The most important fundamental concepts of the physical description of nature include space, time, movement and matter.

In the modern physical picture of the world, ideas about relativity of space and time, their dependence on matter. Space and time cease to be independent of each other and, according to the theory of relativity, merge into a single four-dimensional space-time continuum.

The idea of movement, which becomes only a special case of physical interaction. Four types of fundamental physical interactions are known: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak. They are described on the basis of the principle of short-range action, interaction, are transmitted by the corresponding fields from point to point, the transmission rate of interaction is always finite and cannot exceed the speed of light in vacuum (300,000 km/s).

1. Corpuscular - wave dualism of matter. Quantum-field picture of the world. Matter is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them - this is a philosophical definition of matter.

In classical natural science, two types of matter are distinguished: matter and field. According to modern concepts, the existence of another type of matter is recognized - the physical vacuum.

In classical Newtonian mechanics, a material particle of small size acts as a material formation - a corpuscle, often called a material point, and a physical body, as a single system of corpuscles, somehow interconnected. The specific forms of these material formations, according to classical ideas, are a grain of sand, stone, water, etc.

In the nineteenth century, with the emergence of ideas about electromagnetic field a new era in natural science began.

The Danish physicist Oersted (1777 - 1851) and the French physicist Ampère (1775 - 1836) showed by experiment that a conductor with an electric current generates the effect of deflecting a magnetic needle. Oersted suggested that there is a magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor, which is vortex. Ampere noticed that magnetic phenomena occur when current flows through an electric circuit. A new science appeared - electrodynamics.

The English physicist Faraday (1791 - 1867) discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction - the occurrence of current in a conductor near a moving magnet.

Based on the discoveries of Faraday in the field of electromagnetism, the English mathematician and physicist Maxwell (1831 - 1879) introduces the concept of an electromagnetic field.

According to Maxwell's theory, each charged particle is surrounded by a field - an invisible halo that affects other charged particles nearby, i.e. the field of one charged particle acts on other charged particles with some force.

The electromagnetic field theory has introduced a new idea that the electromagnetic field is a reality, a material carrier of interaction. The world gradually began to be represented as an electrodynamic system built from electrically charged particles interacting through an electrical fields.

2. Quantum mechanics. At the end of the third decade of the twentieth century, classical physics came to difficulties in describing the phenomena of the microworld. There was a need to develop new research methods. A new mechanics arises - quantum theory, which establishes the method of description and the laws of motion of microparticles.

In 1901, the German physicist Max Planck (1858 - 1947), while studying thermal radiation, came to the conclusion that in radiation processes, energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously, but only in small portions - quanta, moreover, the energy of each quantum is proportional to the frequency of the emitted radiation: Е= hy, where y is the frequency of light, h is Planck's constant.

In 1905, Einstein applied Planck's hypothesis to light and came to the conclusion that the corpuscular structure of light should be recognized.

The quantum theory of matter and radiation was confirmed in experiments (the photoelectric effect), which revealed that when solids are irradiated with light, electrons are knocked out of them. A photon hits an atom and knocks an electron out of it.

Einstein explained this so-called photoelectric effect on the basis of quantum theory, proving that the energy required to free an electron depends on the frequency of light. (light quantum) absorbed by the substance.

It was proved that light in experiments on diffraction and interference exhibits wave properties, and in experiments on the photoelectric effect - corpuscular, i.e. can behave both as a particle and as a wave, so it has dualism.

Einstein's ideas about light quanta led to the idea of ​​"waves of matter", this served as the basis for the development of the theory of wave-particle duality of matter.

In 1924 the French physicist Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) came to the conclusion that the combination of wave and particle properties is a fundamental property of matter. Wave properties are inherent in all types of matter (electrons, protons, atoms, molecules, even macroscopic bodies).

In 1927, the American scientists Davis and Germer and, independently of them, P.S. Tartakovsky discovered the wave properties of electrons in experiments on electron diffraction on crystal structures. Later, wave properties were also discovered in other microparticles (neutrons, atoms, molecules). Based on the system of wave mechanics formulas, new elementary particles were predicted and discovered.

Modern physics has recognized the corpuscular-wave dualism of matter. Any material object manifests itself both as a particle and as a wave, depending on the conditions of observation.

With the development of the theory of physical vacuum, the definition of matter is supplemented. Modern definition of matter: matter is substance, field and physical vacuum.

The theory of physical vacuum is under development, the nature of vacuum has not been fully explored, but it is known that not a single material particle can exist without the presence of vacuum, this is the environment in which it exists and from which it appears. Vacuum and matter are inseparable.

3. Principles of modern physics. In 1925 the Swiss physicist W. pauli(1900-1958) substantiated principle: in any quantum system (atom), 2 or more electrons cannot be in the same quantum state (at the same energy level or in the same orbit). The Pauli principle determines the patterns of filling the electron shells of atoms, the periodicity of their chemical properties, valency, and reactivity. This is a fundamental law of nature.

