We live in a world of sounds. Some sounds evoke positive emotions, while others alert, excite, cause a feeling of anxiety, or soothe and induce sleep. Sounds evoke images. With the help of a combination of sounds, it is possible to have an emotional impact on a person, which we especially perceive when reading artistic literary works and works of Russian folk art.
In works of art, and especially in poetry, various techniques for enhancing phonetic expressiveness of speech.
Poetic speech organized in a special way acquires a bright emotionally expressive coloring. This is one of the reasons why the content of poetry does not allow "retelling in prose."
sound recording- a technique for enhancing the figurativeness of the text by repeating stressed and unstressed syllables, vowels and consonants.
The most common form of sound writing is poetic repetitions, which form a special structure of the text. This gives the text a kind of symmetry.
For example:
I dreamed of catching the departing shadows,
the fading shadows of the fading day,
I climbed the tower, and the steps trembled,
And the steps trembled under my feet.
And the higher I went, the clearer they were drawn,
The clearer the outlines were drawn in the distance,
And some sounds were drawn in the distance,
Around me were heard from Heaven to Earth.(Balmont)
The basic principle of enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech is the selection of words of a certain sound coloring, in a kind of roll call of sounds. The sound convergence of words enhances their figurative significance, which is possible only in a literary text, where each word plays an important aesthetic role.
The main way to enhance the phonetic expressiveness of artistic speech is sound instrumentation - a stylistic device consisting in the selection of words of close sounding.
For example:
Peter is feasting. Proud and clear
And his eyes are full of glory.
And his royal feast is beautiful.
Vowels are repeated here [o], [a] and consonants [n], [p], [t]. This makes the verse musical and vivid; the richness of sound repetitions seems to reflect the breadth of the glorified victorious triumph. The sound of speech emphasizes the main, dominant words in the text Peter is feasting.
Usually a verse is instrumented (as in our example) by repeating several sounds at once. And the more they are involved in such a “roll call”, the more clearly their repetition is heard, the more aesthetic pleasure the sound of the text brings.
Such is the sound instrumentation of Pushkin's lines: Look: a free moon walks under the distant vault; Cherished in eastern bliss, north, sad snow, you left no traces (about legs); She liked novels early on; Whose noble hand will pat the old man's laurels!; I am a thoughtful outfit; Bed covered with carpet; An angry chorus of heirs starts an obscene argument etc.
Instead of a term "sonic instrumentation" sometimes used by others: say "consonant instrumentation" and "vowel harmony". Verse theorists describe various types of sound instrumentation. We will name only the most important of them.
Depending on the quality of repeated sounds, there are alliteration and assonance.
Alliteration called the repetition of the same or similar consonants.
Alliteration- the oldest stylistic device for enhancing the expressiveness of a verse by repeating consonant sounds. This technique is found in folk poetry and in the literature of all peoples of the world. They are rich in the poems of Homer, Hesiod, Horace, Virgil and many later poets of Europe - Dante, Petrarch, Ronsard, Shakespeare. The poet's sense of proportion and artistic tact determine the choice, character and appropriateness of alliteration in verse; there are no rules for using it and cannot be.
In Russian folk verse, alliteration occupies a prominent place. Sound alliteration scattered in the text "Words about Igor's regiment»:
..Pipes are blowing in Novegrad, standing banners in Putivl ...
Sound combinations [tr] and [gr] create the feeling of a gathering army, in these sound combinations the sounds of military marches, the roar of military weapons are heard, while the sound combination [st] gives a sense of stability, but at the same time a hidden threat. All together - conveys the tension before the battle, on the one hand, already exciting, on the other hand - still calm mood.
Magnificent masters alliteration were A.S. Pushkin, F. I. Tyutchev, A. P. Sumarokov, G. R. Derzhavin and K. N. Batyushkov, N. M. Yazykov, N. A. Nekrasov.
For example:
Neva swelled and roared
Cauldron bubbling and swirling.(A.S. Pushkin)
Volga, Volga, abounding in spring
You don't flood the fields like that...(N. Nekrasov)
In the stanza from Balmont's poem, the sound is repeated [l]:
The swan swam away in the semi-darkness,
In the distance, whitening under the moon.
The waves crash to the oar,
They caress for the moisture of the lily...
In Pushkin's lines, alliterations are noticeable on [n], [d], [s], [in]:
The night will come; the moon goes around
Watch the distant vault of heaven,
And the nightingale in the darkness
Sounding tunes turns on.
With the greatest certainty, our hearing catches the repetition of consonants standing in a pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of a word. The repetition of not only the same, but also consonants similar in some way is taken into account. So, alliteration is possible on d - t or h - s etc.
For example:
March!
So that time
behind
burst into nuclei.
To the old days
So that the wind
related
Only
hair tangle(Mayakovsky).
Alliteration on the [ R ] in the first part of this passage, the beaten rhythm, the jerky sound of these lines leave no doubt about the purpose of the sound painting, with which the poet seeks to convey the music of the march, the dynamics of the struggle, overcoming difficulties ...
In other cases, the figurative symbolism of sound writing is more abstract.
So, only imagination will help us to feel in alliterations on f - h the chilling chill of metal in an excerpt from N. Zabolotsky's poem " Cranes»:
And the leader in a shirt made of metal
Slowly sinking to the bottom
And the dawn formed over him
Golden glow spot.
Sound symbolism is still ambiguously assessed by researchers. However, modern science does not deny that the sounds of speech, uttered even separately, outside of words, are capable of evoking non-sound representations in us. At the same time, the meanings of speech sounds are perceived by native speakers intuitively and therefore are rather general and vague.
According to experts, phonetic significance creates a kind of “vague halo” of associations around words. This indefinite aspect of knowledge is almost not realized by you and is only clarified in some words, for example: burdock, grunt, mumbling, balalaika - harp, lily. The sound of such words significantly affects their perception.
In artistic speech, and above all in poetry, there is a tradition of dividing sounds into beautiful and ugly, rough and tender, loud and quiet. The use of words in which certain sounds predominate can become a means of achieving a certain stylistic effect in poetic speech.
The organic connection of sound writing with content, the unity of word and image gives the sound instrumentation a vivid depiction, but its perception does not exclude subjectivity. Here is an example from Aseev's poem " swim»:
Lie on your side
tense your shoulder
I float forward
more,-
gradually
mastered the wave
for fun
and clear water.
And behind me
leaving no trace
Curls
funnel water.
It seems to us that the alliterations on w - p transmit sliding on the waves; persistent repetition [in ] in the last lines it evokes the idea of a closed line, a circle, which is associated with funnels on the water.
The establishment of such a "sound-sense similarity" can be based on rather complex associations.
For example, in the lines of B. Pasternak
Chopin wrote down his dream
On the black sawing of the music stand -
you can see the fantastic outlines of a dream in the whimsical pattern of sound repetitions and in the combination of sounds unusual for Russian phonics in the word " music stand»
In Marshak's poem " Dictionary The following line is illustrative: Sparks of feeling flicker in its columns. Here is a double-repeated combination ca as if depicting flicker».
