Another cultural center that arose in the Mediterranean was called "ancient civilization". It is customary to attribute the history and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome to ancient civilization. This civilization was based on qualitatively different foundations and was more dynamic economically, politically and socially than the ancient Eastern societies. The achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans are impressively astonishing in all fields, and on them all European civilization is based. Greece and Rome, two eternal companions, accompany European humanity along its entire path. Ancient civilization, if calculated from Homeric Greece (XI-IX centuries BC) to late Rome (III-V centuries AD), owes many achievements to the even more ancient Crete-Mycenaean (Aegean) culture, which existed simultaneously with the ancient Eastern cultures in the eastern Mediterranean and some areas of mainland Greece in the III-II millennium BC. The centers of the Aegean civilization were the island of Crete and the city of Mycenae in southern Greece. The Aegean culture was distinguished by a high level of development and originality, however, the invasions of the Achaeans, and then the Dorians, influenced its further fate. In the historical development of Ancient Greece, it is customary to distinguish the following periods: Homeric (XI-IX centuries BC); archaic (VIII-VI centuries BC); classical (V-IV centuries BC); Hellenistic (end of IV-I centuries BC). The history of Ancient Rome is divided into only three main stages: early, or royal Rome (VIII-VI centuries BC); the Roman Republic (V-I centuries BC); Roman Empire (I-V centuries AD). Roman civilization is considered the era of the highest flowering of ancient culture. Rome was called the "eternal city", and the saying "All roads lead to Rome" has survived to this day. The Roman Empire was the largest state, covering all the territories adjacent to the Mediterranean. Its glory and greatness were measured not only by the vastness of the territory, but also by the cultural values ​​of the countries and peoples that were part of it. Many peoples who were subject to Roman power, including the population of the ancient Eastern states, in particular Egypt, took part in the formation of Roman culture. A special role in the formation of Roman statehood and culture belonged to the Greeks. As the Roman poet Horace wrote, “Greece, having become a prisoner, captivated the victors of the rude. Contributed to the art of Latiumselsky. From the Greeks, the Romans borrowed more advanced farming methods, the polis system of government, the alphabet, on the basis of which the Latin script was created, and, of course, the influence of Greek art was great: libraries, educated slaves, etc. were taken to Rome. It was the synthesis of Greek and Roman cultures that formed the ancient culture, which became the basis of European civilization, the European path of development. Despite the differences in the development of the two largest centers of ancient civilization - Greece and Rome, we can talk about some common features that determined the originality of the ancient type of culture. Since Greece entered the arena of world history before Rome, it was in Greece during the archaic period that the specific features of the civilization of the ancient type were formed. These features were associated with socio-economic and political changes, called the archaic revolution, the cultural upheaval. An important role in the archaic revolution was played by Greek colonization, which brought the Greek world out of its state of isolation and caused the rapid flourishing of Greek society, making it more mobile and receptive. It opened wide scope for the personal initiative and creative abilities of each person, helped to free the individual from the control of the community and accelerated the transition of society to a higher level of economic and cultural development. Antique countries were more developed in contrast to the countries of the Ancient East.

5. Eastern Slavs in the 6th - 9th centuries: resettlement, economy, social organization, beliefs.

The tribes of the Eastern Slavs occupied a vast territory from the Onega and Ladoga lakes in the north to the northern Black Sea region in the south, from the foothills of the Carpathians in the west to the interfluve of the Oka and Volga in the east. In the VIII-IX centuries. the Eastern Slavs formed about 15 of the largest unions of tribes. The picture of their settlement looked like this:

· clearing- along the middle course of the Dnieper;

· Drevlyans- in the north-west, in the basin of the Pripyat River and in the Middle Dnieper;

· Slavs (Ilmen Slavs)- along the banks of the Volkhov River and Lake Ilmen;

· Dregovichi- between the rivers Pripyat and Berezina;

· Vyatichi- in the upper reaches of the Oka, along the banks of the Klyazma and the Moscow River;

· krivichi- in the upper reaches of the Western Dvina, Dnieper and Volga;

· Polotsk- along the Western Dvina and its tributary, the Polota River;

· northerners- in the basins of the Desna, Seim, Sula and Northern Donets;

· radimichi- on Sozh and Desna;

· Volhynians, Buzhans and Dulebs- in Volyn, along the banks of the Bug;

· street, tivertsy- in the very south, in the interfluves of the Bug and the Dniester, the Dniester and the Prut;

· white croats- in the foothills of the Carpathians.

