 2. This means that the water flow in the river is 10 m 3 / s.

The flow of water in a river over a long period is called river runoff. It is usually determined from long-term data and is expressed in km 3 /year.

The amount of runoff depends on the area of ​​the river basin and climatic conditions. A large amount of precipitation with little evaporation contributes to an increase in runoff. In addition, the runoff depends on the rocks that make up the territory and the terrain.

The high water content of the world's most full-flowing Amazon River (3160 km 3 per year) is explained by the huge area of ​​\u200b\u200bits basin (about 7 million km 2) and the abundance of precipitation (more than 2000 mm per year). The Amazon has 17 tributaries of the first order, each of which brings almost as much water as the Volga.

5. Lakes and swamps

Lakes. About 2% of all land is occupied by lakes, land depressions filled with water. On the territory of our country (partially) there is the largest lake in the world - the Caspian and the deepest - Baikal.

Since ancient times, man has used lakes for water supply; they serve as communication routes, many of them are rich in fish. Valuable raw materials have been found in some lakes: salts, iron ores, sapropel. On the shores of the lakes, people have a rest, rest houses and sanatoriums have been built there.

Lake types. According to the nature of the runoff, the lakes are divided into flowing, runoff and non-drainage. AT flowing lake many rivers flow into it and several rivers flow out of it. This type includes Ladoga, Onega.

Waste lakes receive a large number of rivers, but only one river flows out of them. Lake Baikal and Teletskoye can be attributed to this type.

In dry areas are empty lakes, from which not a single river flows - the Caspian, Aral, Balkhash. Many tundra lakes also belong to this type.

The origin of lake basins is extremely diverse. There are basins that have arisen as a result of the manifestation of the internal forces of the Earth (endogenous). This is the majority of large lakes in the world. Small lakes are generated by the activity of external forces (exogenous).

To endogenous basins include tectonic and volcanic. Tectonic basins are subsided sections of the earth's crust. Subsidence can occur as a result of layer deflection or fault faults along fractures. Thus, the largest lakes were formed - the Aral (trough of the earth's layers), Baikal, Tanganyika, Upper, Huron, Michigan (fault).

Basins are volcanic are volcanic craters or valleys covered by lava flows. There are similar basins in Kamchatka, for example, Kronotskoye Lake.

Variety of lake basins of exogenous origin. In river valleys, oxbow lakes are often found, having an oblong shape. They arose on the site of former riverbeds.

Many lakes were formed during the Ice Age. Glaciers plowed out huge hollows during their movement. They filled with water. Such glacial lakes are found in Finland, Canada, in the north-west of our country. Many lakes are elongated in the direction of movement of glaciers.

In areas composed of water-soluble rocks - limestone, dolomite and gypsum - basins of karst origin are not uncommon. Many of them are very deep.

Lake basins are often found in the tundra and taiga. thermokarst, resulting from uneven thawing of permafrost.

In the mountains, as a result of strong earthquakes, impounded lakes. So, in 1911, Sarez Lake appeared in the Pamirs literally before the eyes of people: as a result of an earthquake, part of the mountain range was thrown into the river valley, and a dam with a height of more than 500 m was formed.

Many basins were created by man - this is artificial reservoirs.

In our country, the flow of most large rivers is regulated (Volga, Angara, Yenisei). They built dams and created large reservoirs.

Many lake basins have mixed origin. For example, Ladoga and Onega lakes are tectonic, but their basins have changed their appearance under the influence of glaciers and rivers. The Caspian Lake is the remnant of a large sea basin, which was once connected through the Kumo-Manych depression with the Azov and Black Seas.

The lakes are fed by groundwater, precipitation and rivers flowing into them. Part of the water from the lake is taken out into the rivers, evaporates from the surface, goes to the underground runoff. Depending on the ratio of the incoming and outgoing part, the water level fluctuates, which leads to a change in the areas of lakes. For example, Lake Chad in the dry season has an area of ​​​​12 thousand km 2, and in the rainy season it increases to 26 thousand km 2.

The change in the water level in the lakes is associated with climatic conditions: a decrease in the amount of precipitation in the lake basin, as well as evaporation from its surface. The water level in the lake can also change as a result of tectonic movements.

According to the amount of substances dissolved in water, lakes are divided into fresh, brackish and salty. Fresh lakes have dissolved salts less than 1%. brackish lakes are considered to be those where the salinity is more than 1% o, and salty– over 24.7%o.