Regardless of the figurative understanding of sound writing, its use in poetic speech always enhances the emotionality and brightness of the verse, creating the beauty of its sound.
Alliteration - the most common type of sound repetition.
This is explained by the dominant position of consonants in the system of sounds of the Russian language. Consonants play the main semantic role in the language. Indeed, each sound carries certain information. However, six vowels in this respect are significantly inferior to thirty-seven consonants.
Let's compare the "record" of the same words, made using only vowels and only consonants. You can hardly guess by the combinations eai, ayuo, ui, eao any words, but it is worth conveying the same words in consonants, and we can easily “read” the names of Russian poets: "Drzhvn, Btshkv, Pshkn, Nkrsv". Such “weightiness” of consonants contributes to the establishment of various subject-semantic associations, therefore the expressive and pictorial possibilities of alliterations are very significant.
Another, also common, type of sound repetition is assonance.
Assonance - reception of strengthening the figurativeness of the text by repeating vowel sounds.
For example:
I am a free wind, I always blow
I wave the waves, I caress the willows,
In the branches I sigh, sigh, go dumb,
I cherish the grass, I cherish the fields.
Vowels are repeated here "about" and "e".
At the core assonance usually only stressed sounds appear, since vowels often change in an unstressed position. Therefore, sometimes assonance is defined as the repetition of stressed or weakly reduced unstressed vowels.
So, in the lines from " Poltava» Pushkin's assonances on a and
on the about create only accented vowels:
Quiet Ukrainian night.
The sky is transparent.
The stars are shining.
Overcome your drowsiness
doesn't want air.
And although many unstressed syllables repeat variants of these phonemes, conveyed by the letters o, a, their sound does not affect the assonance.
In cases where unstressed vowels do not undergo changes, they can increase assonance.
For example, in another stanza from " Poltava» the sound of speech determines the assonance on at; since the quality of this sound does not change, and in the unstressed position, y emphasizes the phonetic similarity of the highlighted words:
But in the temptations of a long punishment,
Having endured the blows of fate,
Strengthened Russia.
So heavy mlat
crushing glass,
Kuet damask.
In the last two lines, the assonance to at connects with assonance a.
In the same text, different sound repetitions are often used in parallel.
Melo, melo all over the earth
To all limits.
The candle burned on the table
Candle burning(Parsnip).
Here is the assonance e, and alliterations on m, l, s, v; repeated combinations of consonants: ml, sun - sv. All this creates a special musicality of poetic lines.
Everyone at least once in their life heard or said a rhyme with which you can calm crying children: “ Hush, mice, the cat is on the roof. And the kittens are even taller».
Why do each of us remember and pronounce some phrases (poems, tongue twisters, quotes) all our lives? How do conspiracies, sentences, grandmother-whisperers, etc. work? What is the secret of popular slogans and slogans (political, advertising)? We believe that sound recording is of great importance in all this.
Dissonance- a complex type of sound writing, built on the use of consonant, but not rhyming words; Thanks to this technique, the poem acquires sound integrity.
For example:
It was:
socialism -
awesome word!
With a flag
with a song
stood on the left
and herself
on the head
glory descended.
Passed through the fire
through cannon muzzles.
Instead of mountains of delight
woe down.
It became:
communism -
the most common thing.(V. Mayakovsky)
Cool
bourgeois
furious temper.
torn apart by thiers,
howling and groaning,
shadows of great-grandfathers -
Parisian Communards -
and now
yell
the Parisian wall.(V. Mayakovsky)
I will climb at dawn to the silver cedar
Admire squadron maneuvers from there.
Sun, morning and sea! How cheerfully cheerful I am,
Like air is thoughtless, like a mummy is wise.
Who is glorified by eagles - ah, he is not up to otters.(I. Severyanin)
One of the types alliteration counts onomatopoeia .
Onomatopoeia- creating, with the help of sounds and words, a more specific idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is said in this text.
Onomatopoeia- the simplest type of instrumentation is that the poet, by a certain selection of sounds, hints, as it were, at the sound side of the depicted.
For example:
German engines growl above:
- We are the Fuhrer's obedient slaves,
We turn cities into coffins
We are death... You will be gone soon.
("Pulkovo Meridian" V. Inber)
Sound repetition [R ] creates the illusion of the sound of a German aircraft engine, the terrible sound of bombing. And although such onomatopoeia is considered an elementary type of alliteration, one cannot but admit that the above passage perfectly conveys the growl of fascist aircraft over besieged Leningrad.
So, in Mayakovsky's phrase: " They beat hooves, they sang as if: mushroom-hornbeam-coffin-rude ..." - a fairly clear imitation of the sound of hooves is given.
The familiar noise of the rustle of their peaks...
(A. Pushkin)
It's about pines; selection of sounds [w] and the convergence of two sliding aspirated [X] reproduced their noise.
Barely audible, silently rustling reeds...(K.Balmont)
The dol trembled, the blow was heard ...
(A. Maikov)
It's about an explosion; four [e], three [R], two assonances (" IMPACT HAS HAPPENED”) resemble both the sound of an explosion and the peal of this sound.
Your stronghold smoke and thunder ...(A. Pushkin)
It's about a cannon salute; twice [tv], twice [dy] correlate with the sounds of gunfire.
Here is an example of a much more subtle onomatopoeia:
And shine, and noise, and the talk of balls,
And at the hour of the feast idle
The hiss of foamy glasses
And punch flame blue.(A. Pushkin)
Lip sounds dominate here ([b], [c], [m], [n]), hissing ( [h], [w]) and sonorants ( [p], [l]), making up an array of 28 sounds and 44 consonants of this passage, i.e. 64%.
Another technique that is used less often than others - onomatopoeia .
These are words that imitate their own meaning. These words are " snore», « crunch", and derivative words" to snore», « crunch" etc.
The sound image of the advertising text is an important component of its success with the recipient. That is why the creators of advertising texts pay so much attention to the sound of the text. Even in ancient times, the sound of speech was given great importance.
According to researchers of the language of advertising texts D.E. Rosenthal and N.N. Kokhtev, great expressiveness lies in the poetic syntax, which contains various ways of expressive selection of sentence members. Advertisers have a variety of stylistic figures at their disposal - these are turns of speech, syntactic constructions used to enhance the expressiveness of the statement, thus in advertising they are used to highlight the main idea, advertising motive, or image, the advertised object, etc. The most common figures of speech they include such as anaphora, antithesis, non-union constructions, gradation, inversion, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.
At the phonetic level, the creators of advertising texts most often use various sound repetitions. In phonics, sound repetition is understood as the repetition of identical vowels and / or consonants in a literary text, these include alliteration (repetition of identical or homogeneous consonant sounds in a segment of a text, mainly at the beginning of a word), assonance (repetition of identical (mainly stressed) vowel sounds in a segment text), paronymic attraction (consisting in the semantic convergence of words that have a sound similarity). These stylistic means are found both in the language of Russian and American advertising:
alliteration:
assonance:
paronymic attraction:
Beeline. Bisplatno - all incoming from mobile (advertising of the company "Beeline").