Next to the Eastern Slavs lived Finno-Ugric tribes: the whole, Karel, Chud, Muroma, Mordva, Mer, Cheremis. Their relations with the Slavs were built mostly peacefully. The basis of the economic life of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. The Slavs, who lived in the forest-steppe and steppe zones, were engaged in arable farming with two-field and three-field crop rotation.

The main tools were a plow with an iron tip, a sickle, a hoe, but a plow with a plowshare was already used. The Slavs of the forest zone had slash-and-burn agriculture, in which forests were cut down and burned, ash mixed with the top layer of soil served as good fertilizer. For 4-5 years, a good harvest was taken, then this area was abandoned. They grew barley, rye, wheat, millet, oats, peas, buckwheat. Flax and hemp were important industrial crops. The economic activity of the Slavs was not limited to agriculture: they were also engaged in cattle breeding, raising cattle and pigs, as well as horses, sheep and poultry. Hunting and fishing were developed. Valuable furs paid tribute, they were the equivalent of money. The Slavs were also engaged in beekeeping - collecting honey from wild bees. Drinks were made from honey. An important branch of the economy was the production of iron. It was mined from iron ore, deposits of which were often found in swamps. From iron, iron tips for plows and plows, axes, hoes, sickles, and scythes were made. Pottery was also a traditional branch of the economy of the ancient Slavs. The main form of dishes among the Slavs throughout the Middle Ages were pots. They were used for cooking, food storage and as ritual utensils: in pre-Christian times, the dead were burned and the ashes were placed in a pot. Burial mounds were piled up at the place of burning. The low level of development of agricultural technology also determined the nature of the organization of economic life. The basic unit of economic life was the tribal community, whose members jointly owned tools, jointly cultivated the land and jointly consumed the resulting product. However, as the methods of iron processing and the manufacture of agricultural implements are improved, slash-and-burn agriculture is gradually being replaced by the arable system. The consequence of this was that the family became the basic economic unit. The tribal community was replaced by a neighboring rural community, in which families settled not on the principle of kinship, but on the principle of neighborhood. In the neighboring community, communal ownership of forest and hay lands, pastures, and reservoirs was preserved. But the arable land was divided into allotments, which each family cultivated with their own tools and disposed of the harvest itself. Further improvement of tools and technology for growing various crops made it possible to obtain a surplus product and accumulate it. This led to property stratification within the agricultural community, the emergence of private ownership of tools and land. The main deities of the Slavs were: Svarog (god of heaven) and his son Svarozhich (god of fire). Rod (god of fertility), Stribog (god of the wind), Dazhdbog (god of the sun), Veles (god of cattle), Perun (god of thunder). In honor of these gods, idols were erected, to which sacrifices were made. As the social organization of East Slavic society became more complex, changes took place in the pagan pantheon: Perun, who turned into the god of war, became the main deity of the military nobility. Instead of wooden idols, stone statues of deities appeared, and pagan sanctuaries were built. The decomposition of tribal relations was accompanied by the complication of cult rites. So, the funeral of princes and nobility turned into a solemn ritual, during which huge hills were poured over the dead - mounds, one of his wives or a slave was burned along with the deceased, a funeral feast was celebrated, that is, a commemoration, accompanied by military competitions.