Flowing and wastewater lakes are usually fresh, since the inflow of fresh water is greater than the outflow. Endorheic lakes are predominantly brackish or saline. In these lakes, the inflow of water is less than the outflow, so the salinity increases. Salt lakes are located in the steppe and desert zones (Elton, Baskunchak, Dead, Big Salt and many others). Some lakes are distinguished by a high content of soda, for example, soda lakes in the south of Western Siberia.

Lake life. Lakes develop depending on the surrounding conditions. Rivers, as well as temporary water flows, bring into the lakes great amount inorganic and organic substances that are deposited on the bottom. Vegetation appears, the remains of which also accumulate, filling the lake basins. As a result of this, the lakes become shallow, and swamps can form in their place (Fig. 33).

Rice. 33. Scheme of overgrowing of the lake: 1 - moss cover (ryam); 2 – bottom sediments of organic remains; 3 - "window", or space of pure water

The distribution of lakes is zonal. In Russia, the densest lake network is observed in the areas of ancient glaciation: on the Kola Peninsula, in Karelia. Here the lakes are fresh, mostly flowing and rapidly overgrowing. In the south, in the forest-steppe and steppe zones, the number of lakes decreases sharply. Drainless salt lakes predominate in the desert zone. They often dry up, turning into salt marshes. Tectonic lakes are found in all belts. They have great depths, so the change is slow, hardly noticeable to humans.

Swamps. Swamps are overly moist areas of land covered with moisture-loving vegetation.

Bogging in the forest belt often occurs during deforestation. Favorable conditions for the formation of swamps are also in the tundra zone, where permafrost does not allow groundwater to penetrate deep into, and they remain on the surface.

According to the nutritional conditions and location, the swamps are divided into lowland and upland. Lowland swamps are fed by atmospheric precipitation, surface and underground waters. Groundwater is rich in minerals. This causes rich vegetation in lowland swamps (alder, willow, birch, sedge, horsetail, reed, and rosemary from shrubs). Lowland swamps are widespread in the forest belt on the floodplains of large rivers.

Under certain conditions, lowland marshes can turn into riding. As peat grows, the amount of minerals decreases, and plants demanding mineral nutrition give way to less demanding ones. Usually these plants appear in the center of the swamp (sphagnum mosses). They secrete organic acids that slow down the decay of plant matter. There are rises from the peat. Water flowing into the swamp can no longer enter the center, where sphagnum mosses spread, feeding on atmospheric moisture. Raised bogs occur on poorly dissected watersheds.

Swamps occupy vast areas. Approximately 1/10 of the territory of our country is covered with swamps. Extensive areas of swamps in the Pskov, Novgorod regions, Meshchera and Western Siberia, many swamps in the tundra.

Peat is mined in the swamps, which is used as fuel and fertilizer.

List of used literature

1. Arutsev A.A., Ermolaev B.V., Kutateladze I.O., Slutsky M. Concepts of modern natural science. With study guide. M. 1999

2. Petrosova R.A., Golov V.P., Sivoglazov V.I., Straut E.K. Natural science and fundamentals of ecology. Textbook for secondary pedagogical educational institutions. Moscow: Bustard, 2007, 303 pages.

3. Savchenko V.N., Smagin V.P. Beginnings of modern natural science. Concepts and principles. Tutorial. Rostov-on-Don. 2006.

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth, which partially covers the solid surface of the earth.

According to scientists, the Hydrosphere was formed slowly, accelerating only during periods of tectonic activity.

Sometimes the Hydrosphere is also called the World Ocean. We will use the term Hydrosphere to avoid confusion. About the World Ocean, as part of the Hydrosphere, you can read in the article THE WORLD OCEAN AND ITS PARTS → .

For a better understanding of the essence of the term Hydrosphere, below are a few definitions.

Hydrosphere

Ecological dictionary

HYDROSPHERE (from hydro ... and Greek sphaira - ball) - intermittent water shell of the Earth. Closely interacts with the living shell of the Earth. The hydrosphere is the habitat of hydrobionts found throughout the entire water column - from the surface tension film of water (epineuston) to the maximum depths of the World Ocean (up to 11,000 m). The total volume of water on Earth in all its physical states - liquid, solid, gaseous - is 1,454,703.2 km3, of which 97% falls on the waters of the oceans. In terms of area, the hydrosphere occupies about 71% of the entire area of ​​the planet. The total share of water resources of the hydrosphere suitable for economic use without special measures is about 5–6 million km3, which is equal to 0.3–0.4% of the volume of the entire hydrosphere, i.e. the volume of all free water on Earth. The hydrosphere is the cradle of life on our planet. Living organisms play an active role in the water cycle on Earth: the entire volume of the hydrosphere passes through living matter in 2 million years.

Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. - Chisinau: Main edition of the Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia. I.I. Dedu 1989

Geological Encyclopedia

HYDROSPHERE - a discontinuous water shell of the Earth, one of the geospheres, located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere; the totality of oceans, seas, continental waters and ice sheets. The hydrosphere covers about 70.8% of the earth's surface. The volume of G. is 1370.3 million km3, which is approximately 1/800 of the volume of the planet. 98.3% of the mass of ice is concentrated in the World Ocean, 1.6% - in continental ice. The hydrosphere interacts with the atmosphere and lithosphere in a complex way. Most sediments are formed on the boundary between the lithosphere and the lithosphere. g.p. (see Modern sedimentation). The city is part of the biosphere and is entirely inhabited by living organisms that affect its composition. G.'s origin is associated with the long evolution of the planet and the differentiation of its matter.

Geological dictionary: in 2 volumes. - M.: Nedra. Edited by K. N. Paffengolts et al. 1978

Marine vocabulary

The hydrosphere is the totality of oceans, seas and land waters, as well as groundwater, glaciers and snow cover. Often, the hydrosphere refers only to the oceans and seas.

Edwart. Explanatory Naval Dictionary, 2010

Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

HYDROSPHERE (from hydro and sphere) - the totality of all water bodies of the globe: oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, groundwater, glaciers and snow cover. Often, the hydrosphere refers only to the oceans and seas.

Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2000

Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

HYDROSPHERE, -s, wives. (specialist.). The totality of all the waters of the globe: oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, groundwater, glaciers and snow cover.
| adj. hydrospheric, th, th.

Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949-1992

Beginnings of modern natural science

Hydrosphere (from hydro and sphere) - one of the geospheres, the water shell of the Earth, the habitat of hydrobionts, the totality of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, reservoirs, swamps, groundwater, glaciers and snow cover. The bulk of the water in the hydrosphere is concentrated in the seas and oceans (94%), the second place in terms of volume is occupied by groundwater (4%), the third is the ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions (2%). Surface waters of land, atmospheric and biologically bound waters make up fractions (tenths and thousandths) of a percent of the total volume of water in the hydrosphere. The chemical composition of the hydrosphere approaches the average composition of sea water. Participating in the complex natural cycle of substances on Earth, water decomposes every 10 million years and is formed again during photosynthesis and respiration.

Beginnings of modern natural science. Thesaurus. - Rostov-on-Don. V.N. Savchenko, V.P. Smagin. 2006

Hydrosphere (from Hydro ... and Sphere) - an intermittent water shell of the Earth, located between the atmosphere (See Atmosphere) and the solid earth's crust (lithosphere) and representing the totality of oceans, seas and surface waters of land. In a broader sense, hydrogeology also includes groundwater, ice, and snow in the Arctic and Antarctic, as well as atmospheric water and water contained in living organisms. The bulk of the water of Georgia is concentrated in the seas and oceans, the second place in terms of volume of water masses is occupied by groundwater, and the third place is occupied by the ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions. The surface waters of the land, atmospheric, and biologically bound waters make up fractions of a percent of the total water volume of Georgia (see table). The chemical composition of G. approaches the average composition of sea water.

Surface waters, while occupying a relatively small proportion of the total mass of water, nevertheless play an important role in the life of our planet, being the main source of water supply, irrigation, and watering. G.'s waters are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, the earth's crust, and the biosphere. The interaction of these waters and mutual transitions from one type of water to another constitute a complex water cycle on the globe. In G. for the first time life originated on Earth. Only at the beginning of the Paleozoic era did the gradual migration of animal and plant organisms to land begin.

Water types	Name	Volume, million km 3	To the total volume, %
sea ​​waters	Maritime	1370	94
Groundwater (excluding groundwater)	unpaved	61,4	4
Ice and snow	Ice	24,0	2
Fresh surface waters of land	Fresh	0,5	0,4
Atmospheric waters	atmospheric	0,015	0,01
Water contained in living organisms	biological	0,00005	0,0003

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978

For a better understanding, let us briefly formulate what we mean by the Hydrosphere within the framework of this material and within the framework of this site. Under the hydrosphere, we mean the shell of the globe, which combines all the waters of the globe, regardless of their state and location.

In the hydrosphere, there is a continuous circulation of water between its various parts and the transition of water from one state to another - the so-called Water cycle in nature.