In 1924, N. Bohr formulated complementarity principle: no theory can describe the object in such a comprehensive way as to exclude the possibility of alternative approaches. An example is the solution of the situation of corpuscular-wave dualism of matter. "The concepts of particle and wave complement each other and at the same time contradict each other, they are complementary pictures of what is happening."

In 1927, the German physicist W. Heisenberg formulated the famous uncertainty principle. The meaning of which is that it is impossible to simultaneously measure both the coordinates and the velocity (momentum) of the particle. You can never know at the same time where a particle is and how fast and in what direction it is moving.

The uncertainty relation expresses the impossibility of observing the microworld without violating it. Example: if in an experiment it is necessary to set the coordinate of a particle with a known speed, it must be illuminated, i.e. direct a beam of photons, however, photons colliding with particles will transfer part of the energy to them and the particle will begin to move with a new speed and in a new direction. The observer-experimenter intervening in the system, infiltrating it with his devices, violates the current order of events.

The main idea of ​​quantum mechanics is that, in the microcosm, the idea of ​​the probability of events is decisive. Predictions in quantum mechanics are probabilistic in nature, it is impossible to accurately predict the result of an experiment, you can only calculate the probability of different outcomes of the experiment.

From the point of view of physics, at the micro level, statistical regularities dominate, on the macro level dynamic laws. Philosophical understanding of the principle of uncertainties shows that randomness and uncertainty are a fundamental property of nature and are inherent in both the microcosm and the macrocosm - the world of human activity.

4. Elementary particles and forces in nature. Today, there are 4 levels of organization of the microworld: molecular, atomic, proton (nucleon) and quark.

Elementary particles are called such particles that, at the present level of development of science, cannot be considered a combination of other, simpler ones.

Distinguish real particles– they can be fixed with instruments and virtual- possible, the existence of which can only be judged indirectly.

Aristotle considered matter to be continuous, that is, any piece of matter can be crushed to infinity. Democritus believed that matter has a granular structure, and that everything in the world is made up of various atoms that are absolutely indivisible.

The collapse of the ideas about the absolute indivisibility of the atom that existed until the end of the 19th century began with the discovery in 1897 by the English physicist J. Thomson of the simplest elementary particle of matter - electron, which flew out of the atom. In 1911, the English physicist Ernst Rutherford proved that the atoms of matter have an internal structure: they consist of a positively charged nuclei and electrons revolving around it.

At first it was assumed that the nucleus of an atom consists of positively charged particles, which they called protons. In 1932, James Chadwig discovered that there are still other particles in the nucleus - neutrons, whose mass is equal to the mass of a proton, but which are not charged.

In 1928, the theoretical physicist P. Dirac proposed a wave theory of the electron, based on its corpuscular-wave nature. According to the wave-particle theory, particles can behave like a wave. One of the premises of this theory was that there must be an elementary particle with the same properties as electron but with a positive charge. Such a particle was discovered and named positron. It also followed from Dirac's theory that the positron and electron interacting with each other ( annihilation reaction), form a pair photons, i.e. quanta of electromagnetic radiation. A positron and an electron move in the same orbital. Colliding, they turn into radiation quanta.

In the 1960s, protons and neutrons were considered elementary particles. But it turned out that protons and neutrons are composed of even smaller particles. In 1964, American scientists M. Gell-Mann and D. Zweig independently put forward a similar hypothesis of the existence of "subparticles". Gell-Mann called them quarks. The name was taken from a line of poetry (Joyce's "Finegans Wake").

Several varieties of quarks are known; it is suggested that there are six flavors that are answered: upper (u), lower (d), strange, enchanted, beautiful,t- sq.… The quark of each flavor can have one of three colors - red, yellow and blue, although this is just a designation.

Quarks differ from each other in terms of charge and quantum characteristics. For example, a neutron and a proton are each made up of three quarks: proton - fromuud, with charge +2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = 1;

neutron fromudd, with charge +2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0.

Each quark, according to the law of symmetry, has an antiquark.

The quantum characteristic is the spin: S = 0; S=1; S = 2; S = ½.. Spin is a very important quantum characteristic of an elementary particle, no less important than charge or mass.

In 2008, in Europe, by the joint efforts of physicists from many countries, a hadron collider was built, as a result of which, it is possible to obtain information about the “initial bricks” from which matter is built in nature.

5. Fundamental physical interactions. In the first half of the twentieth century, physics studied matter in its two manifestations - matter and field. Moreover, field quanta and matter particles obey different quantum statistics and behave in different ways.

The particles of matter are fermi-particles ( fermions). All fermions have a half-integer spin, ½. For particles with a half-integer spin, the Pauli principle is valid, according to which two identical particles with a half-integer spin cannot be in the same quantum state.

All field quanta are Bose particles (bosons). These are particles with an integer value of the spin. Systems of identical Bose particles obey Bose–Einstein statistics. The Pauli principle is not valid for them: any number of particles can be in one state. Bose and Fermi particles are considered as particles of different nature.