Introduction

Ancient civilization is the greatest and most beautiful phenomenon in the history of mankind. It is very difficult to overestimate the role and significance of ancient civilization, its merits to the world-historical process. The civilization created by the ancient Greeks and the ancient Romans, which existed from the 8th century. BC. until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. AD, i.e. more than 1200 years, - was not only an unsurpassed cultural center of its time, which gave the world outstanding examples of creativity in essentially all areas of the human spirit. It is also the cradle of two modern civilizations close to us: Western European and Byzantine-Orthodox.

Ancient civilization is divided into two local civilizations;

• a) Ancient Greek (8-1 centuries BC)
• b) Roman (8th century BC - 5th century AD)

Between these local civilizations, a particularly bright era of Hellenism stands out, which covers the period from 323 BC. before 30 BC

The purpose of my work will be a detailed study of the development of these civilizations, their significance in the historical process and the causes of decline.

Ancient civilization: general characteristics

The Western type of civilization has become a global type of civilization that has developed in antiquity. It began to emerge on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and reached its highest development in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, societies that are commonly called the ancient world in the period from the 9th-8th centuries. BC e. to IV-V centuries. n. e. Therefore, the Western type of civilization can rightfully be called the Mediterranean or ancient type of civilization.

Ancient civilization has come a long way of development. In the south of the Balkan Peninsula, for various reasons, early class societies and states emerged at least three times: in the 2nd half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. (destroyed by the Achaeans); in the XVII-XIII centuries. BC e. (destroyed by the Dorians); in the IX-VI centuries. BC e. the last attempt was successful - an ancient society arose.

Antique civilization, as well as Eastern civilization, is a primary civilization. It grew directly out of primitiveness and could not take advantage of the fruits of a previous civilization. Therefore, in ancient civilization, by analogy with the eastern, in the minds of people and in the life of society, the influence of primitiveness is significant. The dominant position is occupied by the religious and mythological worldview.

Unlike Eastern societies, ancient societies developed very dynamically, since from the very beginning a struggle flared up in it between the peasantry and the aristocracy, enslaved into shared slavery. Among other peoples, it ended with the victory of the nobility, and among the ancient Greeks, the demos (people) not only defended freedom, but also achieved political equality. The reasons for this lie in the rapid development of crafts and trade. The trade and craft elite of the demos quickly grew rich and economically became stronger than the landowning nobility. The contradictions between the power of the trade and craft part of the demos and the fading power of the landowning nobility formed the driving spring for the development of Greek society, which by the end of the 6th century. BC e. resolved in favor of the demos.

In ancient civilization, private property relations came to the fore, the dominance of private commodity production, oriented mainly to the market, manifested itself.

The first example of democracy appeared in history - democracy as the personification of freedom. Democracy in the Greco-Latin world was still direct. The equality of all citizens was envisaged as a principle of equal opportunities. There was freedom of speech, the election of government bodies.

In the ancient world, the foundations of civil society were laid, providing for the right of every citizen to participate in government, recognition of his personal dignity, rights and freedoms. The state did not interfere in the private life of citizens, or this interference was insignificant. Trade, crafts, agriculture, the family functioned independently of the government, but within the law. Roman law contained a system of rules governing private property relations. The citizens were law-abiding.

In antiquity, the question of the interaction between the individual and society was decided in favor of the first. The individual and his rights were recognized as primary, and the collective, society as secondary.

However, democracy in the ancient world was of a limited nature: the obligatory presence of a privileged stratum, the exclusion from its action of women, free foreigners, slaves.

Slavery also existed in the Greco-Latin civilization. Assessing its role in antiquity, it seems that the position of those researchers who see the secret of the unique achievements of antiquity not in slavery (the labor of slaves is inefficient), but in freedom, is closer to the truth. The displacement of free labor by slave labor during the period of the Roman Empire was one of the reasons for the decline of this civilization.