This example attracts attention by a combination of three methods - phonetic - paronymic attraction and anaphora, graphic - highlighting a certain part of the word and word-formation - contamination with a graphically selected segment. But in our case, the phonetic device is more like a game of anaphora than the anaphora itself. This is primarily due to the fact that the anaphora is created on the basis of the word free, subject to reduction, as a result of which, on the basis of the same word, a contamination is created with a graphically highlighted segment "Free". Thus, an attempt is made to create a subconscious association of the Beeline company with the word free in the consumer.
In advertising texts, you can also often find the following types of lexical repetition - anaphora (repetition of the initial word or phrase in each parallel element of speech) and epiphora (repetition of the final word or phrase in each parallel element of speech), anadiplosis, simploki (repetition of the same word form in a visible section of the text), as well as parallelism (the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech). The use of various stylistic figures allows you to give the text the most expressive sound, for example:
Don "t like the odds? Don" t have sex (social advertising for young people calling for responsibility for their sex life)
Double your pleasure, double your fun with Doublemint, Doublemint, Doublemint Gum (Doublemint Gum ad).
In all three examples above, we are dealing with anaphoric and lexical repetition and syntactic parallelism. In addition, sound repetition - alliteration - also contributes to the successful sounding of these texts.
parallelism:
for some, sport is business ... for us, business is sport (Honda car ad)
Color as you moisturize.
In these examples we are also dealing with chiasmus.
This advertising text was created in the year of the dog. Here the sounds made by the dog are copied, and the advertising text accompanies the image of the dog. The purpose of this advertising text is to convey the following information to the consumer: “In the year of the dog, gifts must be bought at the Giraffe store.
Phonetic JI can be used in different types of advertising: in radio advertising, in television, in outdoor advertising, that is, both in oral and written text. Of course, in radio advertising and television advertising, there are more opportunities for the implementation of phonetic FL than in outdoor advertising, due to the fact that they have a real opportunity to convey to the recipient the sound form of the played word. Each of the three types of advertising mentioned above creates certain favorable conditions for the implementation of phonetic language:
Radio advertising gives the recipient the opportunity to hear the sound form of the played word or expression, varying the real sound of the word or expression in accordance with the content plan of the advertising text and the advertiser's goals.
Television advertising can not only convey to the recipient the sound form of the played word or expression, as well as varying its real sound, but also has the ability to provide the recipient with a graphic image of the word of the word or expression being played. That is, when an advertising text is played on television, the slogan is first voiced, and then the slogan is reproduced on the screen again, but not in sound form, but in graphic form.
Outdoor advertising, although it is deprived of the opportunity to acquaint the recipient with the sound form of the played word or expression (since in this type of advertising the text of the advertising message is realized only in writing), nevertheless, it has a number of means and techniques at its disposal, with the help of which implementation of phonetic language based on the written text. The consumer deals only with the graphic form of the advertising text, which he can, if desired, reproduce himself.
Phonetic JI is not the most common type of JI in advertising, and there are a number of reasons for this. Firstly, this is due to the fact that "the so-called "lower language levels" are strictly standardized systems, determined by strict rules, the violation of which is usually unacceptable - even in jest." , secondly, this is due to the fact that the identification of phonetic NP in advertising is difficult, because in Russian the oral form can differ significantly from the written one. And one of the main goals of using NI in advertising, as we said earlier, is not just to attract the attention of the recipient to the advertising text, but also to involve him in the game of deciphering this advertising text. From this point of view, phonetic NP, which exists only in sound form (for example, in radio advertising), is difficult for a mass recipient to recognize the game and involve him in the game of deciphering the text. Phonetic NP, implemented both in sound and graphic form, is more accessible for perception. And the phonetic NP, realized only in its graphic form, is also always available, because after reading any intriguing advertising text, the recipient gets its sound image. Thus, we can distinguish three plans for the implementation of phonetic language in advertising: 1) sound; 2) sound - graphic; 3) graphic.
Despite the fact that examples of NP at the phonetic level in advertising texts are not numerous, the following trends in the use of NP techniques in advertising texts can still be traced:
Onomatopoeia of a certain manner of pronunciation in people's speech:
WELL, VERY BIG FIRM ...
AND DO NOT RIDE IN MOSCOW THE WHOLE DAY!! (an advertisement for a home textile warehouse).
This example is based on a play on a similar-sounding precedent phenomenon - the phrase "Well, oh, very big, but five rubles each" from Roman Kartsev's monologue "Crayfish", well known to many consumers. In this example, the graphic form copies as much as possible the manner of pronunciation of the expression "Well, very much."
Phonetic JI can be based on strengthening the pronunciation of the last syllable of the word, which also helps to attract the attention of the recipient. However, the use of this method of nuclear radiation can be considered successful.
only if it harmonizes with the entire advertising text:
Phonetic JI can also be based on speech parody:
JACK THE BLINDS NOW!
The reception of phonetic speech distortion attracts with its originality and contributes to the memorization of this advertisement by associating the letter "Ж" with the word "blinds".
Phonetic JI, based on the distortion of speech, is always accompanied by a distortion of spelling rules:
- - Hello, you are welcomed by the Yug-Lada center. And what is your name?
- - A, VAZ?
- - Very funny (an advertisement for the Yug-Lada automobile center).
The use of phonetic JI by playing with the pronunciation of the following words - the pronoun "VAS" and the name of the car manufacturer's plant "VAZ" creates a comic effect, which is enhanced by the fact that the advertising text itself is built on playing out a precedent phenomenon - a phrase from the humorous dialogue "Avas" written by Mikhail Zhvanetsky and is of an anecdotal nature. Phonetic JI, which gives the text an anecdotal character, may be accompanied by a certain subtext, which is not always of a purely verbal nature, for example:
The advertising text is based on a play on the pronunciation of the word wigwam as figwam, which is accompanied by a picture of a student in Indian clothes and school supplies, sitting in front of a wigwam made of diaries and notebooks. An additional comic effect is created precisely due to the fact that the interpretation of the pronunciation of the word wigwam as figwam is often jokingly used in speech and the joke is easily recognized by all consumers, regardless of their cultural or age level. The reason for the distortion of the spelling rules for spelling the word and the phonetic language itself with speech distortion may be the desire of the compiler of the advertising text to load the text with as much information as possible. Most often, the author of the advertising text under additional information means the maximum number of implementations in the text of the name of the advertised product:
XOT or not XOT
The graphical realization of the name of the “Hot” tariff on the basis of this advertising text occurs three times, which is relatively many for such a short text fragment. Paronomasia contributes not only to enhancing the expressiveness of the advertising text, but also to the implementation of linguistic manipulation by playing with similar-sounding words - incoming and wanting, whether you like it or not. Moreover, such an approach to creating a text allows you to concentrate a maximum of IE techniques in one text; in our case, we are dealing with phonetic NP, graphic NP, and a game based on playing out the well-known phrase from Hamlet's monologue “To be or not to be? That is the question".
Let Hertz put y-o-u-u-u in the driver's seat (advertising for Hertz products).