According to modern concepts, interaction of any type does not proceed without an intermediary, it must have its own physical agent. The attraction or repulsion of particles is transmitted through the medium that separates them, such a medium is vacuum. The transmission rate of interaction is limited by a fundamental limit - the speed of light.

In quantum mechanics, it is assumed that all forces or interactions between particles of matter are carried by particles with integer spins equal to 0, 1, 2 (Bose particles, bosons). This happens as follows, a particle of matter (fermion), such as an electron or a quark, emits another particle, which is the carrier of interaction, such as a photon. As a result of recoil, the velocity of a particle of matter (fermion) changes. A carrier particle (boson) collides with another particle of matter (fermion) and is absorbed by it. This collision changes the speed of the second particle.

Carrier particles (bosons) exchanged between particles of matter (fermions) are called virtual, because, unlike real ones, they cannot be directly registered with a particle detector, since they exist for a very short time.

So, a field is created around a particle of matter (fermion), which generates particles - bosons. Two real particles, being within the radius of action of the same type of charges, begin to stably exchange virtual bosons: one particle emits a boson and immediately absorbs an identical boson emitted by another partner particle and vice versa.

Carrier particles can be classified into 4 types depending on the magnitude of the transferred interaction and on which particles they interacted with. Thus, in nature there are four types of interaction.

gravitational force.

This is the weakest of all interactions. In the macrocosm, it manifests itself the stronger, the greater the mass of the interacting bodies, and in the microcosm it is lost against the background of more powerful forces.

In the quantum mechanical approach to the gravitational field, it is believed that the gravitational force acting between two particles of matter is transferred by a particle with spin 2, which is called graviton. The graviton does not have its own mass and the force it carries is long-range.

Electromagnetic forces.

They act between electrically charged particles. Thanks to electromagnetic forces, atoms, molecules and macroscopic bodies arise. All chemical reactions are electromagnetic interactions.

According to quantum electrodynamics, a charge creates a field, the quantum of which is a massless boson with spin equal 1 - photon. The carrier of electromagnetic interaction is a photon.

Electromagnetic forces are much stronger than gravitational ones. These forces can manifest themselves as both attraction and repulsion, in contrast to gravitational forces, which manifest themselves only as attraction.

Weak interaction.

This third fundamental interaction exists only in the microcosm. It is responsible for radioactivity and exists between all particles of matter with spin ½, but boson particles with spin 0, 1, 2 - photons and gravitons do not participate in it.

Radioactive decay is caused by the transformation of the flavor quark d into the flavor quark u inside the neutron (a proton turns into a neutron, a positron into a neutrino), the particle charge changes. The emitted neutrino has a tremendous penetrating power - it passes through an iron slab a billion kilometers thick. The Sun shines due to the weak force.

Strong interaction.

Strong interactions are the mutual attraction of the constituent parts of the nucleus of an atom. They keep quarks inside the proton and neutron, and protons and neutrons inside the nucleus. Without strong interactions, atomic nuclei would not exist, and stars and the Sun could not generate heat and light due to nuclear energy.

The strong interaction is manifested in nuclear forces. They were discovered by E. Rutherford in 1911 simultaneously with the discovery of the atomic nucleus. According to Yukawa's hypothesis, strong interactions consist in the emission of an intermediate particle - a pi-meson - a carrier of nuclear forces, as well as other mesons found later (the mass of mesons is 6 times less than the mass of nucleons). Nucleons (protons and neutrons) are surrounded by clouds of mesons. Nucleons can come into excited states - baryon resonances, and exchange other particles (mesons).

The dream of modern physicists is to build grand unification theory, which would unite all four interactions.

Today, physicists believe that they can create this theory based on superstring theory. This theory should unify all fundamental interactions at superhigh energies.

Questions:

How were the corpuscular and wave properties of matter proved?

What does quantum mechanics study and why is it called that?

What is a vacuum and what does "excited vacuum" mean?

What is the complementarity principle?

What is the uncertainty principle?

Describe the principle of symmetry.

How are the principles of symmetry and the laws of conservation of physical quantities related?

What is the significance of the superposition principle in quantum mechanics?

What is the specificity of the device-object relationship in quantum mechanics?

Give a definition of matter according to modern ideas.

What is the difference between matter and field?

What are protons and neutrons made of?

What fundamental interactions are currently combined?

Literature:

Dubnishcheva T.Ya. KSE. 2003. - S. 238-261. pp. 265-309.

Gorelov A.A. KSE. - 2004. - S. 79-94

Ignatova V.A. Natural science. 2002. - P.110-125 ..

Heisenberg V. Steps beyond the horizon. - M. - 1987.

Landau L.D. etc. Course of general physics. - M: Nauka, 1969. - S.195-214.

Weinberg S. Dreams of the Final Theory. M. - 1995.

Lindner G. Pictures of modern physics. - M. - 1977.

MODERN CHEMICAL PICTURE OF THE WORLD

1) Substance- this is a physical form of matter, consisting of particles that have their own mass (rest mass)

2) Field- a material formation that connects bodies to each other and transfers action from body to body (electromagnetic, gravitational, intranuclear fields) A photon has no rest mass, because light is not at rest.