Characteristic features of the culture of the ancient civilization of Greece

In Greece, religious innovations did not play a significant role - the mythological consciousness was decomposing, faith in the Olympic gods was weakening, Eastern cults were borrowed - Astarte, Cybele, but the ancient Greeks did not bother to create their original religion. This does not mean that they were not religious. Irreligion, asebaya, in the view of the Greeks was a crime. In 432 BC. e. The priest Dionif presented a draft of a new law, according to which anyone who does not believe in the existence of immortal gods and boldly talks about what is happening in heaven was brought to justice. And so they were. Already Homer does not have much respect for the Olympian gods, who in his poems do not appear in the best way, with their treachery, greed, and malice, reminiscent of mortal people. His gods are by no means the height of perfection. The law proposed by Dionyphos was directed directly against the "philosophers", in particular against Anaxagoras, who was forced to flee from Athens. Later, Socrates will be accused of godlessness and executed. And yet the very adoption of such laws is evidence of the underdevelopment of religious culture, its formal nature.

Thus, at this point, the development of ancient Greek culture took a different path than in the more ancient civilizations of the "first wave". There all the energy of the nation was absorbed by the religious ideology. In Greece, however, the myth, decomposing, nourishes the secular Logos, the word. The world religion, Christianity, comes belatedly, when the culture of antiquity is going through its last days. Moreover, Christianity is not actually a Greek discovery. It is borrowed by antiquity from the East.

Another, no less important, feature of the culture of antiquity, which ancient Greece demonstrates, was the more radical nature of the cultural shift. Philosophy, literature, theater, lyric poetry, the Olympic Games appear for the first time, they have no predecessors in previous forms of spirituality. In the culture of the ancient civilizations of the East, we will find mysteries - the forerunners of the theater, sports fights, poetry, prose, philosophy. But they do not acquire such a developed institutional character there as in Greece, they still nourish new religious and philosophical systems, sometimes without occupying an independent position. In ancient Greece, philosophy, literature, theater very quickly become independent types of culture, stand apart, turn into a specialized, professional activity.

Another, no less significant, feature of the culture of ancient Greece was the unusually high rate of cultural change: they covered about 300 years, from the 6th century BC. BC e. up to the 3rd century. BC e., when stagnation and subsequent decline are detected.

The culture of ancient Greece is similar to a one-day butterfly. It comes on quickly, but just as quickly disappears. But subsequently, the neighboring culture of Ancient Rome, the civilizations of the East and Africa will feed on its fruits, and through them the cultural influence of Antiquity will also feed the culture of Europe.

Unlike the cultures of the civilizations of the Ancient East, which were characterized by the "Asian mode of production" with a centralized state performing productive functions, in ancient Greece the polis (city-state) plays a huge role. On the eve of the 8th century BC e. there is a disintegration of tribal society. The latter was characterized by settlements as a form of cohabitation of relatives or members of the tribe. The class stratification inherent in civilization leads to the emergence of neighborhood ties and a different type of residence - the city. The formation of cities takes place in the form of synoykism - a connection, a merger of several settlements into one, for example, Athens arises on the basis of the unification of 12 villages, Sparta unites 5, Tegea and Mantinea 9 settlements each. Thus, the formation of the polis system is a dynamic process that spanned several decades. In such a short period of time, the old, ancestral, ties could not completely disappear, they remained for a long time, forming the spirit of the arche - the faceless beginning that underlies the urban collectivism, the polis community. The preservation of the arche is at the heart of many forms of urban life. Its center was the agora - the square where political meetings were held, court sessions were held. Later, the central square will turn into a trading square, where financial and commercial transactions will take place. Public spectacles will be arranged in the agora - tragedies, questions about the most outstanding works of art, etc. will be decided. , it retains in itself the consciousness of common interests, deeds, fate.

Ancient Greece has never been a single centralized state with a single policy, religion, normative art. It consisted of many city-states, completely independent, often at war with each other, sometimes concluding political alliances with each other. It was not typical for her to have one capital city - the center of administrative, political life, the legislator in the field of culture. Each city independently solved the issues of due and necessary, beautiful and perfect, what corresponded to its ideas about the culture of man and society.