A comic effect can be created by matching the sound of the name of the advertised product with another word that appears in the advertising text more often than other words of the same advertising text:
Halo Everybody Halo
Halo is the shampoo that glories your hair
so halo everybody halo
For softer, livelier curls and brighter sparkling hair
halo means natural beauty
the first time you use it
And you need no special rinsing
after you use it
Halo Everybody Halo
In this example, the phonetic transcription of the shampoo name "Halo" matches the transcription of the greeting word hallo. This is also facilitated by the fact that the first phrase of the advertising text is built by analogy with the traditional American greeting "Hallo, Everybody!". Here, as in the previous example, the pronunciation of two identical-sounding words - homophones - is played up.
Imitation of sounds made by animals:
In Russian advertising, a certain tradition has developed associated with the fashion for the Chinese horoscope, supported by the media, but if the informational function prevails in the media in this case, then in advertising it is informational and influencing: inform the addressee in an original form about the coming of the new year and draw his attention to completely the goods he needs in the new year, cf .:
BE-E-E-LYH STRIPS TO YOU!
ZEBROY ENTER THE YEAR 2003.
Here, the sounds made by the rooster are copied, which is also a good technique, since this advertising text was created in the year of the rooster.
Reception of onomatopoeia can be used in other cases:
In this example, a black cat is depicted on the advertising canvas, which, as it were, voices the advertising text. There is an imitation of the purring of a cat. The effectiveness of this advertisement is also influenced by the fact that a cat is associated with something soft, cozy, comfortable.
These examples are also characteristic of American advertising, cf.:
The best to you each morning. They "rrrre GR-R-REAT! (an advertisement for Kellogg's Frosted Flakes products"). In this example, amplification of the sound p is used to create a comic effect and give the speaker of the text admiration for the advertised product.
Translation - "Eat more chicken."
This ad copy is misspelled in the original because the ad idea is that it was written by cows telling people to eat more chicken. Here, the use of phonetic YI is also associated with a comic effect.
Sometimes a phonetic NP can be created due to the full or partial coincidence of the sound of the name of the advertised product and some word in the advertising text. It could be:
Playing with homophones:
In this example, there is a coincidence of the sound of the subject - the name of the soap Duz and the predicate does.
Game with homographs:
Seductive perfume of spring
The dehi of spring wake up.
Aromas awaken, disturb and drive you crazy.
They attract and give warmth. Seductive perfume of spring.
As you can see, the phonetic JI is based on the use of an accent mark to distinguish between homographs: dukhim and dehi.
Game with omoforms:
Features of Russian pronunciation can also be used by the creators of advertising texts to give the advertising text a national flavor:
In this case, advertisers successfully play up the pronunciation of the negative particle no, a visual series that sounds like [Kvass not cola, drink not cola!]. The text becomes ambiguous due to the fact that the phrase drink Nikola sounds like “drink no cola”. Thus, a situation is created in which the words Nikola and not kola coincide in sound.
KLARA AT KARLA
STOL CORALS
Should've been drinking Buckler
Buckler - non-alcoholic beer
SASHA WALKED ON THE HIGHWAY
AND SUCKED DRYING ... FROM LINEN
Should've been drinking Buckler
Buckler is a non-alcoholic beer.
This technique, characterized by the identity of the sound composition of lexemes with a difference in compatibility and sequence of phonemes, is known as an anagram. As you can see, tongue twisters are used in the last two examples, and in the second case we are dealing with a variation of the tongue twister, and its variation occurs due to a change in the meaning of the word drying. In the original text of the tongue twister, taken as the basis of the advertising text, it meant drying as a food product - “a small thin and very dry bagel”, and in the advertising text the word drying means “clothespin”, which is achieved by adding the phrase “ from linen. Phonetic JI is also enhanced by the fact that the announcer, who voices both advertising texts, copies the speech of a drunk person.
The soap for people who like people...
And people who like people like Dial
I "m a Pepper. He" s a pepper. She's a pepper.
We "re a pepper. Wouldn"t you like to be a Pepper too? Dr. Pepper (Dr. Pepper advertisement).
The last examples of advertising texts are not tongue twisters in themselves, but they are built according to a scheme similar to them - a model of repeating a certain word or phrase throughout the entire text. In the first case, these are the words - people and like, in the second - pepper.
Examples of advertising texts built on the implementation of phonetic UI cannot be called widely replicated in advertising. They are rare, but they are expressive. Techniques of phonetic JI allow you to subtly play with additional shades of the advertised product.
Phonetic JI is almost always accompanied by spelling errors. A spelling mistake can be singled out as a game technique that introduces additional connotations into the text and supports the phonetic and rhythmic structure of the phrase. In addition, a spelling mistake, as a playful device that accompanies a phonetic YI, always gives the text a comic effect.
Phonetic JI as a variety of JI has a number of its own features and patterns, these include: the introduction of additional connotations, deviation from spelling and phonetic norms.
Verbal and artistic works are addressed to the auditory imagination of readers. "All poetry, from its very beginning, is created for the perception of the ear," Schelling noted. Artistically significant (especially in poetic speech) is the phonetic side of the works, on which German "auditory philology" was concentrated at the beginning of our century, and after it - representatives of the Russian formal school.
The sound of artistic speech is interpreted by scientists in different ways. In some cases, it is argued that the speech sounds themselves (phonemes) are carriers of a certain emotional meaning (for example, L. Sabaneev believed that "A" is a joyful and open sound, and "U" expresses anxiety and horror, etc.) . In other cases, on the contrary, it is said that the sounds of speech in themselves are emotionally and semantically neutral, and the artistic and semantic effect is created by combining this sound composition with the subject-logical meaning of the statement. B.L. Pasternak argued: "The music of the word is not an acoustic phenomenon at all and does not consist in the harmony of vowels and consonants taken separately, but in the ratio of the meaning of speech and its sound."
The origins of this view on the phonetics of artistic speech are in the philosophy of language, developed by religious thinkers of the early 20th century: imyaslavtsy, as well as S.N. Bulgakov, who argued that "without a sound body there is no word" and that the secret of speech lies in the "fusion" of the meaning of words with their form. The connection in the artistic word of sound and meaning (name and object), denoted by the terms onomatopoeia and sound meaning, was considered in detail by V.V. Weidle. The scientist argued that the sound meaning is born from the organic combination of the sounds of words with intonation, rhythm, as well as the direct meaning of the statement - its "banal meaning.
I'll only tell you about two tricks for now. sound writing in literature - alliteration and assonance. Although it is often said that these techniques are needed only in poetry, I cannot agree with this. Any literary text, whether poetic or prose, makes sense only when it captures the reader's attention. And for this there are some “buttons” that you can press if you know how to do it. Sound writing and intonation, as well as the internal rhythm of the phrase, exist precisely for this. With knowledge of the impact of word combinations on the subconscious, hypnotic texts can also be created. Which, when interspersed in the main text of the work, give the effect of in-depth attention.
Assonance- repetition of vowel sounds in a sentence.