3) Antimatter- in-in, consisting of antiparticles. The structure of antimatter: the nuclei of atoms of this kind of physical reality must exist from antiprotons and antineutrons, and the shell from positrons.

The material world around us can be divided, firstly, into microcosm, macrocosm and megaworld, each of which, in turn, includes various levels of organization of material existence:

- in inanimate nature: 1) submicroelementary level (quarks), 2) elementary (electrons), 3) nuclear (atomic nucleus), 4) atomic, 5) molecular, 6) macroscopic, 7) planetary, 8) cosmic.

- in wildlife: 1) biological macromolecules, 2) cellular, 3) microorganism, 4) the level of organs and tissues, 5) the level of the organism, 6) population, 7) biocenosis, 8) biospheric.

- to social: 1) person (individual), 2) family, 3) collectives, 4) social groups, 5) nationalities, 6) ethnic groups, 7) states

Each of the structural levels (and sublevels) of matter arises and exists on the basis of the previous ones, but is not reduced to them as a simple sum of elements, since it has new qualities and obeys other laws in its functioning and development.

11. Movement, space, time as the main forms of existence of matter.

Traffic- a concept that covers in the most general form any change, transformation. Everything that exists is in constant striving for change, another state, but only that which has relative stability and is in relative peace changes. But without a certain degree of stability in the world, nothing would exist. Rest is a relative concept, and movement is absolute. But, the movement also has the properties of relativity, because. changes to one object can only be fixed relative to another object.

Back in antiquity there were 2 concepts:

1) Zeno - negation of movement. Aporia of Zeno. Proved the impossibility of thinking movement.

2) Heraclitus - "Everything flows!" Everything is constantly moving from one state to another.

Engels proposed the following forms of movement:

mechanical

Physical

Chemical

biological

Social

Types of motion of matter:

1) mechanical(no change in quality)

2) With quality change. Orientation is of 3 types:

Progressive (from lowest to highest)

Regressive (highest to lowest)

Horizontal (the phenomenon of idioadaptation in biology, changes depend on the conditions of existence and are not accompanied by a general increase in the organization and level of life. For example, the periodic table, where changes unfold at one horizontal structural level of the organization of matter)

Development is subject to a number of laws:

The law of transition from one quality to another based on quantitative changes

The law of unity and struggle of opposites

Law of negation of negation

No matter how the object changes, while it exists, it retains its certainty. A river does not cease to be a river because it flows: the being of a river lies in its flow. To find absolute peace means to cease to exist. Everything relatively at rest inevitably participates in some movement. Peace always has only a visible and relative character. Bodies can only be at rest with respect to any frame of reference conventionally accepted as motionless (For example, we are motionless relative to buildings, the Earth, but we move relative to the Sun)

Private spaces:

-three-dimensionality(any spatial relationship can be described by three dimensions - length, width, height)

-reversibility(you can return to the same place)

-length

-isotropy(equality of all possible directions)

Private times:

-one-dimensionality(one coordinate is enough: minute, hour, second)

-unidirectionality(can't go back in time)

General properties of space and time:

Objectivity (independence from our consciousness)

Infinity (there is no such place in the universe where space and time would be absent)

Absoluteness (i.e. being outside of space is the same nonsense as being outside of time)

Relativity (i.e., a person's ideas about space and time are relative)

Unity of continuity (absence of empty space)

Unity of discontinuity (separate existence of material objects)

Types of space and time:

-Real(objective forms of existence of pr-va and time)

-Perceptual(subjective human perception of real space and time)

-Conceptual(theoretical modeling of space and time)

Concepts of the origin of space and time:

1) Substantial(Democritus, Plato, Newton)

Space and time are considered as absolute, along with matter in the rank of substances. They exist independently, independently of material objects, and are regarded as pure extension and pure duration.

2) relational(Aristotle, Leibniz, and in our time Einstein, Lobachevsky)

Space and time are a special relationship between objects and do not exist independently and separately from them. Those. if for Newton the board occupies some position, then for Leibniz the space is the ratio of the board with the objects surrounding it.

Two philosophically important conclusions followed from the theory of relativity: firstly, at speeds close to the speed of light, the lengths of bodies are reduced by about half; secondly, the rate of flow of time processes slows down at a speed close to light, by about 40 times. The theory of relativity has shown the dependence of space (the length of bodies) and time (the rate of duration of processes) on the speed of moving bodies.

Matter "is one of the most fundamental concepts of philosophy. However, in various philosophical systems its content is understood differently. Idealistic philosophy, for example, is characterized by the fact that it either completely rejects the existence of matter or denies its objectivity. Thus, the outstanding ancient Greek philosopher Plato considers matter as a projection of the world of ideas. In itself, matter in Plato is nothing. In order to turn into reality, some idea must be embodied in it.

For the follower of Plato, Aristotle, matter also exists only as a possibility, which turns into reality only as a result of its combination with form. Forms ultimately originate from God.