Therefore, the ancient culture of Greece was characterized by a desire for diversity, and not for unity. Unity arose as a result, a product of collision, competition, competition of diverse products of culture. Therefore, culture was characterized by agon - the spirit of competition, rivalry, penetrating all aspects of life.

Cities competed, compiling lists of "7 wise men", including a representative of their policy in it. The dispute was about the "7 wonders of the world", covering all Greek settlements, and going beyond them. Every year the magistrate decided which tragedies, by which playwright, would be played in the town square. Last year's winner could be this year's loser. No civilization has discovered the Olympic Games - only the ancient Greeks did. Once every four years, wars, disputes, enmity ceased, and all cities sent to the foot of Mount Olympus, closer to the Olympian gods, their strongest, fastest, dexterous, enduring athletes. All-Greek lifetime glory awaited the winner, a solemn meeting in his native city, entry not through an ordinary gate, but through a hole in the wall, specially arranged for him by enthusiastic fans. And the city-polis received universal fame for being able to raise an Olympic winner. Disputes sometimes took on a strange character: seven cities argued for a long time among themselves where the tomb of Homer was located. But this dispute is evidence of changed values, it could arise when the epic poetry of Homer became a pan-Greek value, a single epic foundation that united all Greek cities, created the spiritual unity of civilization, the unity of its culture.

The diversity of the culture of ancient Greece led to the strengthening of its unity, commonality, similarity, which allows us to speak of cultural integrity, despite the political and economic contradictions that tore the country apart. Antique civilization, having split society into opposite classes, political interests, competing policies, could not create a sufficiently strong unity by means of spiritual culture.

Let's look at the list of "seven wise men". Usually called: Thales from Miletus, Solon from Athens, Biant from Priene, Pittacus from Mitylene, Cleobulus from Lind, Periandra from Corinth, Chilo from Sparta. As you can see, the list includes representatives of the cities of Ancient Greece from the Peloponnese peninsula to the Asia Minor coast. By the time the list was compiled, it reflected only the common past and the desired future, but not the present. This list is a cultural building program, but not a harsh reality. And the reality showed sharp rivalry, enmity of cities, which eventually broke off cultural unity.

Antiquity underlies all European civilization. Antiquity began to be studied in the Renaissance. But it was perceived not as a real ancient civilization, but as a kind of timeless ideal, which should be strived for, antiquity was idealized at that time. This continued into the 18th century. and in the 19th century until the end of the 19th century. did not appear a new direction - hypercretinism - a refutation of some ancient facts, they called them fairy tales. But in any case, antiquity was perceived through modern concepts.

In the 19th century scientists saw antiquity as now (the bourgeoisie, the proletariat, the parliament is watered by the party). Marxism appears with a primitive class approach and the reduction of all this into economics. It greatly influenced the interpretation of antiquity.

In our time, a more object view of antiquity prevails. Ancient civilization is a special civilization, different from ours. Ancient civilization - Mediterranean civilization. The whole life of the then people was determined by the sea and the climate (SUBTROPIC), the air temperature is determined by the climate - the winter is not very cold, the summer is not hot, thanks to the blowing winds. Residential buildings of an open type prevailed in the main. The world grows in antiquity was very rich, there were many forests, but by the beginning of our era. people cut down a lot of forests and the climate changed.

The ruggedness of the coastline combined with the mountainous terrain (80% - mountains, 2/3). In the Balkans, only 20% of lands suitable for cultivation explain the impossibility of forming a centralized state in the Balkans: in each small valley there is a separate state, which, at the same time, has a connection with the entire ecumene through the sea

Most of the rivers are not navigable. SMALL, they moved over in the summer. The rivers had no effect on human life.

Inland "harmless" sea, coastal navigation (in summer), maritime civilization in general. Fish is the basis of a healthy diet.