There I will think, / / my evil fate, / / my evil gloomy fate (Heine) (U, Yu)
Alliteration- repetition of consonants or even blocks.
Something screams desperately,// something black - everything is on the threshold// of the endless, beginningless (H)
All this can come in handy in prose, when describing nature, for example.
The influence of different sounds of the language is different. Very often these techniques are used in hypnosis and neuro-linguistic programming. And for synaesthetics, each sound has its own color, which also creates additional colors in the writer's palette. For example, for me the sound "Ch" is black. And in some incomprehensible way, I see the passage given in the second example in dark blue tones. But the first passage seems to me not just green, it all goes in waves from light green to dark. Well, that's my own perception.
Longfellow's poem "The Song of Hiawatha" gives an example of onomatopoeia of natural phenomena among the Ojibway Indians: "Minni-wawa!" - sang the pines, "Madway-oshka!" the waves sang. Every language has such onomatopoeia. We do not need to invent any words to convey sound, but only the use of linguistic capabilities to convey this or that phenomenon without losing the main meaning of the text.
expressive characteristics
Funds
1) Alliteration
2) Onomatopoeia
3) Assonance
Phonetic Prosodic
Means variation
1) omission of sounds; 1) emphatic
2) reduction of stressed sounds;
3) replacement of phonemes. 2) intonation;
5) pause.
Let us consider in more detail the linguistic essence and stylistic functions of these phenomena.
Phoneme variation reflects individual and social (regional) deviations from the pronunciation norm. Basically it's a substandard pronunciation . Superstandard pronunciation - oratorical, poetic style - is an extremely rare phenomenon. In writing, phonetic variation techniques are conveyed by deviations from standard spelling. Within this group of techniques, subspecies are distinguished:
Variation and reduction of vowels:
Have not - haven't; is not - isn't; you - ye - the minimum degree of depression, characteristic of colloquial speech, regardless of the level of education and status of the speakers;
Fellow - fella; kind of - kinda; going to - gonna; would you - wudja; give me a cup of (tea) - gimme a cuppa - a characteristic of careless, hasty speech.
Variation, omission and replacement of consonants:
Could have been - could 'of been; old-ole; and-an'; say - sy (cockney); Henry - 'Enry (cockney); Mith (instead of Miss) - lisp.
Variation of vowels and consonants:
Darling - dulin'; everything-eve'thin; somewhat - sum.
The functions of stylistic devices of this type in fiction are different. Standard contracted forms signal the colloquial nature of speech. Other deviations can serve as a means of a character's speech characteristics - indicate his social status, level of education, characterize him as a carrier of a dialect, convey individual pronunciation features (childish speech, burr, lisp, etc.). In addition, phonetic variation techniques can convey the emotional state of the character, mannered pronunciation, lisping with children, singing, etc.
Below in the section "Patterns of stylistic analysis" several possible ways of analyzing and interpreting these stylistic phenomena are given.
In the course of stylistic analysis, it is necessary to distinguish between phonetic and graphic stylistic means. The latter includes the so-called "graphon". graphon (graphon) is a spelling corruption of a word or phrase used to convey illiterate speech: sellybrated (=celebrated) , illigitmit (=illigitimit), etc. Most of the above examples of phonetic variation (with the exception of standard contracted forms) can be rightfully defined as graphones.
prosodic phonetic means, including stress (emphatic and additional), intonation, rhythm, rhyme and specific intonational contours are used to convey emotions and for the purpose of amplification (emphasis). These techniques are used mainly in spoken speech, and in writing they are transmitted graphically using font selections and punctuation:
cursive (she was simply beautiful),
bold type (Muriel, I don't know!),
capitalization (He was SLAIN in North Africa),
multiplication of letters (“Allll aboarrrrd!”),
dissected spelling through a hyphen (re-fuse).
Author's expressive phonetic means are used to create harmony through the choice of sound matter or by appropriate arrangement of words, etc. In the linguistic literature, to designate this group of techniques, there is a special term "sound instrumentation".
Alliteration(alliteration) – one of the varieties of sound instrumentation, consisting of repeated consonants at the beginning of closely spaced stressed words:
B close b urya in b ereg b oats
H each h aram h black h eln (Balmont)
Alliteration is a fairly common method of phonetic organization in English artistic speech. It is known that Old English poetry did not know rhyme and used only alliteration. We find many examples of alliteration in the works of Shakespeare: Our d readful m arches to d elightful m easures (here the repetitions of two different consonants in one poetic line echo).
In English, alliteration is often found in stable (phraseological) combinations: busy as a bee, cool as a cucumber, hungry as a hunter, spick and span, forget and forgive. It is also used in the titles of many famous works of fiction: “Pride and Prejudice” (Jane Austen), “The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club” (Ch. Dickens), “The Last Leaf” (O'Henry), “Live with Lightning ”(M. Wilson).
The function of alliteration in speech is to draw attention to the content through form, creating a rhythmic pattern or emphase: He swallowed the hint with a gulp, and a gasp, and a grin.
Onomatopoeia(onomatopoeia) – This is an image of extralinguistic sounding with the help of speech sounds similar to it. Onomatopoeia can be direct or indirect.
Direct onomatopoeia underlie onomatopoeic words (to hiss, to crow, to grunt, to murmur, bang, splash, etc.). This phenomenon cannot be an object of stylistic analysis and is considered within the framework of lexicology. Onomatopoeia as a stylistic means is understood as the selection of words in a sentence or utterance, which, by their very sound, are capable of evoking the corresponding acoustic impression. Most often this takes place in the case of indirect onomatopoeia, which is of particular interest for stylistics.
Under indirect onomatopoeia understand the selection of sounds in adjacent words in order to create a sound image. This technique is used to create a mood that corresponds to the meaning or intention of the author, as well as to build a sensual image, convey the sounds of nature, music, etc.
the fair breeze blew,
The white foam flew
The furrow followed free (Coleridge).
In the example above, the repetition of the sounds f, s and b reproduces the sound of waves running up from the sides of a moving ship.
Indirect onomatopoeia may overlap with alliteration, as happened in the above example, and thus the question arises of possible ways to distinguish between these methods of sound instrumentation. It is believed that if the sentence contains a reference to the sound source, then the reception is defined as an onomatopoeia.
Assonance(assonance) is a type of sound instrumentation through the repetition of the same or similar vowels in a certain segment of speech (usually in stressed syllables): “The walls are whitewashed, the mother abbess ordered ...” (Bagritsky).
This technique is also called vocal alliteration, although repeated vowels are rarely located at the beginning of a word:
“I sh a ll clasp the s ai nted m ai den whom the ang e ls call L e nora...” (Pope).
Sometimes assonance is called inaccurate rhyme, in which only stressed vowels are consonant (such as same - cane, slumber - blunder etc.).
Literature on the topic "Stylistic phonetics":
1. Galperin I.R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. P.118-131.
2. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of the English language. - L., 1973. S.208-241.