In G. Hegel, matter manifests itself as a result of the activity of the absolute idea, the absolute spirit. It is the absolute spirit, the idea that gives rise to matter.

Matter - a philosophical category to designate objective reality, cat. given to him in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed, by our sensations, existing independently of them. In this definition, 2 signs of matter are singled out: 1) Recognition of the primacy of matter in relation to consciousness (objectivity of sensation) 2) Recognition of the fundamental cognizability of the world. Lenin distinguishes between the philosophical understanding of matter and natural scientific knowledge about the existing world. Lenin contributed to overcoming the crisis in physics associated with the inclusion of the principle of the structural nature of matter and the divisibility of atoms in the scientific picture of the world.

MATTER (according to Lenin) is a philosophical category for designating objective reality, which is given to a person in his feelings, which is copied, photographed by our feelings, existing independently of them. Matter is the substance of our world. Substance - substrate (a certain basis, carrier) + its St. Islands. If earlier matter was identified with the atom, now the electron has been discovered and matter is relative, nature is infinite.

Matter types : 1) Substance is a kind of matter that has a rest mass. Solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma. 2) The field has no rest mass. The form of matter is a set of various material objects and systems that have a single qualitative certainty, manifesting in general properties and specific to a given form of matter, ways of existence. Forms: 1) Social (Ch-to, human society, labor). 2) Biological (wildlife). 3) Chemical (atoms). 4) Physical (lower - atoms, molecules, fields).

In modern science, the method of structural analysis is widely used, which takes into account the systematic nature of the objects under study. After all, structure is an internal dismemberment of material existence, a way of existence of matter. Structural levels Matters are formed from a certain set of objects of some kind and are characterized by a special way of interaction between their constituent elements. In relation to the three main spheres of objective reality, these levels look like this:

The study of the problems associated with the philosophical analysis of matter and its properties is a necessary condition for the formation of a person's worldview, regardless of whether it ultimately turns out to be materialistic or idealistic.

In the light of the foregoing, it is quite obvious that the role of defining the concept of matter, understanding the latter as inexhaustible for building a scientific picture of the world, solving the problem of reality and cognizability of objects and phenomena of the micro- and mega-world is very important.

The following definition is reasonable: "... Matter is an objective reality given to us in sensation"; "Matter is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them." (In the first case, we are talking about matter as a category of being, an ontological category, in the second - about a concept that fixes it, an epistemological category).

The fundamental element in the study of the vast majority of natural sciences is matter. In this article we will consider matter, the forms of its movement and properties.

What is matter?

Over the centuries, the concept of matter has changed and improved. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato saw it as the substratum of things, which opposes their idea. Aristotle said that it is something eternal that can neither be created nor destroyed. Later, the philosophers Democritus and Leucippus defined matter as a kind of fundamental substance that makes up all bodies in our world and in the universe.

The modern concept of matter was given by V. I. Lenin, according to which it is an independent and independent objective category, expressed by human perception, sensations, it can also be copied and photographed.

Matter attributes

The main characteristics of matter are three attributes:

• Space.
• Time.
• Traffic.

The first two differ in metrological properties, that is, they can be quantitatively measured with special instruments. Space is measured in meters and its derivatives, and time in hours, minutes, seconds, as well as in days, months, years, etc. Time also has another, no less important property - irreversibility. It is impossible to return to any initial time point, the time vector always has a one-way direction and moves from the past to the future. Unlike time, space is a more complex concept and has a three-dimensional dimension (height, length, width). Thus, all types of matter can move in space for a certain period of time.

Forms of motion of matter

Everything that surrounds us moves in space and interacts with each other. Movement occurs continuously and is the main property that all types of matter have. Meanwhile, this process can proceed not only during the interaction of several objects, but also within the substance itself, causing its modifications. There are the following forms of motion of matter:

• Mechanical is the movement of objects in space (an apple falling from a branch, a hare running).

• Physical - occurs when the body changes its characteristics (for example, the state of aggregation). Examples: snow melts, water evaporates, etc.
• Chemical - modification of the chemical composition of a substance (metal corrosion, glucose oxidation)
• Biological - takes place in living organisms and characterizes vegetative growth, metabolism, reproduction, etc.

• Social form - processes of social interaction: communication, holding meetings, elections, etc.
• Geological - characterizes the movement of matter in the earth's crust and the bowels of the planet: the core, mantle.

All of the above forms of matter are interconnected, complementary and interchangeable. They cannot exist on their own and are not self-sufficient.

Matter Properties

Ancient and modern science ascribed many properties to matter. The most common and obvious is movement, but there are other universal properties:

• She is indestructible and indestructible. This property means that any body or substance exists for some time, develops, ceases to exist as an initial object, however, matter does not cease to exist, but simply turns into other forms.
• It is eternal and infinite in space.
• Constant movement, transformation, modification.
• Predestination, dependence on generating factors and causes. This property is a kind of explanation of the origin of matter as a consequence of certain phenomena.