Initially, agriculture played a huge role in human life: the Mediterranean triad: cereals (drought-resistant) - legumes, barley; grapes (wine); olives, olives (used as soap, in lamps, olive oil is the main source of fats). There was not enough land for everyone - frequent hunger strikes - communication.

Mountains held back land communications. Land routes were not developed. By the beginning of our era, the Romans had built their great roads, but still the transportation of products was not economically profitable.

The horse was not used in the household. For transportation, use oxen or transport products on pack animals (donkeys and mules)

7. Convenient harbors in Attica and their absence in the Peloponnese, as well as the abundance of fertile land in the Peloponnese and its shortage in Attica, explain the different vectors of development of Athens and Sparta. The special isolation of Messenia: on three sides - the mountains of Parnon and Taygetos, on the fourth - the Isthmian Isthmus. There are, of course, fertile regions - Thessaly, Arcadia, Boeotia; there is less trade, less social life, so the society is more traditional. Hillbilly.

4. The mild climate will not let you die of hunger / cold => the people have free time and the opportunity to invent philosophy, a water-lifting propeller, etc.

5. The soil is rocky, wheat does not grow, but grapes and olives do. Bread is cheaper to buy than to grow locally, and there is also a product for exchange. Hence - the prerequisites for maritime trade (Egypt, Italy, after Colonization - Pontus and more remote areas). The struggle for trade routes is a frequent cause of wars.

6. There are minerals (clay, marble, iron, copper, silver, wood) =>

craft (storerooms - Asia Minor and the Iberian Peninsula). Tin was brought from Britain.

The specifics of ancient civilizations in comparison with the East:

Frame chronology: east at the turn of 4 thousand BC, the first European civilization - 3 thousand BC, and antique in 1 thousand BC;

Differences in natural conditions;

Economic difference

Tools - in the east - copper and bronze, antiquity - metals (greater power over nature);

In the east, there was a rural community, and in antiquity, an urban civil community (polis). Having developed the craft due to the lack of land - trade (concentration in cities) - the appearance of the first coins in Asia Minor) 8 c. BC.);

The difference in the social structure: there were no classes, there was a division into estates (mushkenum, avilum and slaves)

Mushkenum is directly dependent on the king - service people, state serfs.

In the west, especially in Greece, due to lack of land. THERE WAS NO STATE FARMS -> there were no muskenums, but there were meteks (re-eks in Sparta) - citizens, but not full-fledged citizens, dependent on the community of citizens, on the community as a whole.

In contrast to the East, slavery plays a much larger role in the West. In the east - patriarchal slavery (primitive, slave labor was used in the pulp economy and the role of slaves could be played by younger family members, they work together with the owner, the rate of exploitation is not high, slaves still have at least some rights). In the West - classical slavery (the fuss in a commodity economy, and not in kind, a change in the composition of slaves - these are no longer "poor relatives", in antiquity they managed to prohibit debt bondage and from now on foreign slaves began to prevail, they were completely deprived of any rights, operating rate is increasing).

Despotism - absolute monarchy - prevails in the east. On primitive monarchies, but later there were (democrat, aristocrat, oligarch).

Civilization of Ancient Egypt

1. Features of the ecological and geographical environment of Ancient Egypt and its influence on the specifics of ancient Egyptian culture.

2. Features of the mythology of the ancient Egyptians. Myth, religion and art.

3. Mythological model of the world in Ancient Egypt.

4. The main groups of myths: about the creation of the world, about solar deities, about Osiris and Isis. The idea of ​​the afterlife judgment over the souls of the dead.

Spiritual and meaningful aspect

ancient chinese culture

1. The Image of the World in the Mythopoetical and Religious Heritage of Ancient China.
2. Philosophical heritage of the region and its influence on world culture.
3. Natural science knowledge of ancient China.