Parts of the hydrosphere

The hydrosphere interacts with all geospheres of the Earth. Conventionally, the hydrosphere can be divided into three parts:

1. Water in the atmosphere;
2. Water on the surface of the Earth;
3. The groundwater.

The atmosphere contains 12.4 trillion tons of water in the form of water vapor. Water vapor is renewed 32 times a year or every 11 days. As a result of condensation or sublimation of water vapor on suspended particles present in the atmosphere, clouds or fogs are formed, while a sufficiently large amount of heat is released.

You can familiarize yourself with the waters on the surface of the Earth - the World Ocean in the article "".

Groundwater includes: groundwater, moisture in soils, pressure deep waters, gravitational waters of the upper layers of the earth's crust, waters in bound states in various rocks, waters found in minerals and juvenile waters ...

Distribution of water in the hydrosphere

• Oceans - 97.47%;
• Ice caps and glaciers - 1,984;
• Groundwater - 0.592%;
• Lakes - 0.007%;
• Wet soils - 0.005%;
• Atmospheric Water vapor - 0.001%;
• Rivers - 0.0001%;
• Biota - 0.0001%.

Scientists have calculated that the mass of the hydrosphere is 1,460,000 trillion tons of water, which, however, is only 0.004% of the total mass of the Earth.

The hydrosphere is actively involved in the geological processes of the Earth. It largely provides the interconnection and interaction between different geospheres of the Earth.

Question 1. What is the hydrosphere?

Question 2. What is the oceans?

The oceans are the main part of the hydrosphere, a continuous, but not continuous, water shell of the Earth, surrounding the continents and islands, and characterized by a common salt composition. The oceans cover almost 70% of the earth's surface.

Question 3. Can separate parts of the hydrosphere exist independently of each other?

The hydrosphere is formed by all types of natural waters, regardless of their state: liquid, solid and gaseous. All of them are interconnected by the water cycle.

Question 4. What is the hydrosphere?

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth. The totality of the waters of the seas, oceans, continental reservoirs, rivers, underground sources, swamps and ice sheets of the Earth.

Question 5. List the components of the hydrosphere.

The hydrosphere is formed by all types of natural waters, regardless of their state: liquid, solid and gaseous.

Question 6. What part of the hydrosphere are the waters of the oceans?

Most of the water is concentrated in the oceans. 97% of all the waters of the planet are salty waters of the seas and oceans.

Question 7. What are the properties of the hydrosphere?

The hydrosphere unites all types of natural waters. Separate parts of the hydrosphere are connected into a single shell by the process of the water cycle.

Question 8. How does the hydrosphere affect the life of our planet?

Water is the basis of life on our planet. The role of water in the life of our planet, the individual components of nature, each living being is enormous. It is present in all organisms. The richness and diversity of nature directly depends on the availability of water.

Question 9. Give reasons in favor of the statement: "The hydrosphere forms a continuous shell of the Earth."

Separate parts of the hydrosphere are connected into a single shell by the process of the water cycle. Its main elements are the evaporation of water, the transfer of water vapor by the wind, precipitation, water runoff along river beds, and underground runoff.

Question 10. Why is water called the basis of life on Earth?

It is present in all organisms. Cell sap - cytoplasm - is an aqueous solution of various salts. All organisms on the planet are made up of cells. This means that water is the basis of life.

Question 11. Using the textbook illustrations, prove that all parts of the hydrosphere are connected by the water cycle.

Water evaporates from the surface of reservoirs. The salty waters of the World Ocean, like the fresh waters of rivers and lakes, turn into water vapor, which, concentrating, forms clouds. By the way, only water evaporates. The salts contained in sea water remain in the ocean. Therefore, water vapor and clouds are composed of fresh water. Clouds are carried by winds for hundreds and thousands of kilometers. Sooner or later, precipitation falls in the form of rain or snow. Part of the precipitation seeps into the soil and becomes part of the groundwater, while the other part flows into rivers. Melt waters formed during the melting of snow or mountain glaciers also partially seep and enter the groundwater, and partially enter the rivers. Rivers return water to lakes, seas and oceans.

To better understand what the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere is, it is necessary to consider such a term as "geographical shell".

The geographic shell is the totality of the geospheres of the Earth: the earth's crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere. They form a single whole and exist interconnectedly. Thus, solar energy is transformed into thermal, kinetic, electrical, chemical, etc. within the lithosphere. In the same place, it accumulates, is transferred to other spheres - air and water.