Main types of matter

Modern scientists distinguish three fundamental types of matter:

• A substance that has a certain mass at rest is the most common type. It can consist of particles, molecules, atoms, as well as their compounds that form a physical body.
• The physical field is a special material substance, which is designed to ensure the interaction of objects (substances).
• Physical vacuum is a material environment with the lowest level of energy.

Substance

Substance is a kind of matter, the main property of which is discreteness, that is, discontinuity, limitation. Its structure includes the smallest particles in the form of protons, electrons and neutrons that make up the atom. Atoms combine to form molecules, forming matter, which, in turn, forms a physical body or fluid substance.

Any substance has a number of individual characteristics that distinguish it from others: mass, density, boiling and melting point, crystal lattice structure. Under certain conditions, different substances can be combined and mixed. In nature, they occur in three states of aggregation: solid, liquid and gaseous. At the same time, a specific state of aggregation only corresponds to the conditions of the content of the substance and the intensity of molecular interaction, but is not its individual characteristic. So, water at different temperatures can take on liquid, solid, and gaseous forms.

physical field

The types of physical matter also include such a component as the physical field. It is a kind of system in which material bodies interact. The field is not an independent object, but rather a carrier of the specific properties of the particles that formed it. Thus, the momentum released from one particle, but not absorbed by another, is the property of the field.

Physical fields are real intangible forms of matter that have the property of continuity. They can be classified according to various criteria:

1. Depending on the field-forming charge, there are: electric, magnetic and gravitational fields.
2. By the nature of the movement of charges: dynamic field, statistical (contains charged particles that are stationary relative to each other).
3. By physical nature: macro- and microfields (created by the movement of individual charged particles).
4. Depending on the environment of existence: external (which surrounds charged particles), internal (the field inside the substance), true (the total value of the external and internal fields).

physical vacuum

In the 20th century, the term "physical vacuum" appeared in physics as a compromise between materialists and idealists to explain some phenomena. The former attributed material properties to it, while the latter argued that vacuum is nothing but emptiness. Modern physics has refuted the judgments of the idealists and proved that the vacuum is a material medium, also called the quantum field. The number of particles in it is equal to zero, which, however, does not prevent the short-term appearance of particles in intermediate phases. In quantum theory, the energy level of the physical vacuum is conditionally taken as the minimum, that is, equal to zero. However, it has been experimentally proven that the energy field can take on both negative and positive charges. There is a hypothesis that the Universe arose precisely in the conditions of an excited physical vacuum.

Until now, the structure of the physical vacuum has not been fully studied, although many of its properties are known. According to Dirac's hole theory, the quantum field consists of moving quanta with identical charges; the composition of the quanta themselves remains unclear, clusters of which move in the form of wave flows.

Lecture topic: Physics of matter.
definition
Matter is a tangible and intangible content existing in space,

filling (occupying) a place in space, possessing physical properties.
Simply put, matter is everything that exists (is present) in space, regardless of its own nature, including tangible and intangible. All this is matter.

What should be understood in this regard:
It is necessary to clearly understand what is matter and what is not matter.
Not everything that people have an idea about is matter.
Matter is not space itself, but only what is located in it.

This is the first important position to understand.
The second important point to understand is that
matter is not information and abstractions.
And in relation to information, only the carrier of information, and not the information itself, can be material.
That is, matter is separate, space is separate, and information is separate, all fantasies, images, thought forms and glitches are all separate. They are not matter.
We will not be able to break grandmother's TV with dumbbells in a dream of grandfather.

Based on the definition of matter as “content that exists in space and has properties”), we can easily distinguish the material from the non-material, for example, how does a real material (existing in reality) penguin differ from an imaginary non-material (non-existing in reality).

A real penguin has physical properties, fills a place in space and has an extension. An imaginary penguin, on the contrary, has no real properties, does not fill a place in space and is present not in space, but in the imagination of an individual, and only in a virtual form, for example, in the form of a certain image.
The location of the imaginary penguin is not the real world, not space, but an abstract "world" - imagination.
And such a penguin straightens its shoulders not in space, but in the imagination of the individual.
And we will not be able to detect in the human brain either imagination itself, or that puddle where an imaginary penguin is splashing.
If we wish, we can try to designate in space the dimensions of an imaginary penguin, but we cannot fill the chosen place with an imaginary penguin.
An imaginary penguin has no non-fictional properties.
An imaginary penguin will not bake in the oven, and we will not even be able to prepare such a penguin for the winter, let alone take it away from Obama.

We can't douse an imaginary penguin with paint or throw eggs at it. Paint will not stick to him, and he can easily dodge eggs .

That is, by the presence or absence of physical properties - a person can distinguish the imaginary from the real.
Further
Real physical matter exhibits various properties, and we can divide matter into categories in accordance with common features.
According to the properties of discontinuity-continuity (in other words, discreteness), matter is divided into discrete and non-discrete forms

Non-discrete (continuous) matter in nature is represented as a field
Discrete (discontinuous, granular) matter in nature is represented in the form of particles.
Particles, in turn, are in one of two states:
- either behave directly as particles move in space at a speed close to the speed of light
- or grouped into a substance.
That is, in more detail on the basis of grouping - you can divide the matter in more detail and distinguish three main categories.
Substance, particles, field.