Literature

1. Albedil M.F. Forgotten civilization in the Indus Valley. - St. Petersburg, 1991.

2. Afanasyeva V., Lukonin V., Pomerantseva N. Art of the Ancient East. - M., 1976 (Series "Small history of art").

3. Belitsky M. The forgotten world of the Sumerians. - M., 1980.

4. Bibby J. In search of Dilmun. - M., 1984.

5. Brentjes B. From Shanidar to Akkad. - M., 1976.

6. Vayman A.A. Sumero-Babylonian mathematics. - M., 1961.

7. Woolley L. Ur Chaldeans. - M., 1961.

8. Gumilyov L.N. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth. 3rd ed. - L., 1990.

9. Dmitrieva N.A. Brief history of arts. T.1. - M., 1996.

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12. Dyakonov I.M. The social and state system of the ancient Mesopotamia. - M., 1959.

13. Zamarovsky V. Their Majesties pyramids. - M., 1981.

14. Jacques K. Egypt of the great pharaohs. History and legend. - M., 1992.

15. History of the Ancient World. T.I-III. - M., 1982.

16. History of art of foreign countries. Primitive society. The Ancient East. Antiquity. - M., 1981.

17. History of aesthetic thought: In 6 volumes. T.1. Ancient world. Middle Ages in Europe. - M., 1982.

18. Carter G. Tomb of Tutankhamun. - M., 1959.

19. Keram K. Gods, tombs, scientists. A novel of archeology. - M., 1994.

20. Klengel-Brandt E. Journey to ancient Babylon. - M., 1979.

21. Klima I. Society and culture of ancient Mesopotamia. - Prague, 1967.

22. Klochkov I.S. Spiritual culture of Babylonia: Man, fate, time. - M: Nauka, 1983. - 624 p.

23. Kovtunovich O.V. Eternal Egypt. - M., 1989.

24. Kramer Samuel N. History begins in Sumer. 2nd ed. - M., 1991.

25. Lyrics of Ancient Egypt. - M., 1965.

26. Lyric poetry of the ancient Near East. - M., 1983.

27. Lloyd S. Twin Rivers. - M., 1972.

28. Lukonin V.G. Art of Ancient Iran. - M., 1977.

29. McKay E. The most ancient culture of the Indus Valley. M., 1951.

30.Mason V.M. The first civilizations - L., 1989.

31. Mathieu M.E Ancient Egyptian myths. - L., 1956.

32. Mathieu M.E. Selected Works on the Mythology of Ancient Egypt. - M., 1996.

33. Mathieu M.E. Art of Ancient Egypt. - L. - M., 1961.

34. Mathieu M.E., Pavlov V.V. Monuments of art of Ancient Egypt in the museums of the Soviet Union. - M., 1958.

35. Mythology of the ancient world. - M., 1977.

36.Mikhalovsky K. Karnak. - Warsaw, 1970.

37. Mikhalovsky K. Luxor. - Warsaw, 1972.

38.Mikhalovsky K. Thebes. - Warsaw, 1974.

39. Mode Heinz. Art of South and Southeast Asia. - M., 1979.

40. Monte P. Egypt of the Ramesses. - M., 1989.

41. Neugebauer O. Exact sciences in antiquity. - M., 1968.

42. Oppenheim A.L. Ancient Mesopotamia. - M., 1980.

43. Discovery of India / Per. from English, Beng. and Urdu / Redcoll: E. Komarov, V. Lamshukov, L. Polonskaya and others - M., 1987.

44. Pavlov V.V. Sculptural portrait of ancient Egypt. - M., 1957.

45. Poetry and prose of the Ancient East. - M., 1973 (BVL, vol. 1).

46. ​​Reder D.G. Myths and legends of the ancient East. - M., 1965.

47. Semenenko I.I. Aphorisms of Confucius. - M., 1987.

48. Simonov P.V., Ershov P.M., Vyazemsky Yu.P. Origin of spirituality. - M., 1989.

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50. Flittner N.D. Culture and art of Mesopotamia and neighboring countries. L.-M., 1958.