What is the hydrosphere

The term "hydrosphere" means the water shell of the Earth. This includes both surface (rivers, lakes, seas, oceans) and underground (ground) waters, as well as snow cover, glaciers, and steam in the atmosphere.

What is the hydrosphere? The definition of the concept is as follows: it is the totality of all the waters of our planet. The most important elements that make up the hydrosphere are rivers, swamps, lakes, glaciers and groundwater.

Rivers are of great importance, they carry masses of water over long distances. Marshes, like mountain glaciers, are a source of food for rivers. Glaciers are a reservoir of fresh water.

Reservoirs are artificial reservoirs created by man for economic activity.

The composition of the hydrosphere:

As can be seen from these data, the largest share of water falls on the World Ocean, and on the Earth's rivers - only 0.0001%. All these parts of the hydrosphere are interconnected, and water can move from one classification to another.

Water and its features

Water is a unique chemical element that is present on our planet in three states of aggregation. But the most useful is liquid, it is in this form that water is a necessary source for the existence of all living things. For many organisms, this is not just a source of food, but a habitat. It is proved that the first organisms lived in water, and only then, in the process of evolution, they came to land. Thus, the main characteristic of the hydrosphere is the presence of a huge number of living organisms.

What is the hydrosphere? We can say that this is the totality of the water of our planet.

Functions of the water shell

Let's single out some of the most important functions of the hydrosphere:

1. Accumulating. Water accumulates a huge amount of heat and provides a constant average temperature of the planet.
2. Oxygen production. As mentioned above, a large number of living organisms live in the water shell of the Earth, among which phytoplankton is present. It is he who produces most of the oxygen in the atmosphere. And oxygen, in turn, is necessary for the normal functioning of most organisms.
3. The hydrosphere, in particular the World Ocean, is a huge resource base. Various types of fish are caught here, and mineral resources are mined. Mankind also uses the water itself for various purposes: for purification, energy extraction, cooling, etc.
4. The water shell is an excellent breeding ground for various harmful microorganisms. It can transmit certain diseases.

Use of water resources

1. Water users. These are industries that use water for certain purposes, but do not return it. Among them are thermal power engineering, agriculture, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, pulp and paper and chemical industries.
2. Water users. These are industries that use water for their needs, but then always return it. For example, household and drinking services, sea and river transport, shipping, and fisheries.

It should be noted that for the life support of a city with a population of 1 million people, more than 300 thousand m³ of clean water per day is needed, and more than 75% of the water is returned unsuitable for living organisms, i.e. contaminated.

Classification of waters by purpose

• Drinking water - used by man to quench his thirst. It should contain a minimum amount of toxic and chemical substances.
• Mineral water - extracted from underground sources by drilling. Used by humans for medicinal purposes.
• Industrial water is not necessarily water thoroughly purified from impurities, because. it is used in industry.
• Thermal energy water - thermal. It can be used in any branches of the national economy.

technical water

It is divided into several types:

1. Water for irrigation. Used in agriculture, does not require complex purification from impurities.
2. Energy water. It is used for space heating. Water is heated to a gaseous state.
3. Household water. It is used for various needs in hospitals, canteens, laundries and baths.

In industry, almost half of the water is used to cool equipment. In this case, it does not get dirty.

Process water also has several classifications. Allocate:

• flushing- used for washing various materials (solid, gaseous and liquid).
• Environment-forming- used for enrichment of ores, dissolution of rocks during mining.
• reactionary- used to speed up or slow down various reactions.

Irrational use of water and ways to solve problems

The biggest problem is the overuse of surface water. As a result, such regional cataclysms arise as the death of animals and plants, the drainage of swamps, and the drop in water levels in rivers.

In order to avoid overspending a valuable resource, it is necessary to use it rationally, create closed cycles of water use in industry, and save at the household level.

Groundwater is being overused due to increased abstraction and reduced rainfall, when underground storage facilities do not have time to replenish depleted reserves. To solve this problem, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the territory from which water is taken.

If you do not respond to the above problem in time, the next one may occur - soil subsidence. When underground sources are depleted, cavities appear in the bowels of the earth, the soil is no longer supported by anything and settles. This is dangerous because the drawdown can be unexpected in places where people are.

To prevent this problem from being taken by surprise, it is necessary to reduce the consumption of groundwater, install high-quality filters to reuse the waste fluid.

Another problem that arises from the excessive use of groundwater is the inflow of salt water. This is due to a decrease in pressure inside the cavities as a result of a decrease in the groundwater level.