The first position is the particles grouped into a substance,
Second position - free particles (not grouped into matter)
and third position field.
And matter in nature manifests itself both as substance and as particles and as a field.
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And again, it should be well remembered that matter is only that which has properties.
The unknown “chavoit” that does not have properties is not matter.
If some matter exists but has not yet been discovered,
then, upon detection, according to its properties, it will fall into one of the categories
either matter, or free particles, or field.
let's look at the points.
What is a substance.
Matter is a type of matter that has a rest mass.
Anything that has rest mass is matter. Water (liquid) is a substance. Gas is a substance.
And all objects in our tangible world are made of matter, it doesn't matter if it's slate or grandmother's airship - all this ultimately consists of particles and all this stuff.

With the realization that such a substance usually does not arise difficulties and, as a rule, everyone is able to understand what a substance is.
Further.
position - field.
The field is something material, but immaterial. And not everyone is immediately able to comprehend (realize, understand) how the material can be insubstantial.
In fact, everything is quite simple.
Scientists initially decided what to consider material
Material is everything that is in space and has properties.
Here we have 100% of what is in space - this is matter
and part of it exhibits such and such properties.

If there were no properties, it would not be matter.
Shows properties - so this is one of the forms of matter,
At the same time, according to the actual manifestations, the field does not correspond to the definition of matter, in particular, the field has no mass.
And collectively it turns out that in terms of its properties the field is material but not real.
To understand what a field is, one must imagine physics without a field.
Two bricks fly towards each other.
How do two bricks touch?
Atoms touch along the outer contour.
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Let's look at how the atoms interact there and how it will look without a field:
Two atoms fly towards each other,
protons set up, electrons fluffed up, now a big boom will happen

But the atoms did not take the field with them, there was nothing to catch on to each other, so they slipped through.

These atoms did not notice any collision, could not notice.
What is the total volume of discrete objects that make up an atom?
How much meat is there in this atom? How much is there that you can feel and how much does it take up? Sometimes atoms are drawn very meaty. Sometimes not so much.

But if we consider in more detail, then there is a distance between the particles, and each smaller element, in turn, is again planetary, which means that discrete matter again occupies an insignificant part of the total volume. And it all tends to almost zero.

That is, it is not necessary to depict a fleshy atom, but a skinny one.

Let's simulate an atom without a field.
And to make it clear, let's take half a squadron of ordinary-sized flies and let them fly over the Moscow ring road, right above the cars in a large circle.

And in the center, in the area of ​​​​the Arbat, let the main such proton fly jump, and let the rest of the flies around it, the main one, fly around the ring without approaching.
We got a quite decent fly model of an atom without fields.
And now let's place the second similar fly model of the atom somewhere in Lapland and start bringing both of these models closer to each other.
Let them, like adults, fly at each other.
What is the probability that when the models of these two atoms approach each other, they will catch on to each other?
And what are they hooked on?
There is a lot of buzzing, but there is no field at all.
Even if some two flies hit each other exactly in the forehead, then in this case they will not be able to catch on. The second atom is also a planetary system, practically emptiness.
No chance of hooking. There is nothing to cling to without a field.
Two atoms under such conditions freely fly through each other.
With such a geometry without a field, this is one continuous draft.
In principle, we would not be able to collide any two elementary particles if they did not have a field.
Bricks would fly through each other remarkably.
That's actually what role the field plays.
Without a field, in principle, we have no possibility of interaction either at the macro or at the micro level.
Move on:
What are the field properties?
The field has neither internal nor external discreteness.
That is, it has no gaps, and also has no external boundaries as such.

You can understand the geometry of the field from the graph of the distribution of the impact on the expanding sphere:

The graph tends to zero but does not reset. No matter how far we are from the source of the field
The field is weakening but will not disappear. The field itself has no borders.
In addition, the field is elastic.
(Magnet)
The field is fundamentally elastic, non-discrete and has no mass.
Field definition:
A field is a special type of matter that does not have mass, it is a continuous object located in space, at each point of which a particle is affected by balanced or unbalanced forces of certain magnitude and direction.
And again, we do not forget that this is a long-known information
and within the framework of the physical concept, matter and field are traditionally opposed to each other as two types of matter, the first of which has a discrete structure, while the second is continuous.

Let's delve into the materiel:
The first thing to understand is that the entire universe at the macro level is uniformly filled with material matter, which means that it is uniformly filled with a field.