3. Kukharenko V.A. Seminars in Style. - M., 1971. P.106-112.
4. Skrebnev Y.M. Fundamentals of English Stylistics. - Moscow 1994. P. 39-49; 133-145.
Questions for self-control
1. What does stylistic phonetics explore?
2. Give basic definitions on the list of questions to prepare for the exam.
3. Name the main types of phoneme variation.
4. What is a "graphon"?
5. What graphic means are used to convey the phonetic features of speech?
6. How do they differ from the actual graphical tools?
7. What speech characteristics can be created by phonetic means?
8. Can alliteration be an onomatopoeia at the same time?
THEME H
STYLISTIC MORPHOLOGY
One of the most important means of creating expressiveness in a language are transpositions. Transpositions are understood as the use of linguistic units (words, word forms, phrases and sentences) in a meaning and in a function that is not originally inherent in them. Transpositions are widespread in vocabulary when words are used in a figurative sense. (peach - a beautiful girl), in syntax, where so-called rhetorical questions are stylistically significant (Don't you know? Can't you see?).
Research shows that transposition can create both expressive, emotional or evaluative, as well as functional-stylistic connotations.
In morphology, transpositions are understood as the use of a grammatical form in a context that is not characteristic of it. As a result of transposition, one or another form loses its traditional grammatical meaning and acquires a new one - stylistic (connotative expressive).
Widely used for stylistic purposes transpositions of pronouns.
Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) can be used to convey a wide range of emotional attitudes, from admiration to contempt: That beautiful sister of yours! These lawyers! Oh, this Nastya!
Personal pronouns can convey a relationship of cold formality, indulgence, arrogance, sympathy, for example: We are exceedingly charming this evening! In this example, the first person pronoun "we" is used instead of the second person pronoun "you" to express the speaker's condescending/approving attitude towards the young girl who is the object of speech.
In scientific publications, "we" is regularly used instead of "I" (this is the so-called plural of modesty - a characteristic feature of this style). Another famous example of pronoun transposition we- the plural of majesty: We, Charles the Second.
The generalized personal pronoun you can be used by the author of a work of art to achieve a more confidential tone of communication with the reader ( you know), and the pronoun they, their in order to emphasize what an abyss lies between the speaker and the world around him (her).
Transpositions can be subjected not only to pronouns, but also nouns. So, nouns in the singular form are used to denote the plural for the purpose of emphasis: "And proud grandson Slavs, and Finn... "or" How rejoiced Frenchman". "And on the waves a deeper blue leaves a browner hue" etc.
Uncountable nouns can be used in the plural form to indicate the intensity of the property, volume, quality: “The snow is still whitening in the fields, and water they make noise in the spring. "Everywhere fatal passions and from fate there is no protection. “When sorrows come they come not single spies but in battalions. In the last example, along with the stylistically significant transposition of the number, personification is also used.
Transposition of adjectives turns them into nouns, thereby contributing to the achievement of greater expressiveness of the statement or giving it greater tangibility: "The Red and the Black", Isolde the Slender.
The only grammatical category inherent in English adjectives is the degree of comparison. It conveys the degree of intensity of the sign expressed by the word and, therefore, is very close to the category of expressiveness. In accordance with the grammatical norm, only qualitative adjectives (with the exception of those that denote absolute qualities - married, dead) have degrees of comparison. Violation of this norm, as a result of which adjectives are used in a comparative or superlative degree, to which this form is not characteristic, is always stylistically significant:
· You cannot be deader than the dead (Hemingway).
· “Curiouser and curiouser!”, cried Alice … (L. Carrol)
Similar information.
Phonetic techniques allow the poet not only to convey the noise of nature or the sounds surrounding a person, they are an ornamental way of expressing the beautiful or the ugly.
Alliteration- repetition of consonants.
Roses bloom more fragrant there,
Thicker than the forest...
(N. Nekrasov)
Assonances- repetition of vowel sounds.
In the desert stunted and stingy,
On the ground, the heat of the red-hot,
Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
It stands alone in the entire universe.
(A. Pushkin)
Onomatopoeia
Winged by the golden writing of the thinnest veins,
Grasshopper in the body of the belly laid a lot of coastal herbs and faiths.
- - Pip, pip, pip! the zinziver rumbled.
- (V. Khlebnikov)
Anagram(from Greek ανα - re and γραμμα - letter) - such a redistribution of letters and syllables in words, as a result of which other words are formed.
Coca Cola. Bells.
Here is a difficult one.
(A. Voznesensky)
This anagram is formed according to the principle of redistribution of syllables. At the same time, one of the four syllables does not have a letter match.
iron horses...
(V. Mayakovsky)
Here, the anagrams "faces y", "through" are formed by rearranging syllables, and the anagram "years" by redistribution of letters.
Nobody asked
to have a victory
homeland is inscribed.
To the armless stub of a bloody dinner
the hell is she?!
(V. Mayakovsky)
In this example, the anagram "what the hell is she" is formed by a simple division of syllables.
Anagram as a poetic device sharply emphasizes the image, attracts attention.
Quite often it is used as a means of rhyming.
The moon smiles and is completed like
like a line in the sky
from Averchenko...
(V. Mayakovsky)
You puppies! Follow me!
You will be on the kalach
look, don't talk
but I won't beat it.
(A. Pushkin)
In these examples, homophone rhymes are anagrams.
trails
Tropes (from the Greek τροποσ - turnover) are a group of poetic means formed according to the principle of transferring the meanings of words with partial or complete replacement of the concepts and phenomena they denote.
The possibility of such a replacement or transfer of the meanings of words is provided by their inherent ambiguity. This ambiguity is the result of a long development of the vocabulary of the language and, as it were, recreates the history of the use of words over decades and centuries. In this case, the vocabulary of the language acts as the memory of the people.
In some words, their original meaning is captured more or less clearly. Thus, it is relatively easy for us to determine that the word "city" in its early meaning is a fenced area or a place inside a fence. The word "village" goes back to the concepts of "wooden", "made of wood". In other words, finding their original meaning is more difficult. So, constantly using the word "thank you", we no longer perceive its original meaning - "God save."
Many words take on different meanings without changing either in style or in pronunciation. Thus, the word "philistine", characterizing at the present time (like the word "philistine") a person with a limited world of narrow personal interests, in the past was used in the meaning of "resident": "rural inhabitant", "urban inhabitant".
But a word not only changes meaning throughout its history, it can change meaning at any given moment in connection with its use.
Phenomena and objects of reality are characterized by their inherent features. The meanings of the words expressing these traits we call main or primary. In the combination "fire burns" the word "burns" is used in the main meaning - there is no path here. Very often, however, a word denoting one concept appears in combination with a word denoting another concept. This meaning of the word is called secondary or portable.
In this case, we will already be dealing with a trope: for example, the combination "fire is running" - a trope formed by transferring the sign "running", the main one for characterizing the phenomena of the animal world and figurative (associative)
to characterize fire. The same is true in the phrase "fire flows", where the main sign of water is transferred but the associations to fire.
When transferring meanings between words and the concepts and phenomena they denote, a new connection arises.
This new connection and is perceived as a special poetic device - tropes.
Thanks to the new (associative) connection, the phenomena of reality appear in the tropes with their unusual, unexpected sides and give speech a special expressiveness.