Water pollution

What is hydrosphere pollution? This water pollution is one of the global problems of mankind. There is a glut of oil products. For purification, it is necessary to catch not only the oils floating on the surface, but also the sediment that sinks to the bottom. The chemical industry is one of the main sources of pollution not only of the hydrosphere, but also of the atmosphere.

The pulp and paper industry litters nearby areas with insoluble fibers and other substances. Because of this, the water has an unpleasant smell and taste, changes color, and increases the growth of bacteria and fungi.

CHP plants discharge waste water back into water bodies. Considering that it is usually much warmer, one can understand that the entire reservoir is heating up. This adversely affects the local flora and fauna. The waters begin to bloom, because. the growth of cyanobacteria, algae and other vegetation is enhanced. The liquid acquires an unpleasant odor and taste.

Rafting timber also adversely affects the state of water. Rivers are clogged and polluted. In addition, this economic activity harms the fish and animals that live in the river along which the rafting takes place. Young fish and eggs die from lack of oxygen. The species composition is decreasing.

Human activity harms the environment, especially the hydrosphere and biosphere. Wastewater from sewers ends up in the ground, harmful substances get not only into the soil, but also into groundwater, rivers and lakes. In addition to harmful organic substances, wastewater contains various impurities: radioactive elements, heavy metals, products of organic synthesis.

Water has a unique property - it can self-renew and self-purify thanks to solar energy.

The earth's hydrosphere is a fragile structure. To solve the problem of its pollution, it is necessary to take a number of measures:

• providing each enterprise with a modern water treatment plant;
• installation of high-quality filters for domestic water;
• improvement of closed cycles of water consumption.

Perhaps everyone knows what the hydrosphere is and how important it is, but not many people think about the catastrophic rate of water pollution. If everyone made an effort to save clean water, the disaster would not be so massive. The earth's hydrosphere will never be fully restored, but humanity can make sure that the current reserves are not contaminated.

- the water shell of the Earth includes all the water of the planet, which is in a liquid, solid (ice) and gaseous (water vapor) state. The composition of the hydrosphere includes the oceans, land waters, atmospheric water vapor.

It is assumed that hydrosphere arose as a result of the release of liquid immobile solutions and gases from the Earth's mantle. The total volume of water on the planet remains unchanged and is about 1.5 billion km3.

The main component of the hydrosphere is World Ocean, it accounts for more than 96% of the water volume. Glaciers make up 1.8%, The groundwater– 1,7%, rivers, lakes, swamps only 0.01%. The surface of the World Ocean occupies about 71% of the earth's surface and is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere.

All the waters of the Earth are interconnected and are in constant motion: in cycles. The water cycle is a process of continuous movement of water under the influence of solar energy and gravity, covers the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and living organisms. Water evaporates from the surface of the land under the influence of solar heat, is carried by air currents in different directions and, under the influence of gravity, falls to the ground again in the form of precipitation. And most of the precipitation falls back into the ocean.

There are small and large water cycles. AT small circulation only the ocean and the atmosphere are involved (ocean - atmosphere - ocean); and in the big cycle water "travels" like this: ocean - atmosphere - land - ocean. This water cycle, in which, in addition to the atmosphere and the ocean, land takes part, is called large or global water cycle.

The hydrosphere is one: this is evidenced by the system of the World water cycle, the spatial continuity of the World Ocean, the common origin of waters.

The hydrosphere is of great importance for the existence of life on Earth. Without water, there could be no man, plants and animals. For life, it is necessary to maintain the temperature at a certain level (from 0 to 100˚). The hydrosphere plays an important role in maintaining a relatively unchanged climate on the planet: it is a heat accumulator, which ensures the constancy of the average temperature on Earth; The hydrosphere is the main source of atmospheric oxygen due to phytoplankton.

The hydrosphere is of great importance in human economic activity. The ocean is a source of natural biological resources: fish, seafood, pearls, etc. Now mineral resources are also widely used: oil, gas, ore. Huge potential energy resources. In addition, the most important transport routes serving world trade pass through the ocean.

Currently, the problem of pollution of the hydrosphere is acute. Mankind actively uses the aquatic environment to dump production and consumption waste. Intense anthropogenic pollution of the hydrosphere leads to serious changes in its geophysical parameters, destroys aquatic ecosystems and is potentially dangerous for humans. The international community is taking urgent action to save the human habitat. The ecological threat to the hydrosphere requires international cooperation of all countries and the adoption of a common strategy and program of joint actions.

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