In terms of force, this is the most powerful of the existing physical phenomena and it has a gravitational nature. The total gravitational field.
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All physical interactions, including every bond in every atom in your body, is determined by this field.
The gravitational field is fundamental, and all other fields are particular local phenomena on this basic gravitational field.
Imagine if there were billions of rubber bands and we cut just one. And this would be an analogue of the secondary field, such as the electromagnetic field.
Partial perturbation on the base field.
And when we consider the field of any magnet, this is also a secondary field - an insignificant perturbation on the basic gravitational field that has a colossal potential.
In a certain sense, the gravitational field is the same ether or, in other words, the “physical vacuum” that everyone is looking for and cannot find. But it is a single non-discrete non-corpuscular object.
Forces arise at every point in the space filled with a field and there are no gaps there.

The next position of the particle.
A particle is a material discrete micro-object.
What are the main differences between particles and field.
The particles are discrete (each of them represents an independent object of a complex internal structure),
In this they differ from the field, which non-discretely has no internal discreteness (has no discontinuities), as well as the field, which has no external boundaries as such.

With regard to particles, it should be understood that the division of matter into categories that is common in science is not entirely strict.
In the literature, sometimes non-strict incorrect interpretations are allowed.

Free particles that have mass according to the modern scientific fashion are classified as an independent category, and particles that do not have rest mass are in some cases loosely treated as a field.
And in this place for many there comes a misunderstanding known as corpuscular wave dualism.
We have already explained the reasons for this mental phenomenon separately (in the section on corpuscular-wave dualism). We will not stop again.
At this point, it suffices to recall that in the scientific sense, both particles and field and wave are still independent concepts.
And this is the requirement of the first law of logic, which states:
“...to have more than one meaning means not to have a single meaning; if words have no meaning, then all possibility of reasoning with each other, and in fact with oneself, is lost; for it is impossible to think of anything if one does not think of one thing.
Either a field or a particle.

Brick is matter, brick consists of that part of matter which is commonly called substance
But that's not all.
There is a bunch of matter (and hence any brick) with the field. Each brick is in the total universal field.

And besides, each brick has its own field.
To put it simply, we can call this field the field of a brick, we can call the gravitational field of a brick.

There is not a single brick in nature that is not surrounded by its own field.
a field accompanies each brick.
All material matter in nature has a field.
And in this regard, it is necessary to understand that in nature there is no substance that does not have its own private field.
And any material object in the fundamental physical sense is a combination of matter and field.
And this field is distributed evenly in all directions from the substance, and as you move away from the substance, this field weakens.

That is, fundamentally, each object with mass has its own field, and in addition, all the masses of the universe together form a single gravitational field of the universe.
Now let's understand: where is the brick, and where is its private field. The private field is tied to a brick.
If we divide the brick into parts and separate these parts to the sides, then the private field of the brick will also be divided and spaced apart.
(breaking a brick)
The private brick field is divided and spaced apart.

Now let's look at what is common between particles bound within a substance and between unbound, free particles.
Example.
What will the systematic splitting of bricks lead to, the division of bricks
Systematic destruction of the so-called internal bonds of a brick.
Without exception, all internal connections of a brick are determined from the outside, from the side of the base field. The cumulative universal field creates a colossal tension in space, which determines all internal connections in material objects.
The deeper we split the brick, the smaller the fraction, the more particles will become unbound substance, these particles will separate from the brick and begin to move at a speed close to the speed of light.
If the splitting is continued, then all the fragments will be split, released to the level of unbound particles and, under the influence of an external field, will begin to move at a speed close to the speed of light in all free directions.
That is, if a brick is completely split, to the level of particles, then the brick will rush off at the speed of light in all free directions.
And if there were no external field at all, then the brick would do the same, but at a much higher speed, at a speed exceeding the speed of light (but this is a subject of a separate discussion, as well as issues of mass and the so-called neutrino).
For a general understanding, let's consider what the situation would be for a universe not filled with matter.
Empty universe and one brick.
It would seem, but how do we know?
But in fact, we know this absolutely for sure, because there are only two options for applying forces to a body: attraction and repulsion.
And we also know that matter cannot exist on the forces of direct attraction in principle, it is technically impossible, because it inevitably leads to an avalanche-like process of collapse in matter at one point.
Those who do not know this yet can watch the evidence part at the link, or watch the film "Equilibrium in Physics".
Let's continue:
The only possible option for the existence of matter in space is mutual repulsion, which, if the universe is sufficiently saturated with matter, leads to a complex repulsion of masses to each other.
Gravity is a complex repulsion.
So what will happen to a brick in a universe not filled with matter?
(Totally empty universe and one brick).
In such a scenario, there is, in principle, nothing to ensure the internal connections of a brick. There is no external field, external forces, external repulsion. The entire substance of the brick without options will completely split and scatter in all directions, and the field of the brick will also dissipate accordingly.
No existence of any material physical body under such conditions is possible.
In a universe filled with bodies, masses, the picture is different.
The masses "created" a common field,
at the macro level, the universe was filled evenly, a carpet of galaxies.
This field provided internal bonds in each brick.
And we see that in the real universe, matter does not disintegrate into particles and does not scatter.

Actually everything.

Matter: matter, particles, field.
And if there were no field, then there would be no interactions between particles, and the particles themselves, in the usual sense, would not exist either.
Viktor Katyushchik was with you.
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