51. Frankfort G., Frankfort G.A., Wilson J., Jacobson T. On the Threshold of Philosophy. Spiritual searches of the ancient man. - M., 1984.

52. Epos about Gilgamesh (“About the one who has seen everything”). - M.-L., 1961.

53. Jacobsen T. Treasures of darkness: History of the Mesopotamian religion. - M., 1995.

Features of ancient civilization

1. The place of a person in the polis organization of society.

2. Myth as an explanation of reality in Ancient Greece.

3. The main features of antiquity (literature, art, architecture and plastic).

4. The value system of the Greek civilization.

Culture of Ancient Greece. The birth of European civilization. "Greek Miracle" "Anomaly" of antiquity. The nature of the outlook. Birth of personality. Polis and its role in ancient culture. Ancient Greek philosophy and science. Plato and world culture. Aristotle. Antiquity and the Christian worldview. the era of Hellenism.

5. Culture of Ancient Rome. Elinistic-Roman type of culture. Culture of the word and spirit. Culture and cult of the Caesars. Total ideologization and regulation. The role of material culture. individualism and cosmopolitanism. The spread of Christianity.

Europe in the Middle Ages.

1. "Middle Ages": concept, signs.

2. Socio-economic development of Europe in the Middle Ages.

2.1. Feudalism;

2.2. Estates in Medieval Europe;

3. Relations between church and state in the Middle Ages.

4. The specificity of the medieval mentality.

Sources and literature:

1. Gurevich A.Ya. Categories of medieval culture. – M.: Art, 1984.
2. Gurevich A.Ya. categories of medieval culture. - M., 1984.
3. History of the Middle Ages: a textbook for universities / edited by N.F. Kolesnitsky. – M.: Enlightenment, 1980.
4. Vipper R.Yu. History of the Middle Ages.
5. History of Europe in 8 vols. T.3.
6. Lozinsky S.G. History of the papacy. - M., 1986. ch.1.
7. Duby J. Europe in the Middle Ages. - Smolensk. 1994.
8. Le Goff Jacques. civilization of the medieval west. - M., 1992.
9. Pupar P. The role of Christianity in the cultural identity of European peoples // Polis. 1996. No. 2.
10. Frolova M.A. Western Civilization: Dominants of Formation and Development // Social and Political Journal. 1993 No. 11/12.

Theme 6

Totalitarianism.

1.Totalitarianism: the concept, signs of a totalitarian state and society.

2. Prerequisites and reasons for the establishment of totalitarian political regimes in various countries.

3. Conditions for the emergence and establishment of totalitarian regimes.

Sources and literature:

1 Ponomarev M.V., Smirnova S.Yu. New and recent history of Europe and America: A practical guide. – Ch. no. - M., 2000. (from the content: Legislation of the Third Reich. A. Hitler. Mein Kampf. E. Rehm National Socialist Revolution and Storm Troops. Reader for German youth.)

2 Gadzhiev K.S. Totalitarianism as a Phenomenon of the 20th Century // Questions of Philosophy. -1992. No. 2.

3 Galkin A.A. German fascism. - M., 1989.

4 Makarevich E. germanium: human programming // Dialogue. 1993. No. 4.

5 Totalitarianism in Europe of the XX century. From the history of ideologies, movements, regimes and their overcoming. - M., 1996 Issue 2. Ser. Russia - Germany - Europe.

6 Orlov B. Political culture of Russia and Germany: an attempt at a comparative analysis. - M., 1995.

7 Semennikova L.I. Russia in the world community of civilizations. - Bryansk, 1996.

8 Sumbatyan Y. Totalitarian-political phenomenon of the XX century // Social and humanitarian knowledge. –1999. No. 1.

9 Pyzhikov A. Model of the “nationwide state”. Ideology and practice // Free thought. –1999. #12

10 Shlapentokh V.E. The Soviet Union is a normal totalitarian society. Experience of objective analysis // Socis. - 2000. No. 2

Topic 7.

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