As you can see, a trope based on the ambiguity of a word is difficult to explain based on the characteristics of a single word: the phenomenon of "tropism" occurs only in a phrase, in a speech construction. Thus, the word "runs" (or "flows") is not in itself a trope: it becomes one of its elements only in combination with the word fire.
Trope is a very common means of creating a poetic image, used in both classical and modern literature. The creator of many bright tropes was A. S. Pushkin.
How fun, shod with sharp iron feet,
Glide on the mirror of stagnant smooth rivers.
(A. Pushkin)
Here Pushkin, with the help of secondary signs, describes "skates" ("shoes with iron sharp feet") and "ice" ("mirror of stagnant smooth rivers"). Thanks to the trails, Pushkin managed to portray a very lively and vivid picture of winter - ice skating.
In the Russian language, with the inexhaustible richness of its vocabulary, the huge variety of meanings and shades of word meanings, the possibilities of using tropes are essentially unlimited.
Each artist creates and uses trails according to his own design. Moreover, we can talk about the individual use of tropes, about trail system in the work of individual writers. By itself, the degree of saturation of the work with tropes is not an indicator of its artistry. Tropes interact with other visual language means and, along with them, are an integral part of the poetic language. Therefore, in each specific case, it is necessary to determine the measure, nature and functions of the tropes.
Paths are formed with significant parts of speech: verbs ("sea laughed") adjectives ("lonely accordion"), nouns ("jet fire"), adverb ("cold flashed the steel of the blade").
Within the framework of the method of their formation, fundamentally common for all paths, by transferring values, their separate varieties are possible.
In some tropes, when transferring meaning, both phenomena or concepts are grammatically framed. Takovo comparison."As if like a mother over a son's grave, a sandpiper groans over a dull plain" (N. Nekrasov. "Sasha").
The cry of the sandpiper here is replaced by the cry of the mother. However, both terms of the comparison are preserved. In comparison, as if fixed by itself process transferring values.
Words (and the concepts expressed by them) retain their independent meaning in a one-term comparison: "The dawn shines with a young bride" (A. Pushkin).
In metonymy, synecdoche, metaphor, we have before us the result, the result of the transfer of meaning. These paths are not only one-membered, they are to some extent unambiguous.
autocratic hand
Om boldly sowed enlightenment.
(A. Pushkin)
"Sow enlightenment" is a new meaning, formed as a result of the merger of two meanings: the main one ("enlightenment") and figuratively ("sow").
As can be seen, these tropes differ from comparison by greater confluence of meanings; in metaphor and metonymy, from the two initial, in essence, a third, new meaning arises.
Metaphor(from Greek. metaphor- I endure) - a type of trope in which individual words or expressions come close by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast.
Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification ("water running"), reification(" steel nerves"), distractions ("field activities"), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: a verb, a noun, an adjective.
Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:
In every carnation of fragrant lilac,
Singing, a bee crawls in ...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...
Here are the metaphors of "lilac carnations", "singing, creeps ...", "a wandering crowd of clouds."
The metaphor is an undivided comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:
With a sheaf of your oatmeal hair
You touched me forever...
The eyes of a dog rolled
Golden stars in the snow...
(S. Yesenin)
Here hair is compared to a sheaf of oats, eyes to stars. In a metaphor, as a rule, the real connection of concepts is not captured:
In the blue stream of my destiny
Scaling cold foam beats,
And puts the seal of silent captivity
A new crease on a wrinkled lip.
(S. Yesenin)
The blind seek in vain where the road is,
Trusting feelings to blind guides...
In the metaphors "scale foam in the jet of fate" and "blind guides of feelings", fate is compared with a jet and feelings are compared with guides, i.e. concepts that are not in contact with any of their sides in reality.
In addition to metaphors-words, the most common in artistic creativity are metaphorical images, or extended metaphors. Such is the above metaphor "scale foam in the jet of fate", with the help of which a detailed artistic image is created.
Oh, my bush withered my head,
Sucked me song captivity.
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turn the millstones of poems.
(S. Yesenin)
I will cut this childish sadness later
An inspired word with a ringing sword...
With the help of a number of metaphors ("carried captivity", "penal servitude of feelings", "millstone of poems") Yesenin recreates the image of the poet and the specifics of his work. An expanded metaphor from A. Fet's poem gives an idea of the word as a poetic weapon of the poet.
Sometimes the entire work is a broad, detailed metaphorical image. This is A. Pushkin's poem "The Cart of Life":
Though it is sometimes heavy in her burden,
the cart on the move is light;
Dashing coachman, gray time,
Lucky, will not get off the irradiation.
In the morning we sit in the cart;
We are happy to break the head
And, despising laziness and bliss,
We shout: go! ..
But at noon there is no such courage;
shook us; we are more afraid
And slopes, and ravines;
We shout: take it easy, fools!
The cart is still rolling;
In the evening we got used to it
And slumbering we go to sleep,
And time drives horses.
Here Pushkin in metaphorical form reproduces the phases of human life.
Very often, poetic definitions acquire a figurative meaning, which in this case are called metaphorical epithets.
In the above metaphor "wandering crowd of clouds" from A. Fet's poem, the epithet "wandering" has a metaphorical connotation; in A. Pushkin's expression "gray time" the definition "gray" is a metaphorical epithet.
What's wrong with getting hot
Blood in tired veins?
You failed to love
I am unable to forget.
A. Fet defines the word "veins" here with the metaphorical epithet "tired".
Metonymy(from Greek. metonymia - renaming) is a type of trope in which words come together according to the similarity of the more or less real concepts or connections they denote. In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted with the help of other words and concepts. At the same time, signs or connections that bring these phenomena together remain; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of "a steel speaker dozing in a holster," the reader easily guesses in this image the metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor.
The idea of a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of the image, gives it freshness and unusualness:
You led swords to a plentiful feast;
Everything fell with a noise before you:
Europe perished - a grave dream
Worn over her head.
(A. Pushkin)
Here "swords" - warriors, "feast" - battle, "sleep" - death. These metonymic images recreate a special poetic world associated with the appearance of the legendary commander.
Sometimes the concept denoted by metonymy is not perceived with sufficient certainty:
But silent, magnificently pure,
Young mistress of the garden:
Only a song needs beauty
Beauty does not need songs.
Realizing that under the "young mistress of the garden" one can mean more than one beautiful plant, Fet calls his poem "Rose" and thereby reveals the meaning of metonymy.
The most common metonymy, in which the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity:
When is the shore of hell
Forever will take me
When the Feather falls asleep forever, my consolation...
(A. Pushkin)
Here the metonymy "falls asleep pen."
Complex concepts reveal metonymy replacing mythological images; in some cases, such metonymy can have a double meaning:
Our great-grandfather, seduced
A wife and a snake
The fruit ate the forbidden
And rightfully driven away ...
(F. Tyutchev)
Here the metonymy "forbidden fruit" is used not only in the specific meaning of an apple, it is also a biblical designation for original sin.
Comparison- a type of trail in which one phenomenon or concept is clarified by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparison can be attributed to the primary types of trope, since when the meaning is transferred from one phenomenon to another, these phenomena themselves do not form a new concept, but are preserved as independent ones. "Like a steppe scorched by fires, Grigory's life became black" (M. A. Sholokhov). Here, the state of inner emptiness of Grigory Melekhov is emphasized by comparing it with the steppe, devoid of vegetation, scorched by fire. At the same time, the idea of the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that dreary and painful feeling that corresponded to the state of Gregory. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept "scorched steppe" to another - the internal state of the character.
With the help of comparison, the artist creates an image of great emotional expressiveness and strength.
Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to to deployed comparisons:
The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Exciting only a silver feather grass,
Wandering flying aquilon
And before him freely drives the dust;
And where around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birches,
Which under the bluish haze
Blacken in the evening in the empty distance.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, distinguish
There are few things we can do in it, in the color of years
She will not cheer the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make immortal like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't what it means to rest.
Here, with the help of a detailed comparison, Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparison is usually connected by conjunctions "as", "as if", "as if", "exactly", etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible: "I, well done, have curls - combed flax" (N. Nekrasov. "Gardener"). Here the union is omitted. But sometimes it is not expected: "Tomorrow is the execution, the usual feast for the people" (A. Pushkin. "Andrei Chenier").
Some forms of comparison are built descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:
And she was
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Fresh morning roses.
(A. Pushkin)
She is sweet - I will say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And you can with southern stars
Compare, especially in verse,
Her Circassian eyes.
(A. Pushkin)
A special type of comparison are the so-called negative comparisons:
The red sun shines in the sky,
Blue clouds admire them:
Then at the meal he sits in a golden crown,
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.
(M. Lermontov)
In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a means of comparison and a means of transferring meanings.
A special case is the forms of the instrumental case used in comparisons:
It's time, beauty, wake up:
Open your blinded eyes,
Towards North Aurora
Be the star of the north!
(A. Pushkin)
I do not soar - I sit like an eagle.
(A. Pushkin)
Comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition "under" are quite often found in fiction: "Sergei Platonovich ... sat with Atepin in the dining room, pasted over with expensive, oak-like wallpaper ..." (M. A. Sholokhov).
In all the above examples, comparisons bring together concepts that are not really related to each other and completely replace each other. it metaphorical comparisons. But in some comparisons, concepts that are actually related to each other converge. In this case, only individual features of the phenomenon with which something is compared can be expressed:
My grandfather did not sell pancakes,
Didn't wax the king's boots,
I did not sing with the court deacons,
I didn’t jump from crests to princes ...
The people with whom the ancestors of A. S. Pushkin are compared are not indicated here, but by individual touches, contemporaries could guess who the poet had in mind.
I did not walk with a flail in a dense forest,
I did not lie in the ditch in the impenetrable night, -
I ruined my life for a beautiful girl,
For a beauty girl, for a noble daughter.
(N. Nekrasov)
The first two lines are a negative comparison, in which one of the compared phenomena is not expressed directly: "I did not lie with a flail" (like a robber). "Kisten" and "impenetrable night" are signs that are transferred to the gardener in a negative form.
Like a prisoner, sung by Byron,
He sighed, leaving the darkness of the prison...
(A. Pushkin)
Here A. S. Pushkin compares himself with the hero of Byron's poem Bolivar, whose name, however, is not mentioned by the poet. Such comparisons can be called metonymic.
In turn, both metaphor and metonymy contain a hidden comparison. Unlike metaphors and metonyms, comparison conveys not total, And you process transferring meaning.
Epithet(from the Greek επιτηετον - application) - a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities or features.
Human tears, oh human tears,
You pour early and late sometimes ...
Flow unknown, flow invisible,
Inexhaustible, innumerable...
(F. Tyutchev)
Here the epithet "human" defines the object ("tears"), and the rest of the epithets ("unknown", "invisible", "inexhaustible", "innumerable") emphasize its various aspects.
At the same time, the sign expressed by the epithet, as it were, joins the subject, enriching it in a semantic and emotional sense. This property of the epithet is used when creating an artistic image:
I don't like golden spring
Your solid, wonderfully mixed noise;
You rejoice, without stopping for a moment.
Like a child, without care or thought...
(N. Nekrasov)
The properties of an epithet appear in a word only when it is combined with another word denoting an object or phenomenon. So, in the above example, the words "golden" and "wonderfully mixed" acquire the properties of an epithet in combination with the words "spring" and "noise".
Epithets are possible that not only define an object or emphasize any of its aspects, but also transfer to it from another object or phenomenon (not directly expressed) new, additional quality:
And we, the poet, did not guess you,
Did not understand infantile sadness
In your as if forged verses.
(V. Bryusov)
The epithet "forged" transfers one of the signs of metal to verse. Such epithets are called metaphorical. As you can see, the epithet emphasizes in the subject not only inherent in it, but also possible, conceivable, transferred features and signs.
This not only gives reason to classify the epithet as a group trails, but also allows you to use it as a means of expressing the author's thoughts and moods:
Son of the revolution, you are with a terrible mother
He bravely entered the battle - and was exhausted in the struggle ...
(F. Tyutchev)
Conservative tendencies in the author's worldview find manifestation here in the epithet "terrible", which defines the revolution.
Various (significant) parts of speech can be used as epithets. Noun.
Mother Nature! I go to you again
With my everlasting desire...
(II. Nekrasov)
Adjective, gerund and even verb:
Under blue skies
splendid carpets,
Shining in the sun, the snow lies;
The transparent forest alone turns black,
And the spruce turns green through the frost,
And the river glitters under the ice.
(A. Pushkin)
Here the epithets are not only "blue", "magnificent", "transparent", but also the words "shining", "blackens", "green", "glistens".
A special group of epithets are permanent epithets that are used only in combination with one specific word: "living" or "dead water", "good fellow", "borzoi horse", etc. Permanent epithets are characteristic of works of oral folk art. Widespread attempts to distinguish between the definition "logical" or "necessary" and the epithet as "figurative definition" are unproductive, since in a stylistic context any definition can have an expressive meaning. In the expression "great, mighty, truthful and free Russian language" (I. S. Turgenev), the word "Russian" can be considered both as a logical definition and as an epithet, since it completes the intonational growth and therefore receives a special stylistic meaning.
personification- a special kind of metaphor, the transfer of human features to inanimate objects and phenomena. Animalistics is the animal world, endowed with the properties of the world of people. In the story of N.V. Gogol "Notes of a Madman" dogs are written. Objects speak in fairy tales.
paraphrase(periphrase) (from Greek ηεριιηρσισα, from περί - around, around and prandzo- I say) - a type of trope, a verbal turnover with a figurative meaning, in which the name of a person, animal, object or phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its most important, characteristic features or signs. So, instead of the word "lion" the combination "king of beasts" is used. A. S. Pushkin: "Mighty darling of victories" - Napoleon; "Singer of Giaur and Juan" - Byron; "arrogant sultan of the chicken coop" - a rooster.
